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by : DR. T.K. JAIN AFTERSCHOOL centre for social entrepreneurship sivakamu veterinary hospital road bikaner 334001 rajasthan, india FOR PGPSE / CSE PARTICIPANTS afterschool@in.com mobile : 91+9414430763
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My words.....
My purpose here is to give a few questions on fundamentals of statistics. I welcome your suggestions. I also request you to help me in spreading social entrepreneurship across the globe for which I need support of you people not of any VIP. With your help, I can spread the ideas for which we stand....
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After classification, data can easily be analysed. We can easily interpret data
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1. chronologically (data wise / year wise) 2. geographically (north v/s south zone) 3. qualitative ( order = like first, second, third) 4. quantitative data analysis (use of tools for quantitative analysis)
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Name a few international bodies that publish data (which we can use as secondary source of data)?
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Classification of data (put data in classes) Tabulation of data (prepare table from data) Frequency distribution of data (identify frequencies) Diagrammatic presentations of data (prepare diagrams) Graphic representation of data (prepare graphs).
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Tabulation is a systematic and logical arrangement of data in columns and rows in accordance with some salient features and characteristics.
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It is the difference between the upper limit and lower limit of the same class. The lower limit of a class is usually represented by symbol I1 and upper limit by I2.
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The number of observations included in a particulars class is known as the frequency of that class.
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It refers to that classification where both the class limits are included in the class itself while determining the class intervals.
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POPULATION ??
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Statistical inference
The process of using data obtained from a sample to make estimate or test hypothesis about the characteristics of the population
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Qualitative data ?
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Quantitative data ?
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Frequency distribution ??
A tabular summary of data showing number and frequency of each of nonoverlapping classes
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What is median ?
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What is mode ?
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What is percentile ?
When some % of value are above some specified value, it is called that percentile th n d 50 percentile = median = 2 quartile
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Quartile ?
25% data sets we have 3 quartile st 1 quartile = 25% n d 2 quartile = 50% 3rd quartile = 75%
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Range ?
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Interquartile range
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Variance ?
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Standard deviation
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Coefficient of variance ?
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Z score
(Xi mean) / standard deviation it is a standardised value = showing difference from mean + & - 1 standard deviation =68.27% + & - 2 standard deviation = 95.45% + & - 3 standard deviation = 99.73%
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Empirical rule ?
In a bell shaped distribution (normal distribution), we have data in 1 or 2 or 3 standard deviation to mean in some % of total data
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Outlier ?
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Box plot
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Covariance ?
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Correlation coefficient ?
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Weighted mean ?
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Grouped data
Data grouped as class interval as summarised by frequency distribution individual values are not available
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Probability
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Experiment
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Sample space
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Sample point
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Tree diagram
A graphical representation helpful in identifying the sample points of an experiment involving multiple steps
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Event
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Venn diagram
Graphical representation showing sample space and operations involving events sample space = rectangle event = circle within sample space
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How many different 4 digit letters can you make out of A,B,C,D,E?
N = 5 (A,B,C,D,E) R=4 formula = Npr = n! / (n-r)!
=5!/(5-4)! = 120 answer
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How many different 4 digit numbers can you make out of 1,2,3,4,0?
N = 5 (1,2,3,4,0) R=4 but 0 cannot come in the first digit for first digit we have 4 options (1,2,3,4), for next digits, we can use 0. thus we have 4*4*3*2*1 = 96 options OR formula = Npr = n! / (n-r)! =5!/(5-4)! but this contains all those numbers which start with 0. so let us keep 0 as fixed for 1st digit and solve it. Now we have to pick up 3 digit out of 4 contd.
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contd.....
If it is not 0, permutation will be : formula = Npr = n! / (n-r)! =5!/(5-4)! = 120 Zero fixed for 1st potion, we have these options : Npr = n! / (n-r)! n=4,r=3 4!/(4-3)! = 24 deduct this 24 from 120 120 -24 = 96 answer you can use any formula (out of these 2), you get the same answer
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How many different 4 digit numbers can you make out of 1,2,3,4,0 which are divisible by 2? Start with 96 of the last question now pick up all those which are ending with 1 : 3*3*2*1 = 18 similarly those which are ending with 3 3*3*2*1 = 18 thus 96 (18+18) = 60 seems to be the answer
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For questions relating to round table , we have to use the following formula : (n-1)! So here answer = (8-1)! = 7! =5040 answer
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How many 4 digit numbers can be formed out of 1,2,3,5,7,8,9 if no digit is repeated.
Total number ofdigits = 7 formula = Npr n =7 r 4 7p4 = 7! / 3! =7*6*5*4 = 840
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How many numbers greater than 2000 can be formed from 1,2,3,4,5. No repeatition is allowed.
5 digit numbers = 5! = 120 4 digit numbers,: we cant take 1 in the beginning. We have 4 options for 1st digit 4 for n d rd 2 digit 3 for 3 digit ... 4*4*3*2*1 = 96 total = 216 answer
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There are 6 books on english, 3 on maths, 2 on GK. In how many ways can they be placed in shelf, if books of 1 subject are together?
We have 3 subjects so 3! books of same subjects can be interchanged. So answer : 3!*6!*3!*2! =6*720*6*2 = 51840 answer
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How many words can we make out of DRAUGHT, the vowels are never separated?
Number of vowels = 2 other digits = 5 we will treat vowels as 1 word so we have 6!. Vowels can be interchanged so 2! so answer = 6!*2! = 1440 answer
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How many number of different digits can be formed from 0,2,3,4,8,9 between 10 to 1000?
Let us assume that repeatition is not allowed Let us make 2 digit numbers : for first digit we have 5 option, for 2nd digit also we have 5 options (including 0) = 25 for 3 digit numbers : 5*5*4 = 100 total 125 if repeatition is allowed : for 2 digit : 5 * 6 = 30 for 3 digit : 5*6*6 = 180 total = 210 answer
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What is the number of permutations of 10 different things taking 4 at a time in which one thing never comes ?
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There are 5 speakers (A,B,C,D,E) , in how many ways can we arrange their speach that A always speaks before B
For A and then B without gap : Let us take A and B as one. 4! = 24 for A and then B let us keep B at 3rd place and A at 1st place =3! there are total 6 such possibilities so we have 6*6 = 36 total possibilities = 60 answer
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5 persons are sitting in a round table in such a way that the tallest person always sits next to the smallest person?
Keep tallest and smallest person as 1. we have (4-1)! = 6 the tallest and the smallest person can be interchanged = 2 =12
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How many words can be formed from MOBILE so that consonent always occupies odd place ?
There are 3 odd and 3 even places. We have 3! *3! =36 answer
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In how many ways can we arrange 6 + and 4 signs so that no two signs are together?
++++++ there are 5 places between 2 +. one on extreme left and one on extreme right. We have 7 positions for sign 7c4 we have 6 places for 6 + sign, so we have 6c6 total = 35 answer
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There are 10 buses between Bikaner and Jaipur. In how many ways can Gajendra go to Jaipur and come back without using the same bus in return journey?
There are 10 options while going there are 9 options while returning (one bus used earlier will not be used) 10*9 = 90 answer
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In how many ways can yamini distribute 8 sweets to 8 persons provided the largest sweet is served to Jigyasha?
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Yamini & Jigyasha go to a train and they find 6 vacant seats. In how many ways can they sit?
Yamini has 6 options but Jigyasha has only 5 options left = 6*5 = 30 answer
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8! 40320 answer
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Gajendra has 12 friends out of whom 8 are relatives. In how many ways can he invite 7 in such a way that 5 are relatives?
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There are 8 points on a plane. No 3 points are on a straight line. How many traiangles can be made out of these ?
8c3 = 56 answer
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In how many ways can you form a committee of 3 persons out of 12 persons ?
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The factors are : 2^4* 3^3*5^2 *7 formula = (number of factors +1) (number of factors +1) .... - 1 (4+1)(3+1)(2+1)(1+1) -1 =119 answer
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A box contains 7 red 5 white and 4 blue balls. How many selections can be made that we pick up 3 balls and all are red? It is a question of combination. Total possibilities = 7c3 7c3 = 7*6*5 / 3*2*1 = 35 thus there are 35 chances of getting
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A box contains 7 red 5 white and 4 blue balls. What is the probability that in our selections we pick up 3 balls and all are red? Total possibilities for red = 7c3 7c3 = 7*6*5 / 3*2*1 = 35 total possibility of 3 balls : 16c3 =(16*15*14/3*2*1) =560 probability thus there are 35/560 chances of getting red in all the three selections
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This is a case of binomial probability (where there are only 2 outcomes possible, we can use this theory) Here we can use this formula : Ncr (p)^r * (q)^(n-r) =n =5, p = q = (1-p) = , r = 3 5c3 (1/2)^3*(1/2)^2 =5/48 answer
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In how many ways can Gajendra invite some or all of his 5 friends in party hosted by him? (at least 1)
How many words can be formed by using all the letters of the word DRAUGHT so that a. vowels always come together & b. vowels are never together?
A There are 2 vowels. We treat them as 1. solution : 6!*2! = 1440 answer b. total possibilities = 7! = 5040 number of cases when vowels are not together = 5040-1440 = 3600 answer
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In how many ways can a cricket eleven be chosen out of a batch of 15 players.
15c11 =15! / ((15-11)!*11!) =15!/(4!*11!) =(15*14*13*12)/(4*3*2*1) 1365 answer
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In how many a committee of 5 members can be selected from 6 men 5 ladies consisting of 3 men and 2 ladies
How many 4-letter word with or without meaning can be formed out of the letters of the word 'LOGARITHMS' if repetition of letters is not allowed
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How many arrangements can be made out of the letters of the word 'MATHEMATICS' be arranged so that the vowels always come together
Let us treat all 4 vowels as 1 total digits are 11 we we take 11 4+1 = 8 digits vowels can be arranged among themselves = 4!/2! =8!/ (2!*2!) * 4!/2! = 120960 answer
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In how many different ways can the letter of the word 'DETAIL' be arranged in such a way that the vowels occupy only the odd positions
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How many 3 digit numbers can be formed from the digits 2,3,5,6,7 and 9 which are divisible by 5 and none of the digits is repeated?
Last digit must be 5 now we have 5 options for 1st and 4 options for n d 2 digit =5*4 = 20 answer
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In how many ways can 21 books on English and 19 books on Hindi be placed in a row on a self so that two books on Hindi may not be together?
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Out of 7 constants and 4 vowels how many words of 3 consonants and 2 vowels can be formed?
Selection of 5 digits =7c3 *4c2 =35*6 = 210 5 digits can be arranged in 5! ways =120 total options : 210*120 = 25200 answer
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Future value takes up interest and therefore it is more than the sum invested. If I invest 1000 today, with an interest rate of 10%, it will become 1100 after 1 year.
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Amount / (1+rate) ^ number of years suppose 1221 is due after 3 years and rate of interest is 10%, present value is : 1221 / (1+10/100)^3 =917.35 answer
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What will be EMI for Rs. 5 lakh rate of interest = 10%, payable in 20 annual instalments
= ((1+rate)^n -1) / (rate(1+rate)^n) ((1+10/100)^20 - 1)/(10/100 (1+10/100)^20) =5.73/.67 =8.55 EMI=500000/8.55 =58479 ANSWER
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What will be EMI for Rs. 5 lakh rate of interest = 10%, payable in Monthly instalments in 20 years.
= ((1+rate)^n -1) / (rate(1+rate)^n) ((1+10/1200)^240 - 1)/(10/1200* (1+10/1200)^240) 6.328 / .061 =103.624 EMI = 500000 / 103.624 =4825 ANSWER
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Jigyasa has to collect 1 ml. After 5 years to start a new factory. How should she save every month? Rate = 12%
= ((1+rate)^n -1 )/(rate) =((1+12/1200)^60 -1) / (12/1200) =.8167 / .01 dividing factor =81.669 monthly savings = 1000000/81.669 =12244.44 per month answer
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What is a sample ?
Instead of contacting every person, we may contact only a few persons, this is called sample. Suppose we go to check the quality of wheat to purchase. Instead of checking all the bags, we pick up one bag randomly and pick out a few grains, this is also a sample.
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contd...
Stratified ramdom sampling : here we divide population in different stratas (strata = population divided on some logical criteria) then we randomly take a few % of persons from each strata. Convenience sampling = taking sample on the basis of your convenience
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It is the confidence created / associated with an interval estimate If we are using a confidence level of 95%, it means that there are 95% chances that our estimate will be close to population parameter (mean).
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Sample characteristics like mean, mode, median, standard deviation etc. Which are used to estimate population parameter
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The difference in the value identified by sample and the population parameter is called sampling error. For example, population mean is 20 but sample mean is 18, so sampling error = 2
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quantitative data = data which tell about what and how much qualitative data=data which only contain nominal scale just name / labels etc.
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When we try to estimate or test hypothesis using sample data, it is called statistical inference (here we use sample data, not the population parameters).
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What is a variable ?
It is a characteristic of some interest relating to some element. It can take different values. Variables are denoted by X,Y,Z etc. Examples of variables are : for people = their education, for car=their car, fuel efficiency etc.
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There are two variables, their data are presented in one table one variable as X axis and other variable as Y axis for example : Age and Height or Marks and Attendance
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There are many types of probabilty distributions, normal distribution is used most widely. It assumes that the data are bell shaped and mean=mode=median. Normal distribution assumes that most of the data are near mean and extreme data are very few.
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Example of mode :
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Example of mode ?
Class frequency 10 to 20 4 20 to 30 8 30 to 40 12 40 to 50 4 apply the formula : modal class = 30 to 40 = 30 + ((12-8) / ((12-8)+(12-4)) * class interval = 30 + 4/12 * 10 = 30+3.3 = 33.3 answer
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What is median ?
Median = exact mid point in the data formula = n/2 or (n+1) / 2 example : 1,3,5,7,9 thre are 5 values, so n = 5 (5+1)/2 = 3 so 3rd value is median. Median = 5 answer
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Example of median ?
Class frequency C.F 10 to 20 4 4 20 to 30 8 12 30 to 40 12 24 40 to 50 4 28 L1 + ((M-C) / F)* class interval M=28/2 = 14, so median class is 30 to 40 30 + (( 14-12)/12) * 10 =30+1.6 = 31.6 answer
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When you add up frequencies, it is called cumulative frequencies in the previous example , 10to 20 is 4, but 20 to 30 is shown as 16 (4 of 10 to 20 is added in it) cumulative frequency
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solution...
Median = 20+(17-5)/12 * 10 = 30 mode cannot be calculated because there are two equal modal values, so we use the following formula Mode = 3median 2 mean mode = 30 answer k
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Solution
Calculate their ranks X Y Rx Ry D^2 2 11 4 1 9 4 8 3 2 1 6 3 2 3 1 8 1 1 4 9 d=rx-ry so D^2 = (Rx-ry)^2 D^2 = 20
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(q3 q1)/ 2
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(q3-q1) / (q3+q1)
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What is experiment ?
In research, we manipulate some data, we change some variables that is called experiment,
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What is covariance ?
If there are two data series let us say X andY, then we can find their relation, we need covariance. Co = together Variance = difference formula of covariance = total of dx*dy /number of elements
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Example of covariance :
X Y dx dy dx*dy 2 6 -2 2 -4 3 5 -1 1 -1 5 3 1 -1 -1 6 2 2 -2 -4 average of X=16/4 =4 , average of Y = 16/4=4 dx = difference of each element from X dy = difference of each element from Y total of dxdy=-10 covariance = -10/4 = -2.5 answer
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Example of correlation?
X Y dx dy dx*dy 2 6 -2 2 -4 3 5 -1 1 -1 5 3 1 -1 -1 6 2 2 -2 -4 average of X=16/4 =4 , average of Y = 16/4=4 total of dxdy=-10 total of dx^2 = 10, standard deviation of x = sqrt(2.5) and standard deviation of Y = sqrt(2.5) covariance = -10/4 = -2.5 correlation = -2.5 / (sqrt (2.5) * sqrt (2.5)) = -1 answer
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What is regression ?
The basic model of linear regression (one dependent and one independent variable) is as under : y = a+ bx+e a = intercept b=slope e=error since error is random and moves in either direction, so we generally write as y=a+bx
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What is regression?
It is a simple tool to predict data. Regression assumes that there are at least two data sets, one is dependent on another. Example : if you say that demand is based on price, then we can have regression between price and demand. Price will be independent variable (called X), and demand will be dependent variable (called Y)
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Example of regression
X Y dx dy dx*dy 2 6 -2 2 -4 3 5 -1 1 -1 5 3 1 -1 -1 6 2 2 -2 -4 average of X=16/4 =4 , average of Y = 16/4=4 variance of x = 2.5 covariance = -10/4 = -2.5 b=covariance/variance of x, and covariance =-2.5, variance of x=2.5 b= -2.5 / 2.5 = -1 now put it in formula to get a y=a+bx take y=4, x=4, b=-1 so 4 = a+(-1) 4 = or a = 8 thus a = 8, b = -1 so we can now predict y
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= Standard deviation / mean * 100 suppose standard deviation = 2 suppose mean = 4 =2/4 *100 = 50% coefficient of variation = 50%
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What is skewness ?
When the data are not normallydistributed, they are skewed. They are either towards left or towards right side. If the data are not skewed, it looks like a bell shaped data. But if it is skewed, it looks like a slope or like a see saa. Formula = (mean mode ) / standard deviation
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What is ogive ?
It is a chart. It indicates data on cumulative basis. Here you first calculate cumulative frequency and then find its %. Data may be expressed using a single line. You can display the total at any given time. The relative slopes from point to point will indicate greater or lesser increases. Ogive can be from left to right or from right to left
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There are two lines : 2x+3y+5=0 and 4x-5y+2 = 0, find the point of their intersection?
You may multiply the first equation by 2 and then subtract the second equation, you wil get : 11Y=-8 or Y = -8/11 putting this value, we get X = 1/11
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Find the equation of the line which is parallel to 4x+7y+5=0, and passes through 5, -4.
In case of parallel lines, the slope remains same thus only constant changes. Here constant is 5. 4(5)+7(-4)+k=0 k=8 4x+7y+8=0 answer
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Find the equation of the line parallel to the line joining (7,5) and (2,9) and passing through (3,4) ?
Y-Y1/Y2-Y1 =X-X1/X2-X1 Y-5/9-5 = X-7/2-7 -5Y+25=4X-28 =4X+5Y -53 =0 for parallel, constant = k 4(3) +5(4)+k=0 k = -32 so equation = 4x+5y-32=0 answer
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What is a variable ?
It can take different values. Generally variable is denoted by X,Y,Z, and constant is denoted by a,b,c variable can be of two types : 1. discrete it takes only integer values example: number of houses 2.continuous it can take any values example : height of a person
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What is a function?
It shows relation between two variable one is dependent and one independent dependent variable is dependent on independent variable example : price = f(demand) here we want to show that price is dependent on demand, so price is a function of demand. Dependent variable = price, independent variable = demand
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Formula of mean ?
Add all the values and divide by number in the previous example : add all the values of 2,3,8,11,11 = 35 there are 5 values so divide 35 by 5 = 7 mean is denoted by Xbar
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st
C.F 4 10 18 25 30
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SOLUTION
FORMULA = L 1 (q1 c) / f * (class interval) Q1 = n/4 =first quartile= 30/4 = 7.5 7.5 falls in 20 to 30 = 20 + (7.5 4) / 6 * (10) =20 + ((3.5/6) *10) =20 + 5.8 = 25.8 ANSWER
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C.F 4 10 18 25 30
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Solution
FORMULA = L 1 (31p c) / f * (class interval) 31p= n/100 *31 = 30/100 *31 =9. 3 9.3 falls in 20 to 30 = 20 + (9.3 4) / 6 * (10) =20 + ((5.3/6) *10) =20 + 8.8 = 28.8 ANSWER
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Solution
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Solution
X Y dx dy dxdy dx^2 2 11 3 -5.25 -15.75 9 4 8 1 -2.25 - 2.25 1 6 3 -1 2.75 -2.25 1 8 1 -3 4.75 -14.25 9 covariance = (-34.5 / 4) = 8.62 variance of x = 20 / 4 = 5 slope (b) = 8.62/5 = 1.72 answer
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1. primary (which you collect yourself) 2. secondary (which is already collected for some other purpose, but you can also use it).
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What is hypothesis ?
What do you want to test. We frame 2 hypothesis at least. One of them is null hypothesis and one is alternate thesis. Based on literature review & our own experiences, we frame some understanding on the subject. We have to frame null hypothesis which is opposite of this idea. Then we have to frame alternate hypothesis. We test out null hypothesis.
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What is alpha ?
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What is p value ?
It is actual calculation about what is the possibilitity of error. It is calculated to be compared with alpha. Alpha is determined in advance, but P value is actual observation.
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1. univariate (there is a single set of data) 2. bivariate (there are two sets of data) 3. multivariate (there are many sets of data)
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Mean, mode, median, time series analysis, moving average analysis etc.
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There are many like : conjoint analysis, multivariate regression etc. Here we have many variables : example : demand is dependent on
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In a simultaneous throw of a pair of dice,find the probability of getting a total more than 7?
We can have 36 possibilities (6*6) however, we need only those cases where the total is 8 or more. These are : (6,2),(6,3), (6,4),(6,5),(6,6),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5),(5,6),(4,4),(4,5),(4,6),(3,5), (3,6),(2,6) =15 answer = 15/36 = 5/12 answer
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A bag contains 6 white and 4 black balls .Two balls are drawn at random .Find the probability that they are of the same colour?
Both are white : 6/10*5/9 both are black = 4/10*3/9 add them : =42/90 or 7/15 or : 6c2/10C2*1/2 + 4c2/10c2 =21/45 = 7/15 answer
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Two dice are thrown together.What is the probability that the sum of the number on the two faces is divisible by 4 or 6?
The possibilities are : (1,3)(1,5) (2,2) (2,4),(2,6),(3,1),(3,3), (3,5),(4,2),(4,4),(5,1),(5,3),(6,2),(6,6) thus we are able to get 14 out of 36. so answer = 7/18 answer
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Two cards are drawn at random from a pack of 52 cards What is the probability that either both are black or both are queens?
Both are black = 26/52 * 25/51=25/102 both are queens : 4/52 * 3/51=3/663 both are black queens : 2/52*1/51 = 1/1326 now add them : (25/102 + 3/663 1/1326) =(325+6-1)/1326 =330/1326 or .25 answer
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Two dices are tossed the probability that the total score is a prime number?
Prime numbers are : 1,2,3,5,7,11 totals are : (1,2),(1,1),(1,4),(1,6),(2,1),(2,3), (2,5),(3,2),(3,4),(4,1),(4,3),(5,2),(5,6),6,1),(6,5) =15/36 answer
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Two dice are thrown simultaneously .what is the probability of getting two numbers whose product is even?
If any one of the two numbers is an even number, the product will be even number. Thus we should pick up all those cases when both the numbers are odd numbers : (1,1),(1,3),(1,5),(3,1),(3,3),(3,5),(5,1),(5,3) (5,5) thus there are only 9 such cases. Remove them from 36, we get : 27 cases answer : 27/36 answer
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In a lottery ,there are 10 prizes and 25 blanks.A lottery is drawn at random. what is the probability of getting a prize ?
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In a class ,30 % of the students offered English,20 % offered Hindi and 10 %offered Both.If a student is offered at random, what is the probability that he has offered English or Hindi?
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Two cards are drawn from a pack of 52 cards .What is the probability that either both are Red or both are Kings?
Both are red * 25/51 both are king = 4/52 + 3/51 now add both these answers =55/221
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one card is drawn at random from a pack of 52 cards.What is the probability that the card drawn is a face card?
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A man and his wife appear in an interview for two vacancies in the same post.The probability of husband's selection is 1/7 and the probabililty of wife's selection is 1/5.What is the probabililty that only one of them is selected?
Husband + not wife =1/7 * 4/5 = 4/35 wife + not husband =1/5 * 6/7 = 6/35 add = 10/35 answer
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From a pack of 52 cards,one card is drawn at random.What is the probability that the card is a 10 or a spade?
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A bag contains 4 white balls ,5 red and 6 blue balls .Three balls are drawn at random from the bag.What is the probability that all of them are red ?
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A box contains 10 block and 10 white balls.What is the probability of drawing two balls of the same colour?
Both are black : 10/20 * 9/19 =9/38 +both are white : 10/20 * 9/19 =9/38 or black : 10c2 / 20c2 +white : 10c2 / 20c 2 =90/190
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A box contains 20 electricbulbs ,out of which 4 are defective, two bulbs are chosen at random from this box.What is the probability that at least one of these is defective ?
In such questions (at least one type), it is better to reverse the question, solve it and deduct the answer from 1. So here we shall first calculate the probability of getting no defective bulb. Let us assume that no bulb is defective : 16/20 * 15/19 = 12/19 at least one is defective = 1 -12/19 = 7/19 answer
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Two cards are drawn together from apack of 52 cards.What is the probability that one is a spade and one is a heart ?
First is spade and 2 heart : 13/52 * 13/51 = 13/204 n d First is heart and 2 spade : 13/52 * 13/51 = 13/204 add them : 13/102 answer
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n d
The probability that a card drawn from a pack of 52 cards will be a diamond or a king?
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What is hypothesis ?
What you think or what you want to check out or what you want to study is called hypothesis. We prepare two types of hypothesis : 1 null hypothesis (just opposite of what we think or what we are testing out) 2. alternate hypothesis (what we want to check out). We study and check null hypothesis only.
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Formula of PDF ?
((1/(sqrt(2)))*e^(x-m)^2 / (2^2)
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When you reject null hypothesis when it is actually correct, it is called type I error it is also called alpha
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When you accept null hypothesis when it is actually incorrect, it is called type II error
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Rejecting a null hypothesis for wrong reason is called type III error it is rarely used.
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Solution ....
N = 4, r = 3 p = .5 formula of combination = N! / ((N-r)! * r!) C = 4! / ((4-3)! * 3!) =24 / (1*6) = 4 4! = 4*3*2*1 = 24 Ncr = 4, p^r = (.5)^3 = .125 (1-p)^(n-r). = (1-.5)^(4-3) = .5 solution = 4*.125*.5 =.25 answer
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It is one of the discrete probability distribution. This distribution is used for calculating the possibilities for an event with the given average rate of value(). A poisson random variable(x) refers to the number of success in a poisson experiment.
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in an office 2 customers arrived today (take it as average). Calculate the possibilities for exactly 3 customers to be arrived on tomorrow.
Here (lembda) (mean arrival) = 2, & x (value to calculate) = 3 Step1: Find e^-. where, =2 and e=2.71828 e- = (2.718)^-2 = 0.135. Step2: Find ^x. where, =2 and x=3. x = 2^3 = 8. Step3: Find f(x). f(x) = e-x / x! f(3) = (0.135)(8) / 3! = 0.18.
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It is the error that you are willing to tolerate. Alpha is also denoted by type I error
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Y 8 4 2 1
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Solution
Formula = + / - sqrt ( + / - ((2c m) / m) ) c = number of positive signs as concurrent deviations m = totle number of pairs
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Solution
X Y dx dy dxdy 4 8 5 4 + - 6 2 + 8 1 + here m = 3, c = 0 (C is number of + signs in dxdy) = -sqrt (-(0-3) / 3) =- 1 so there is correlation of -1. answer
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Error = fluctuations standard deviation of mean is also called standard error of mean its formula = standard deviation / sqrt(n) n = number of items in sample
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Standard deviation of mean / (sqrt n) n = size of sample if population is finite, use finite population multiplier
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Why do we do sampling ?
When we are collecting any data there are two options 1. contact each unit and collect data from this called census 2. pick up only a few and on the basis of their response try to infer the response of the entire population called sampling sampling saves time, resources, but there is little bit possibility of error which can be minimised by systematic research process.
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Suppose that population is so divided that there are many clusters and each cluster is a mini representation of the entire population, then we can go for cluster sampling.
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The distribution (on graph paper) of the sample means is called sampling distribution of mean
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Govt data say that 65% of Indian students rent out their bikes. In a sample of 200 only 80 claimed to have rented out their bikes. Prepare null hypothesis and test it. Here we are compare data with 65% so Ho (null hypothesis) = .65 H1 = < .65 testing = (.4 - .65) / sqrt(200)
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y 11.5 8.5 20
23 17 40
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Question : 600 rich and 400 poor students take a test. Use chi square test to find whether their marks are significantly different or not ?
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CHI SQUARE STEP 1. find expected values for each of these values
The formula is =: (row total * column total)/grand total expected values are as under : H L R 420 180 600 P 280 120 400 TOT. 700 300 1000
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Step 2 : find difference between observed and expected values and square them up.
Formul a = (o e)^2 H L R 1600 1600 P 1600 1600
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Conclusion
We can conclude that null hypothesis is rejected and there seems to be significant difference between the two groups.
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Graphical presentation
Acceptan 3.84 ce zone Rejection zone 31. 75
0
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10% of the tools produced turn out to be defective. What is the probability that out of 10 tools chosen randomly, exactly 2 are defective ? Here we can use binomial distribution or poisson distribution to solve this problem. Let us solve using binomial distribution : formula : Ncr * p ^r * q^ (n-r) n = 10, r = 2, p = 10% or .1 q = (1-p) = (1-.1) = .9 c = combination formula
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Solution beginning
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45 * .0043 =.19 it means that there is 19% chance that exactly 2 tools are defective.
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m^x = 1^2 =1
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rd
X! = 2! = 2
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What is the probable error of coefficient of correlation for r =.6 and N = 64 also set limits ?
PE = .6745 (1-r^2) / sqrt(n) = .054 limits : .6+.054 and .6-.054 answer
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Download these...
http://www.esnips.com/web/onlinespeeches
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Download links...
Download links...
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Download links....
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Links
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Be
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ADDITIONAL LINKS
http://www.scribd.com/doc/6583303/Reasoning-Aft
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