ALIGNMENT OF STRAPDOWN INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM: A LITERATURE SURVEY SPANNED OVER THE LAST 14 YEARS

Jamshaid Ali1 and Fang Jiancheng2 School of Instrumentation Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Beijing 100083, China E-mail: 1jimmi4u@hotmail.com, 2fangjiancheng@buaa.edu.cn
1. INTRODUCTION Alignment is the process whereby the orientation of the axes of a strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS) is determined with respect to the reference axis system. The basic concept of aligning an INS is quit simple and straight forward. However, there are many complications that make alignment both timeconsuming and complex. Accurate alignment is crucial, however, if precision navigation is to be achieved over long periods of time without any form of aiding [1]. Alignment requirement is related to the necessity for the best estimate of the attitude, velocity and position of a vehicle with respect to the reference navigational frame. Poor initial alignment accuracy will end up with poor navigation. In many applications, it is essential to achieve an accurate alignment of an INS within a very short period of time. This is particularly true in many military applications, in which a very rapid response time is often a prime requirement in order to achieve a very short, if not zero, reaction time [1]. A comprehensive survey on the literature published on alignment of SINS during 1990-2004 is presented. In a broad sense, alignment of SINS can be divided into two categories i.e. initial alignment and in-flight alignment. Part 2 of this survey paper presents details on initial alignment papers. Part 3 explores research material published on in-flight alignment. Literature review on transfer alignment is a subject of part 4. 2. INITIAL ALIGNMENT Initial alignment process is of vital importance to INS. Its requirement is related to the necessity for the transformation of the sensor outputs into a best estimate of the attitude, velocity and position of a vehicle with respect to the reference navigational frame. Since INS is entirely self-contained, it can align itself by using the measurements of local gravity and earth rate. Normally, alignment process is divided into two phases, i.e. the coarse and fine alignment. The purpose of coarse alignment is to provide fairly good initial condition for the fine alignment processing. In the SINS, initial alignment process consists of determining the transformation matrix which relates the instrumented body frame to the computational navigation frame. Theoretically, an analytic self alignment method for SINS is functionally equal to the physical gyrocompassing in gimbaled systems [2]. 2.1 Coarse Alignment A lot of literature has been devoted to coarse alignment methods. The purpose of coarse alignment algorithm is to estimate the orientation of the instrumental axes relative to navigation frame. The use of the algorithm output depends on the platform technology. For the gimbaled case, the platform core is aligned physically according to the angles obtained. For the strapdown implementation, the analytical platform is initialized to this orientation. Two methods of coarse alignment have been discussed in [3]. One of them utilizes directly both accelerometer and gyro measurements for attitude estimation. Accelerometer outputs are used for solving the leveling problem while gyro outputs are required for azimuth estimation. The accuracy estimation is bounded by the angular vibration profile. The other approach, called gyrocompassing, uses the gyro outputs for continuous tracking of the instrumental axes attitude (leveling and azimuth). The projection of the gravity acceleration vector on the instrumental axes contains a constant term and a time varying component which is proportional to the earth angular rate. Therefore gyrocompass is in fact the use of least square estimation based on the accelerometer outputs. The constant term estimated is used for leveling calculation and the varying term allows the azimuth calculation. Discussion in [3] shows that leveling estimation is same for both algorithms while azimuth estimation is different. In direct algorithm, azimuth estimation is based on the average of the gyro measurement while in gyrocompassing algorithm it is base on the estimation of the linear trend of the accelerometer measurements. Article in [4] discusses initial alignment into two steps i.e. coarse alignment and fine alignment. The analytic coarse alignment DCM relating the local to body frame has been obtained directly from the gravity and earth spin vectors in the local (launch site) and body frame. Here, in order to compute an accurate and fast coarse reference, the sensor data is first filtered to reduce the noise, and then time averaged to generate angular velocity and linear acceleration. The time averaged information is then used to compute the unit vectors and DCM, and then the attitude quaternion can be generated from the DCM. The attitude quaternion

generated by this coarse alignment is used to initialize the propagated quaternion at the commencement of the fine alignment. Autonomous alignment method mentioned in [5] also starts from the coarse alignment method. Here outputs of the INS are measurements by three accelerometers and three angular rates with sensitive axis is supposed to be perfectly aligned with three perpendicular directions. If the gravity vector and latitude where the alignment is going to be carried out are known, given equations can be used to for single deterministic solution. However, in measuring rotations, and accelerations, imperfect measuring units are used. Consequently, an average alignment matrix is obtained. For this reason this analytical alignment is called a coarse alignment. Coarse alignment method has also been narrated in [1] under the heading of ground alignment methods. Here also the body mounted sensors are used to measure components of specific force needed to overcome gravity and components of earths rate. Using the derived relationships, initial transformation matrix can be computed. Coarse alignment has been explained in detail in [6]. Course alignment is achieved by measuring the components of the sensed acceleration vector in vehicles body frame and using this measurement to estimate the initial value of body to local level frame. Block diagram of the alignment process is also given. Coarse alignment mechanization is also a subject of [7]. The chapter 6 of [8] provides a detailed derivation of equation for the analytical coarse alignment of SINS. 2.2 Error Analysis of Coarse Alignment In [2], two analytic coarse alignment formulae are discussed in brief. Error analysis for each computation method is fully evaluated analytically. It is found that choosing different basis to setup the reference navigational frame will result in distinct alignment errors. Analysis made in this reference is helpful in design of ground coarse alignment process for SINS. The gyrocompass alignment errors of SINS are known to have an interesting relationship with the bias errors of inertial sensors. For example, when an SDINS in stationary navigation maintains the alignment attitude, there is cancellation between the alignment errors and inertial sensor biases. On the other hand, SINS changes the alignment heading, the cancellation between them is perturbed and relatively large navigation error may be generated. In paper at [9], a modified SINS error model with the pseudo states is newly derived including position error states. Through covariance simulation, the modified SINS error model which considers the characteristics of gyrocompass alignment errors is compared to the conventional SINS error model which does not consider the characteristics of gyrocompass alignment errors. In [10], the characteristics of gyrocompass alignment errors are investigated from a stochastic theoretical point of view and the two kinds of covariance analysis approaches are presented. One is to use an existing conventional SINS error model considering the correlation between the initial attitude errors and the sensor biases. The other is to utilize a modified SINS error model where the attitude error states are transformed into new state variables, so-called pseudo states which are initially uncorrelated with the sensor biases. Here, conceptual equivalence of the characteristics of gyrocompass alignment errors in the two SINS error models has also been investigated. Difference between the two approaches has also been explained with the conclusion that the two approaches give the same result. In order to achieve the best performance from an inertial platform, a two step gyrocompassing procedure is applied. In the first step, the IMU is caged to the IMU case. The platform is leveled, azimuth is measured, and the north drift component is found from the horizontal gyro drift errors. These drift rates are measured from tilt measurements by the accelerometers. In the second step, the IMU cluster is rotated by 90 degree and the alignment procedure of the first step is reapplied. The gyro drift rates are obtained from the north drift components, which are measured in the two position procedure. A detailed description of the two position process is given in [11]. This description is then applied to find the gyrocompassing error resulting from the gyro nonorthogonality. 2.3 Fine Alignment This is a precise alignment stage in which the small misalignment angles between reference frame and the body frame are computed accurately through processing the information of various sensors. In this way, an accurate initial transformation is formulated. Here, the Kalman filter provides estimates of the attitude errors, and the north and east velocity errors. The work in [4] explains a fine alignment scheme. The five state Kalman filter employed here generally follows the seven state Kalman filter formulations. Here, the five states are west and north components of velocity error and west, north and down components of alignment angle error. A Schuler-tined filter includes the reciprocal of radius of earth in the state matrix. Here reset filter mechanism has been employed with update no more than a second apart, and thus the inclusion of the reciprocal of radius of earth term does not make any difference. Consistent with this approximation, the transport rate term for the local level navigator
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associated with this filter are neglected while the Coriolis terms, which are orders of magnitude greater, are included. Recursive steps of the Kalman filter algorithm have been summarized in a flow diagram. The reference [12] applies the extended Kalman filter to a state vector of large dimension. Here error models for the inertial instruments have been developed. Performance accuracy of the inertial system has been well established using error models with a dual analysis covariance program. Attitude error model has also been presented. Direction cosine differential equations and their approximate solutions are also presented. In order to reduce the computational load, the high speed accelerometer data is compressed by a least square prefilter from which inputs to the Kalman filter are derived. In designing the filter, conversion of parameter estimation to state estimation makes this problem nonlinear. A technique for decoupling the gyro accelerometer residuals is derived. This reference also describes the type of instrument parameters which can be estimated and those which can only be compensated with factory derived values. A discussion of the results from post-processing simulated IMU data is presented to demonstrate the performance, convergence, stability and accuracy of the filter estimator. Calibration and alignment data were generated using an IMU simulator software. An SINS error model that plays an important role in the implementation of a Kalman filter for alignment or aided navigation algorithms is derived in [13]. In this reference, the relationship between tilt angles and quaternion errors is derived by differencing the DCMs of the true navigation frame and the analytic platform frame. Tilt angle model in the local NED frame is newly derived from the previous quaternion error model using the relationship, and it is shown that the SINS error model with the tilt angle is equivalent to the conventional perturbation error model. Here, based upon the error model equivalence, the quaternion error is computed using the perturbation error model, and the effect of multiposition alignment is examined by calculating the error covariance. A relationship between tilt angle and quaternion error is presented and the tilt angle model is derived. The SINS system matrix may be manipulated by changing sensor position or equivalently rotating vehicle body. Thus, by choosing different sensor position, the observability of SINS system can be improved. This technique is called multiposition alignment. It is demonstrated in [14] that using this technique, alignment errors in SINS can be drastically reduced. Many spacecraft missions require precise pointing of their payload boresight and precise knowledge of the payload boresight attitude from ground processing of attitude sensor, gyro and payload telemetry. Such precision is obtained at reasonable expense in part by system alignment calibration. [15] treats the problem of absolute alignment calibration of a system comprising two star trackers, an inertial sensor assembly of three fiber optic gyros and an imaging instrument. The alignment and gyro calibration models are implemented in a Kalman filter referred to as alignment Kalman filter (AKF). The AKF optimally estimates attitude, gyro bias, gyro calibration parameters and sensor alignment relative to the payload. Process noise is a natural part of the model and so the filter can be made to track parameter variations. Misalignment and gyro error models are derived here and an efficient numerically reliable implementation of AKF is developed. For the alignment problem where the output is very fine measurement of earth rate under noisy conditions, the velocity error can affect the azimuth alignment accuracy. Consequently, it is accounted for during the alignment process to improve the azimuth determination accuracy. This is achieved through fine alignment using Kalman filter as discussed in detail in [6]. In this reference, Kalman filtering techniques have been discussed in detail. A Kalman filter formulation is described in [7] that, in addition to ground gyrocompassing, provides fast reaction and airstart capability without an initial heading estimate. This is accomplished by use of Doppler velocity sensor and a position source such as GPS, manual flyover update or target sighting system. Filter transition from coarse to fine align is accomplished without disrupting the estimation of the inertial instrument or aiding sensor errors, by defining the azimuth error state as wander angle error, and using a simple, but effective, manipulation of the filter covariance matrix. A fast initial alignment method for SINS has been investigated in [16]. Here, SINS error model for the stationary alignment has been introduced and observability of the SINS error model has been analyzed. Then, on the basis of SINS error model and analysis of computer simulation results, a fast estimation method of the azimuth error is presented for the initial alignment of SINS on stationary base. It has been shown that the estimation method greatly accelerates the convergence rate of the Kalman filter that is used to reduce the initial alignment time. Simulation results have been presented to show the efficiency of the proposed method. Gyrocompassing is a preflight fine alignment procedure performed to determine initial attitude error. The accuracy of inertial navigation sensors in an integrated navigation system is frequently specified by performance during gyrocompassing. This procedure with base motions has been depicted in [17] and results are presented. Here, a covariance analysis program is used to compute the 1 sigma quantity of the alignment errors for a 1 nmi/h integrated navigation system. The alignment characteristics of the system undergoing base motion disturbances are formulated as a Kalman filtering problem with zero integrated velocity updates.

The work presented in [18] demonstrates a general nonlinear psi-angle approach that does not require coarse alignment. In this model, the three misalignment angles are assumed all large. Three states are used to describe three psi-angles. The approach is identical to the standard small error methods when the process errors diminish to small angles. The position and velocity error models are also presented and standard extended Kalman filter is used to solve the nonlinear problem. Experimental results are presented considering total uncertainty in azimuth orientation using a low cost IMU aided with DGPS. A nonlinear error model with large azimuth error is proposed in [19] where the process of initial alignment is divided into two stages namely: first using piecewise linearization; second, using linear filtering method. The nature of this method is piecewise linearization algorithm, so the error of linearization exists. Also computation load becomes quite large as the number of linearization segments grows. Extended Kalman filter, iterated filter and second order filter are applied to this problem. Simulation demonstrates that azimuth estimation accuracy of alignment is greatly enhanced, and meanwhile, the alignment time is shortened. The research presented in [20] considers the problem of course alignment of SINS. Error equations of nonlinear characteristics have been obtained at a considerable level of a priori course uncertainty. The algorithm for solving the problem of optimal estimation of the state vector described by nonlinear equations from linear measurements have been developed for the analysis of a potential alignment accuracy, with piecewise Gaussian approximation of posteriori density used. Results are presented to demonstrate validity of the given methods. Error estimation of ground alignment to an arbitrary azimuth is mentioned in [21]. Here, based on a practically simplified error model of inertial navigation system, observability of ground alignment process is presented. The system states of the simplified model are not decoupled into subspaces as that of aligning an inertial system mechanized into local level frame. Algorithms for estimating misalignment angles are provided for both general and simplified models to achieve initial alignment. For terrain vehicle navigation application using low grade gyros, a simple six degree of freedom earth surface navigator is derived in [22]. The calibration and alignment are investigation when the system is at rest. Based on the observability of the error model at rest, a state transformation is presented. This transformation decouples the observable modes, which are based on physical insight, from the unobservable modes. An example is given to illustrate the performance of Kalman filter. A systematic analysis of the observability of an inertial navigation system in ground alignment is presented in [23]. Here, it is shown that the unobservable states are separately contained in two decoupled subspaces. The constraints on the selection of unobservable states are discussed. An estimation algorithm which is derived fully from the horizontal velocity outputs for computing the misalignment angles is narrated. It reveals that the azimuth error can be entirely estimated from the estimates of leveling error and leveling error rate, without using gyro output signals explicitly. In [24], two forms of Kalman filter system error models are evaluated using filter stability considerations. These error models are based on one of the two the assumption used to obtain reduced state models for wander azimuth mechanization; either the navigation frame azimuth alignment or the local azimuth tilt error with respect to the navigation frame is zero. The stability evaluation assumes that body referenced Doppler velocity and navigation frame GPS Position measurements are used. Stability and Monte Carlo simulation results show that with the combination of Doppler and GPS, the later assumption produces the more stable and accurate filter estimates. A completer error covariance analysis for the SINS is presented in [25]. It is investigated that the cross coupling terms in gyrocompassing alignment errors can significantly influence the SINS error propagation. In this analysis, pseudostate variables are introduced utilizing the characteristics of gyrocompass alignment errors. This approach simplifies the covariance analysis by making the initial covariance matrix to a diagonal form. Through the error covariance simulation, applicability of the proposed scheme is verified. Because of the poor observability of INS on stationary base, the estimation error of the azimuth will converge very slowly in initial alignment by means of Kalman filtering. In [26], a fast estimation method of the azimuth error is proposed for the initial alignment of INS on stationary base. On the basis of the fast convergence of the leveling error, the azimuth error can be directly calculated. By means of this fast initial alignment method, the time of initial alignment is reduced greatly. The computer simulation results are presented to illustrate the efficiency of the method. The research in [27] aims at discussing how to apply the dynamic programming theory to the alignment of SINS with the background of land navigation using a closed-loop. By taking the state as the feedback and optimizing the control strategy, it shows that how the system proceed from the dynamic programming theory and how to find the strategy to achieve the alignment on the condition of the quadratic performance index. The work presented in [28] is an efficient initial calibration and alignment algorithm for a six-degree of freedom IMU. The individual error models for the gyros and accelerometers are presented with a study of its effects in trajectory prediction. A full error model is also presented to determine the sensors needed for full observability of the different perturbation parameters. Finally, dead reckoning experimental results are
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presented based on the initial alignment and calibration parameters. The results show that the algorithm proposed is able to obtain accurate position and velocity information for a significant period of time using an IMU as the only sensor. The azimuth misalignment angle, being one of the largest non-stationary INS error components, has a significant impact on the INS accuracy; therefore [29] focuses on the development and testing of a special procedure for the azimuth error estimation. The method presented is based on a traditional Kalman filter and uses GPS velocity and heading information for measurement updates. The filter is divided into two stages, defined by a different degree of observability of the error components in the state vector. The estimation of the azimuth misalignment is performed only when it is strongly observable, in other words, during high vehicle dynamics. To reduce the transition period of its estimation, the problem statement is reformulated so that the azimuth misalignment error becomes a directly measured component. The discussed algorithm is tested for a land navigation application. The investigation in [30] presents test results for a system that uses an improved kinematic alignment algorithm suite that provides a high-quality navigation solution using direct carrier-phase and pseudo-range GPS measurements tightly coupled with measurements from a low-cost IMU system. The test data shows the utility of an airborne and ground based version of this system for use in precision registration of video imagery. This has applications for generating target coordinates and also for use in mapping and navigation for a variety of military and civilian applications. This article in [31] suggests processing of the gyro and accelerometer measurements with multiple levels of wavelet decomposition to remove the high frequency noise components. The proposed wavelet de-noising method was applied on a navigational grade inertial measurement unit (LTN90-100). The results showed that accurate alignment procedure and fast convergence of the estimation algorithm, in addition to reducing the estimation covariance of the three attitude angles, could be obtained. 3. IN-FLIGHT ALIGNMENT (IFA) Many offensive and defensive missile systems require accurate alignment of the onboard INS in order to achieve a high probability of kill against their intended targets. For system in which time is not critical, this alignment process can be performed prior to launch by utilizing navigation data form the launch platform and calibrating the missiles INS to this reference. However, for systems that require rapid reaction time, significant pre-launch delays for alignment are not tolerable. In this case, and the alignment process must be performed after launch during the missile flight. Inflight alignment utilizes acceleration and angular rate data from an IMU, together with data provided by external sensors during flight. Differences between the INS state estimates and the external data are used by a Kalman navigation filter to generate error corrections that remove, over time, the effects of initial alignment errors and other types of navigation errors. For flights of sufficient duration, these errors can be brought to tolerable levels before commencement of the missiles terminal guidance phase, where accurate alignment is essential [32]. In [32], Attitude Dilution of Precision (ADOP) metric has been derived in detail, and then it has been extended to include additional navigation performance metrics. This extension entails a modest increase in the amount of computations, but is useful in isolating the degree of observability for each metric and their changes to engagement geometry and trajectory shaping. Application of the ADOP to a theater defense missile has been elaborated. At the end, inflight alignment performance has been investigated. In [33], a nonlinear observer is proposed for a strapdown inertial navigation system inflight alignment problem using an H-infinity filter Riccati equation and a freedom parameter. It guarantees the least degree of stability even though the lower bound of the process noise related terms in the Reccati equation becomes zero and to take care of nonlinear errors of the SINS. In addition, a freedom parameter has been introduced in the filter Reccati equation to improve the degree of stability, the residual set of estimated errors, and the filter performance measure. An IFA for a system with large attitude errors is proposed in [34]. With an odometer as an external aid, the velocity aided SINS is designed. New error models applicable to IFA for the system in the presence of large attitude errors are derived. To obtain equivalent error models, the quaternion error is divided into two types. One is additive quaternion error and the other is multiplicative quaternion error. The rotation vector error is introduced as a new variable. Exact relationships between these attitude errors are also derived. Equivalent velocity and attitude error models are obtained. To verify the validity of the proposed error model in a system with large attitude errors, equivalent error models are applied to van tests for IFA. An error model that appropriately describes the INS behavior during IFA has been explained in detail in [35]. Error model constitutes a linear dynamic system for simpler observability matrix to be used in analysis. Method of observability has been explained and analysis has been made for observability of vertically damped and undamped INS during IFA. Covariance simulation results have also been presented which confirm the analytic results.

A new in-flight alignment method for the vehicle with the large heading error or without heading information is presented in [36]. Generally the heading error is much larger than leveling error, so a new horizontal frame is introduced to separate the heading error and leveling error. A linear navigation error dynamic model is derived from the attitude error model and then the Kalman filter is applied to the model as the alignment filter. To show the performance of the of the proposed alignment algorithm, the computer simulation is carried out. The target system of the simulation is an unmanned vehicle. The stationary alignment of SINS is an important process to determine the angular relationship between a navigation frame and a body frame before a navigation mode begins. The [37] shows that by employing GPS carrier phase and differential phase rate measurement, observability and performance of the alignment process of SINS can be improved more efficiently. Here, the SINS error model for the stationary and inflight alignment has been described. An observation model of double differenced GPS carrier phase and differential phase rate measurements is derived in order to be used with the SINS error model. Covariance analysis results are presented to analyze the observability and the performance of the suggested GPS/INS system. Two dominant SINS error models are psi-angle model and phi-angle model, and the misalignment angles are assumed to be small, i.e. less than 5. However, these models are not effective for a system with large attitude errors because the neglected error terms in the models may degrade the performance of the designed filter or even make it unstable. The SINS nonlinear error models are derived in [38] using additive quaternion error, which is applicable to the system with large attitude errors. Simulation results are presented, and it shows that the nonlinear error models and filtering techniques can improve the performance of in-flight alignment. In SINS, with sizeable attitude errors, the uncertainty caused by linearization of the system degrades the performance of the filter. In [39], a robust filter and various error models for the uncertainty are presented. The analytical characteristics of the proposed filter are also investigated. The results show that the filter does not require the statistical property of the system disturbance and that the region of the estimation error depends on a freedom parameter in the worst case. Then, the uncertainty of the SINS is derived. Various inflight alignment methods are proposed by combining the robust filter with the error models and simulation is carried out accordingly. Establishment of local level wander azimuth navigation and body reference frame for an INS based on outputs of an IMU without the use of initial attitude information is addressed in [40]. These frames are established using a Kalman filter algorithm implemented with an INS error model formulated for large heading errors and using position measurement updates. Only position and velocity in a geographic reference frame are used for initialization of the INS equations. Results are presented to elaborate this concept. The article in [41] discusses the functional development of the missiles aided navigation system and Kalman filter-based error correction concept. The system utilizes GPS and up-linked radar measurements to effectively identify and cancel errors in initial missile attitude, missile position and velocity, missile IMU errors, radar face misalignments, and ship initial position errors. New in-flight alignment performance metrics such as the ADOP and missiles Observability Maps are described and used to analyze the Navy Theater Wide (NTW) missile system. Navigation performance results are presented to illustrate the achievable alignment accuracies relative to system requirements. An in-flight alignment technique for a strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS) employing a stars pattern recognition procedure for identifying stars sensed by a CCD electro optical star sensor is presented in [42]. Collinearity equations are used to estimate the sensor frame star coordinates and the conventional least square differential correction method is used to estimate the unknown orientation angles. A comparison of this attitude with the attitude estimated by the SINS provides axes misalignment angles, an observation to the Kalman filter. Simulations using Kalman filter are carried out for SINS employing local level navigation frame. Analysis shows that celestial updates are effective in estimating and compensating for gyro errors as well as the position and velocity errors that occur due to the SINS misalignments. A new spacecraft sensor alignment estimation approach based on the unscented filter is derived in [43]. Basic six-state attitude estimation is widely implemented in actual spacecraft missions. However, more stringent spacecraft pointing accuracy requires sensor alignment calibration to be performed post-launch to accommodate in-space disturbances and launch shock vibration. Sequential filtering is preferred since the calibration parameters could drift over time. It also minimizes ground crew intervention and mission disruption. Simulated spacecraft data results shows that the unscented filter is more robust and more suitable for on-board implementation than the traditional extended Kalman filter. Also, experimental results using the unscented filter are shown to test the performance of the algorithm using real data. Several different approaches are reviewed in [44] which are applicable to the in-flight estimation of attitude sensor alignments. These include: batch alignment estimation, which uses an attitude-independent derived measurement but which requires that data from different sensors be simultaneous within a given frame; sequential alignment estimation using the Kalman filter, which does not have this requirement but is

much more sensitive to the inherent nonlinear dependence of the measurement on the attitude; and batch methods in which the derived measurements are generated using a Kalman filter and which have the best properties of both of the previous methods with a smaller computational burden. These three approaches are presented in a common context without numerical examples. Simple and statistically correct algorithms are developed in [45] for batch estimation of spacecraft sensor relative misalignments without the need to compute the spacecraft attitude or angular velocity. These algorithms permit the estimation of sensor alignments in a framework free of unknown dynamical variables. In particular, these algorithms are less sensitive to data dropouts of long duration, and the derived measurements used in the attitude independent algorithm usually make data checking and editing of outliers much simpler than would be the case in the filter. A factorized estimator for the alignments is also developed. A very efficient approximation for this algorithm is realized with relies on the QUEST measurement model and the algorithms are applied to a realistic simulated example. In the investigation of the problem posed by in-flight attitude sensor alignment estimation when such alignments are not completely observable from the in-flight data, in-flight relative misalignment estimates and prelaunch estimates that have been corrupted by launch shock are exploited to devise a best estimate of absolute sensor misalignments [46]. Simple solvable models are used to compare the absolute misalignments with the relative ones that were incorrectly interpreted as absolute, as well as with the pseudoinverse solution and with simulated data. A methodology for estimating the launch-shock error levels is developed, and an estimator is derived in [46] for a specific model of the launch shock and the prelaunch alignment covariance. 4 TRANSFER ALIGNMENT

Occasionally, it is necessary for a vehicle to carry more than one IMU, for a variety of reasons. For instance, in the Apollo moon mission, both the command module and LEM had their own IMUs aboard. In this, and other similar examples, the commands modules IMU is called as the master IMU and the LEM IMU as the slave. It is further necessary that in order for the slave IMU to operate properly, it must initially be aligned to an inertially fixed coordinate system. This is because the IMU coordinate system must coincide with the coordinate system that its pre-calculated trajectory has been determined in. There are, indeed, several ways of doing this. Among these, transfer alignment is a method to align the slave IMU to the master IMU; assuming, of course, that the master IMU was itself inertially fixed. In [47], three INS error models are compared in the problem of transfer alignment. In the transfer alignment application, the aircrafts reference navigation system attitude information is additional information to assist in evaluating the performance of different INS error models. This reference assesses the performances and estimates qualities provided by the different INS error models. Results using the three different error models described are also presented. The transfer alignment process is discussed in detail in [1]. Here four methods are presented namely; oneshot transfer alignment, airborne inertial measurement matching, velocity matching alignment and position update alignment. One-shot method is the simplest one where position, velocity and attitude data is copied from the aircrafts own navigation system directly to the missile system. Inertial measurement matching method has received much attention in recent years. This technique relies on the comparison of measurements of applied motion obtained from the two systems to compute the relative orientation of their reference axes. An initial coarse alignment may be achieved by one shot process, before initiating the measurement matching process. In velocity matching alignment method, estimates of velocity generated by the aligning system are compared with estimates of the same quantities provided by the aircrafts own navigation system. System and measurement equations are outlined to construct a Kalman filter that may be used to process the velocity information and so to obtain estimates of the alignment errors. In position update alignment method, an aircraft may be equipped with various sensors or systems capable of providing position fix information which may be used to align an onboard INS during flight. In [48], a new approach to the alignment and calibration of SINS is proposed. That is, to use artificial neural network (NN) based multilayer perceptron to correct the alignment and calibration errors of IMU. The filter shall be placed between the IMU and the navigation computer. For this purpose, the multilayer perceptron is trained using the outputs of a master IMU. Thus, the neural network filter takes the measurements from the slave IMU and after correction gives measurements close to the master IMU. The initial position and velocity vector needed by the navigation unit may be taken directly from the master INS. Then, the slave INS may start operating independently. In this reference, first some background information on INS initialization problem and training methodology developed are presented. Then, discussion on the NN filter structure and on the training algorithm is presented. Effectiveness of the NN filter is demonstrated through a case study. The weapons navigation solution proceeds once its DCM is initially taken as the aircrafts INS DCM, and its navigation solution is initialized with position and velocities. This initial attitude is in error due to the misalignments between the two INSs. A refinement to this initialization is necessitated by the initial attitude
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differences and the time-varying attitude differences due to the weapons instrument errors. This refinement is accomplished by matching dynamic states between the two INSs. The matching is implemented in a Kalman filter based algorithm. Formulation presented in [49] uses velocity-plus-rate matching, and is implemented in a conventional navigation frame error formulation. This formulation provides structural observability of the attitude error states when the velocity-only matching algorithm is used. The filter formulation is developed and analysis methodology is presented. Transfer alignment for air to-air missile mentioned in [50] considers the aircraft navigation system as the master INS, the missile navigation system as a slave. This alignment process adjusts the slave INS based on the master INS. Simulation results are presented to verify the presented scheme. In [51], modified Kalman filter equations are derived which allow accounting for time correlated measurement and system noise without increasing the size of the filter state vector. Numerical simulations show the increase in accuracy of the estimated missile attitude with this technique. Additionally, a method is given for identifying the required vibration model parameters from the IMU data. As stated in [52], sensor motion compensation requirements place unique constraints on the motion sensor system. The motion sensor subsystem design satisfies these constraints using a low cost SINS by employing two Kalman filters. One Kalman filter transfers aligns the motion sensor subsystem to the master navigator and the other filter estimates and corrects the misalignments between the motion sensor subsystem instrument axes and the sensor axes. Simulation results are presented to show that using a methodology for developing a large Kalman filter based on intensive system covariance analysis and Monte Carlo simulation yields a system design that meets the requirements. The problem of optimal interaction between aligned INS and reference navigation System in the process of initial alignment, calibration and initial velocity determination on moving base is considered in [53]. The theoretical verification of the approach is presented that requires the minimal number of parameters transmitted from a reference system to an aligned one. The proposed technique is shown to be optimal in accuracy if the INS system is described with sufficient certainty by finite number of parameters. The design of a rapid and robust transfer alignment system for advance kinetic energy missiles is presented in [54]. Owing to the high acceleration level, and the reduced engagement time, the transfer alignment which aligns the slave IMU with the master ground launch vehicle IMU, must be accomplished in a short time with high accuracy. The scope of the transfer alignment system design presented here includes the assessment of inertial guidance accuracy, transfer alignment formulation, simulation environment development, maneuver scenario evaluation, system error analysis, tradeoff study, and filter robustness and sensitivity analysis. A new transfer alignment method is presented in [55] which uses only accelerometer measurements in the gravitational field. The benefits claimed in this scheme are the freedom to choose IMU gyros based solely on in-flight considerations and the ability to update the transfer alignment by simply making new measurements of gravity and processing the measurements taken before vehicles erection. Here, algorithm development, error analysis and laboratory results are presented. Transfer alignment methods can be divided into two classes, one named calculated parameter matching (CPM) and the other named measured parameter matching (MPM) [56]. The CPM has certain accuracy in estimating the fixed misalignment angles but it is incapable of estimating the angle of wing flexible deformation with low alignment speed. The MPM has high aligning speeds while its precision is seriously affected by the model errors of wing flexible deformation. The research in [56] combines the advantages of both of the methods and proposes a new transfer alignment scheme with a damped vibration model is used as the model of flexible deformation. Results of various transfer alignment techniques including velocity matching, integrated velocity matching and doubly integrated velocity matching approaches are presented in [57]. This study addresses the key transfer alignment Kalman filter issues such as the effect of wing flexure vibration on instrument error estimation and rapid alignment concepts. A description of how a transfer alignment Kalman filter is implemented and used in inertially guided weapons is included. Performance of various algorithms is evaluated using actual flight test data. The IMU alignment by examining results from two different INS modeling approaches is realized in [58]. It emphasizes on the alignment during the aircrafts low dynamics ground operations before takeoff. The tow models are based on the computer frame and perturbation error models, and are formulated to use position observations in transfer alignment Kalman filter algorithm. The use of position observation is consistent with other navigation aids such as GPS. Performance measures used to evaluate the two INS error models results include: filter state convergence rates, IMU navigation solution heading compared to the reference IMU heading, and post-alignment unaided navigation position error growth during maneuvers after aircraft takeoff. The work in [59] studies an improved SAR motion compensation system, which includes a master INS and a GPS receiver located near the mass center of the aircraft, a slaved low cost strapdown IMU mounted on the antenna structure. A Kalman filter is an integral part of this system; it acts to continuously transfer
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alignment from a high accuracy GPS/INS integrated navigation system to the less stable strapdown navigator. The state equations and measurement equations are derived and simulation results are presented to show the validity of the algorithm. In [60], the federated Kalman filter is employed for the rapid transfer alignment with its designed structure and algorithm. The models of the velocity matching subsystem and attitude matching subsystem are elaborated. Simulation results are presented to show that the precision and convergence rate of this filter is the same as that of centralized Kalman filter whereas the calculation burden in greatly reduced. A transfer alignment methodology which eliminates the maneuver liming constraint is proposed in [61]. The new alignment approach augments the traditional master-to-slave velocity matching with master-to-slave attitude matching along the aircraft z-axis direction. This augmentation results in continuous observability of the weapon's drift along that axis. Moreover, the filter formulation makes possible the capture of the alignment error of the slave INS along the aircraft z-axis after first transfer alignment maneuver. Hence, the weapon azimuth is always available after first maneuver. The resulting thirteen states and four measurements Kalman Filter is derived and analyzed. In [62], a robust filter for an IFA is presented to effectively eliminate system errors in the case where a SINS has large initial attitude errors. Here, an extended robust H-infinity filter is proposed for a general nonlinear uncertain system and its characteristics are analyzed. Analysis results show that the proposed filter has robustness against disturbances such as process and measurement noises, and parameter uncertainties. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed filter effectively improve the performance. Formulations of Kalman filters are presented in [63] which are capable of aligning one strapdown inertial sensor assembly with another by estimating the misalignment angle between them. One formulation treats the case of a fixed misalignment. Another treats the case of a dynamic misalignment, caused, for example, by bending of the common supporting body. Measurements can be made by gyros only, or by gyros plus accelerometers. Filters which estimate inertial sensor error parameters are also discussed here. An all-purpose rapid transfer alignment algorithm set has been developed in [64]. It may be configured to suit differing grades of INS, alignment duration, processing capacity and flexure and vibration environments. The algorithm set has been validated by simulation in a flexure environment for the alignment of missile INS with gyro drift down to 100 degrees/hour. It has also been successfully flight tested in real-time onboard. Simulations have shown that these enhancements improve transfer alignment performance where there is sufficient processing power to implement them. The research in [65] presents results from a study of weapon IMU transfer alignment using the aircraft's navigation system position data. The alignment process consists of first establishing a navigation solution using the raw IMU outputs, then via a Kalman filter algorithm estimate errors in the weapon navigation data using aircraft navigation system data as observations. The aircraft's navigation system data is used to initialize the weapon's navigation solution. The results presented in this paper are based on using the aircraft's position data as the filter algorithm's observation. Using flight data, it is shown that a weapon's navigation frame can be aligned to an accuracy of less than 1 milliradian. The affect of the aircraft's flexible structure during higher maneuver levels is illustrated. Innovative developments in [66] include the estimation of additional acceleration and gyro states and estimation of force dependent relative orientation, which has enabled robust alignment using wing rock maneuvers, which do not require the pilot to change trajectory. Transfer alignment has been verified in realtime by flight trials on an aircraft. In addition, techniques have been developed to prevent transients in the aircraft integrated navigation solution following GPS re-acquisition after an outage of several minutes from disrupting the transfer alignment process. The work in [67] presents the results to show that transfer alignment robustness may be maximized. It narrates that weapon navigation accuracy may be significantly improved by using the aircraft INS/GPS navigation solution as the reference for transfer alignment as opposed to a pure inertial reference. However, where GPS is re-acquired after an outage of several minutes, a transient occurs in the INS/GPS solution which can disrupt transfer alignment. Transient detection and handling techniques have therefore been added to the transfer alignment algorithm. Where the transfer alignment algorithm is provided with a pure INS reference in addition to the INS/GPS reference or with aircraft INS corrections, transients may be handled directly. The accuracy of the transfer alignment of a missile INS can potentially be enhanced by using an integrated INS/GPS navigation system on board the aircraft as a reference in place of a pure INS. However, modifications to the transfer alignment algorithm may be required to cope with the intermittent nature of GPS signals in a military environment. A simulation study, using trials data from an aircraft INS/GPS, is conducted in [68]. The performance of a conventional velocity-matching transfer alignment algorithm is assessed using both the blended INS/GPS velocity and the corresponding pure inertial velocity as the reference. Research in [69] presents a transfer alignment procedure developed to significantly reduce the alignment maneuver and timeline requirements for an air-launched weapon. An 18-state Kalman filter is designed to recursively process INS and IMU velocity-match and attitude-match data at a 12.5 Hz rate. The aircraft is
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required only to perform a brief 20-deg wing-rock maneuver during alignment. Laboratory and flight tests indicate that the proposed filter is capable of aligning the IMU to within 1 mrad of truth within 5 sec. Article in [70] explores the timeline/calibration tradeoffs associated with advanced alignment procedures for aircraft employing GPS-aided, IMU-equipped weapons. Results indicate that if GPS aids the IMU over at least a portion of the weapon flight, a 5-sec advanced transfer alignment procedure is expected to achieve weapon navigation accuracy comparable to that achieved by a conventional alignment procedure lasting several minutes. References 1. D. H. Titterton and J. L. Weston, Strapdown Inertial Navigation Technology, IEE Radar, Sonar, Navigation and Avionics Series 5, 1997, pp. 259-292. 2. Y.F. Jiang, Error Analysis of Analytic Coarse Alignment Methods, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 34, No. 1, 1998, pp. 334-337. 3. L. Schimelevich and R. Naor, New Approach to Coarse Alignment, IEEE Position Location and Navigation Symposium, 1996, pp. 324-327. 4. N.S. Reddy and J. Murray, Transfer Orbit stage Gyrocompass Alignment Algorithm Twist and Sway Environment for Mars Observer Mission on Commercial Titan, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, February 1991, pp. 3-7. 5. O. Tekinalp and M. Ozemre, Artificial Neural Networks for Transfer Alignment and Calibration of Inertial navigation Systems, AIAA 2001-4406. 6. P.G. Savage, Strapdown Inertial Navigation Lecture Notes, Strapdown Associates, Inc., July 14, 1997 (Sixth Printing). 7. T.M. Pham, Kalman Filter Mechanization for INS Airstart, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, January 1992, pp. 3-11. 8. A.B. Chatfield, Fundamentals of High Accuracy Inertial Navigation, Published by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1997, pp. 109-128. 9. H.W. Park, J.G. Lee and C.G. Park, Error analysis of Strapdown Inertial Navigation System Aligned by Gyrocompassing, Proceedings of the 1995 IFAC Intelligent Autonomous Control in Aerospace, Beijing, China, August 14-16, 1995, pp. 191-195. 10. H.W. Park, J.G. Lee and C.G. Park, Covariance Analysis of Strapdown INS Considering Gyrocompass Characteristics, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 31, No. 1, 1995, pp. 320328. 11. B. Priel, The Effect of Gyro Nonorthogonality Error on Gyrocompassing IEEE, Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 28, No. 3, 1992, 890-893. 12. M.S. Grewal and R.S. Miyasako, Application of Kalman Filtering to the Calibration and Alignment of Inertial navigation Systems, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, Vol. 36, No. 1, January 1991, pp. 4-13. 13. D.Y. Chung, J.G. Lee, C.G. Park and H.W. Park, Strapdown INS Error Model for Multiposition Alignment, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 32, No. 4, 1996, pp. 13621366. 14. J.G. Lee, Multiposition Alignment of Strapdown Inertial Navigation System, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 29, No. 4, 1993, pp. 1323-1328. 15. M.E. Pittelkau, Kalman Filtering for Spacecraft System Alignment Calibration, Journal of Guidance, Control and Dynamics, Vol. 24, No. 6, 2001, pp. 1187-1195. 16. J.C. Fang and D.J. Wan, A Fast Initial Alignment Method for Strapdown Inertial Navigation System on Stationary Base, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 32, No. 4, 1996, pp. 1501-1505. 17. C. Hua, Gyrocompass Alignment with base motions: Results for a 1 nmi/h INS/GPS System, Journal of the Institute of Navigation, Vol. 47, No. 2, 2000, pp. 65-74. 18. X.Y. Kong, Eduardo Mario Nebot and Hugh Durrant Whyte, Development of a Nonlinear psi-angle model for large misalignment errors and its application in INS alignment and Calibration, Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Detroit, Michigan, May 1999. 19. D.L. Wang and H.Y. Zhang, Nonlinear Filtering Algorithm for INS Initial Alignment, Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1999, pp. 246-250. 20. S.P. Dmitriyev, O.A. Stepanov and S.V. Shepel, Nonlinear Filtering Methods: Application in INS Alignment, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 33, No. 1, 1997, pp. 260-271. 21. Y.F. Jiang and Y.P. Lin, Error Estimation of ground Alignment to Arbitrary Azimuth, AIAA-93-3823CP. 22. S.S. Saab and K.T. Gunnarsson, Automatic Alignment and Calibration of an Inertial Navigation System, IEEE Position Location and Navigation Symposium, 1994, pp. 845-852.
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23. Y.F. Jiang and Y.P. Lin, Error Estimation of INS Ground Alignment through Observability Analysis, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 28, No. 1, 1992, pp. 92-96. 24. R.M. Rogers, Kalman Filter Inertial Navigation System Error Model Based on Filter Stability Considerations, AIAA-94-3547-CP, pp. 65-70. 25. H.W. Park, J.G. Lee and C.G. Park, Error Analysis of Strapdown Inertial Navigation System Aligned by Gyrocompassing, Proceedings of the 1995 IFAC Intelligent Automation Control in Aerospace, Beijing, China, August 1995, pp. 191-195. 26. X.L. Wang, G.X. Shen and D.L. Tang, A Fast Initial Alignment Method of Inertial Navigation System on Stationary Base, Proceedings of the 4th World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automaton June 2002, Shanghai, China, pp. 1390-1394. 27. Y.Yong, L.J. Miao and C.Z. Hou, Application of Dynamic Programming Theory to the Alignment of SINS, Proceedings of the 4th World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automaton June 2002, Shanghai, China, pp. 577-581. 28. N. Eduardo and D.W. Hugh, Initial Calibration and Alignment of an Inertial Navigation, IEEE Position Location and Navigation Symposium, 1997, pp. 175-180. 29. A.O. Salycheva and M.E. Cannon, Kinematic Azimuth Alignment of INS using GPS Velocity Information, Proceedings of National Technical Meeting, San Diego, CA, January 2004. 30. A. Brown and D. Sullivan, Precision Kinematic Alignment Using a Low-Cost GPS/INS System, Proceedings of ION GPS 2002, Portland, Oregon, September 2002. 31. N. El-Sheimy, S. Nassar and A. Noureldin, Wavelet De-noising for IMU Alignment, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, October 2004, pp. 32-39. 32. C. Johnson, E.J. Ohlmeyer and T.R. Pepitone, Attitude Dilution of Precision - A New Metric for Observability of In-flight Alignment Errors AIAA 2000-4277. 33. M.J. Yu, J.G. Lee, C.G. Park and D.S. Shim, A Nonlinear Robust Observer Design for SDINS Inflight Alignment, AIAA 2001-4404. 34. M.J. Yu, J.G. Lee and H.W. Park, Comparison of SDINS Inflight Alignment using Equivalent Error Models, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 35, No. 3, 1999, pp. 1046-1053. 35. G.G. Meskin, I. Y. Bar Itzhack, Observability Analysis of Piece-Wise Constant Systems - Part II: Application to Inertial Navigation In-flight Alignment, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 28, No. 4, 1992, pp. 1068-1075. 36. H.S. Hong, J.G. Lee and C.G. Park, In-Flight Alignment of SDINS under Large Initial Heading Error, AIAA 2001-4183. 37. J.G. Park, C.G. Park, G. Jee and J.T. Oh, The Enhancement of INS Alignment Using GPS Measurements, IEEE Position Location and Navigation Symposium 1998, pp. 534-540. 38. C.L. Wei and H.Y. Zhang, SINS In-flight Alignment using Quaternion Error Models, Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, Vol. 14, No. 3, 2001, pp. 166-170. 39. M.J. Yu and S.W. Lee, A Robust Extended Filter Design for SDINS In-flight Alignment, International Journal of Control, Automation, and Systems, Vol. 1, No. 4, December 2003, pp. 520-526. 40. R.M. Rogers, IMU In-motion Alignment Without Benefit of Attitude Inialization, Journal of the Institute of Navigation, Vol. 44, No. 3, 1997, pp. 301-311. 41. E.J. Ohlmeyer and D.B. Hanger, In-Flight Alignment Techniques for Navy Theater Wide Missiles, AIAA 2001-4401. 42. J. Ali and J.C. Fang, In-flight Alignment of Inertial Navigation System by Celestial Observation Technique, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Inertial Navigation Technology and Intelligent Traffic, Nanjing, China, October 2004. 43. K.L. Lai, J.L. Crassidisy and R.R. Harman, In-Space Spacecraft Alignment Calibration Using the Unscented Filter, AIAA 2003-5563. 44. M.D. Shuster, In-flight Estimation of Spacecraft Sensor Alignment, Proceedings of the Annual Rocky Mountain Guidance and Control Conference, Keystone, CO, 1990, pp. 253-274. 45. M.D. Shuster, D.S. Pitone and J.B. Gerald, Batch Estimation of Spacecraft Sensor Alignments I. Relative Alignment Estimation, Journal of the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. 39, No. 4, 1991, pp. 519-546. 46. M.D. Shuster and D.S. Pitone, Batch Estimation of Spacecraft Sensor Alignments II. Absolute Alignment Estimation, Journal of the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. 39, No. 4, 1991, pp. 547-571. 47. R.M. Rogers, Comparison of Inertial Navigation System Error Models in Application to IMU Transfer Alignment AIAA 97-3599. 48. O. Tekinalp and M. Ozemre, Artificial Neural Networks for Transfer Alignment and Calibration of Inertial Navigation Systems, AIAA 2001-4406. 49. R.M. Rogers, Velocity-Plus-Rate-Matching for Improved Tactical Weapon Rapid Transfer Alignment, AIAA 91-2783-CP.

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50. Y. Li, S.H. Wang and Z. Ye, Study of Fast Transfer Alignment on Moving Base, Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1999, pp. 211-216. 51. J. Wendel, J. Metzger and G.F. Trommer, Rapid Transfer Alignment in the Presence of Time Correlated Measurement and System Noise, AIAA-2004-4778. 52. L.W. Stimac and T.A. Kennedy, Sensor Alignment Kalman Filters for Inertial Stabilization Systems, IEEE Position Location and Navigation Symposium, 1992, pp. 321-334. 53. L. Vodicheva, INS Initial Alignment and Calibration on Moving Base: Aligned and Reference System Interaction, Proceedings of the 9th Saint Petersburg International Conference on Integrated Navigation Systems, May 2002, pp. 391-393. 54. C. Yang, C.F. Lin, D. Tarrant, C. Roberts and P. Ruffin, Transfer Alignment Design and Evaluation, AIAA-93-3892-CP, pp. 1724-1733. 55. C.F. Hagan and C.S. Lofts, Accelerometer Based Alignment Transfer (ABAT), IEEE Position Location and navigation Symposium, 1992, pp. 133-140. 56. C.Y. Zhang, Scheme of Alignment for Strapdown Inertial Navigation Systems, AIAA ICAS-92-7.6.3, pp. 1304-1310. 57. C.C. Ross and T.F. Elbert, A Transfer Alignment Algorithm Study Based on Actual Flight Test Data from a Tactical Air-to Ground Weapon Launch, IEEE Position Location and Navigation Symposium, 1994, pp. 431-438. 58. R.M. Rogers, Low Dynamics IMU Alignment, IEEE Position Location and Navigation Symposium, 1998, pp. 272-279. 59. F.X. Cao, Z. Bao, J.P Yuan and E. Zheng, Transfer Alignment from Airplane GPS/MINS Integrated System to SAR Strapdown Navigator, Proceedings of the 3rd World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automaton June 2000, Hefei, China, pp. 2088-2091. 60. D.Q. Gu, Y.Y. Qin, R. Peng and X. Li, Rapid Transfer Alignment using Federated Kalman Filter, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Inertial Navigation Technology and Intelligent Traffic, Nanjing, China, October 2004. 61. J. Reiner, In-Flight Transfer Alignment Using Aircraft-to-Wing Stiff-Angle Estimation, AIAA- 963818. 62. M.J. Yu, J.G. Lee, C.G. Park and K.C. Park, An Extended Robust H-infinity Filter Design for SDINS InFlight Alignment, 15th Triennial World Congress of the International Federation of Automatic Control, Barcelona, July 2002. 63. S. Alanm, Kalman Filter Formulations for Transfer Alignment of Strapdown Inertial Units, AGARD, Analysis, Design and Synthesis Methods for Guidance and Control Systems, SEE N90-29338 24-04, 1990. 64. P.D. Groves and J.C. Haddock, An All-purpose Rapid Transfer Alignment Algorithm Set, Proceedings of the Institute of Navigation 2001 National Technical Meeting, Long Beach, CA, 2001, pp. 160-171. 65. R.M. Rogers, Weapon IMU Transfer Alignment using Aircraft Position from Actual Flight Tests, IEEE Position Location and Navigation Symposium, 1996, pp. 328-335. 66. P.D. Groves, Optimizing the Transfer Alignment of Weapon INS, Journal of Navigation, Vol. 56, 2003, pp. 323-335. 67. P.D. Groves, G.G. Wilson and C.J. Mather, Robust Rapid Transfer Alignment with an INS/GPS Reference, Proceedings of the ION National Technical Meeting, California, 2002. 68. P.D. Groves, Transfer Alignment using an Integrated INS/GPS as the Reference, Proceedings of the 55th Annual Meeting of the Institute of Navigation, Cambridge, USA, June 1999, pp. 731-737. 69. G. William and S. Kevin, Advanced Transfer Alignment for Inertial Navigators (A-TRAIN), Proceedings of the National Technical Meeting of the Institute of Navigation, Anaheim, CA, USA, 1995. pp. 113-124. 70. S. Kevin and G. William, Advanced Alignment Concepts for Precision Guided Weapons, Proceedings of the National Technical Meeting of the Institute of Navigation, Anaheim, CA, USA, 1995. pp. 131-142.

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