282 1

Survey of
Historic Costume
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Survey of
Historic C
Phyllis G. Tortora
Queens College of the City University of New York
Keith Eubank
Queens College of the City University of New York
Fairchild Books New York
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c Costume
A History of Western Dress
FIFTH EDITION
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ExEcutivE Editor: Olga T. Kontzias AssistAnt Acquisitions Editor: Amanda Breccia EditoriAl dEvElopmEnt dirEctor: Jennifer Crane AssistAnt dEvElopmEnt Editor: Justine Brennan AssociAtE Art dirEctor: Erin Fitzsimmons production dirEctor: Ginger Hillman sEnior production Editor: Elizabeth Marotta copyEditor: Progressive Publishing Alternatives photo rEsEArch: Elizabeth Greenberg and Sarah Silberg nEw illustrAtions: Steve Stankiewicz covEr dEsign: Erin Fitzsimmons covEr Art: Craig McDean / Art + Commerce BAck covEr Art: Copyright The Frick Collection, New York; Young Woman with Servant, Stephen Slaughter, English, 1697 1765. Photograph courtesy, Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford. The Ella Gallup Sumner and Mary Caitlin Sumner Collection Fund; American Folk Art Museum, gift of the Siegman Trust, Ralph Esmerian, trustee, 2001.37.1/Photo by John Parnell. tExt dEsign And lAyout: Barbara J. Barg
Copyright 2010 Fairchild Books
All rights reserved. No part of this book covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any meansgraphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systemswithout written permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008936655 ISBN: 978-1-56367-806-6 GST R 133004424 Printed in the United States of America
TP08
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CONTENTS
Preface xix Acknowledgments xxi Some Notes on Using This Book xx Chapter One Introduction 1
Part ONe
the a ncient Wo r l d
Chapter Two Chapter Three Chapter Four
c . 3 0 0 0 b . c . a . d . 3 0 0
13
The Ancient Middle East c. 3500600 B.c. 19 Crete and Greece c. 2900300 B.c. 51 Etruria and Rome c. 800 B.c.A.d. 400 75
Part tWO
the Middle a g e s
Chapter Five Chapter Six
c. 3001500
99
The Early Middle Ages c. 3001300 107 The Late Middle Ages c. 13001500 145
Part three
the r enaissan c e
Chapter Seven Chapter Eight
c. 14001600
175
The Italian Renaissance c. 14001600 181 The Northern Renaissance c. 15001600 203
Part FOur
Baroque and r o c o c o
Chapter Nine Chapter Ten
c. 16001800
229
The Seventeenth Century 16001700 237 The Eighteenth Century 17001790 265
Part Five
the Nineteent h Ce n t u r y
Chapter Eleven Chapter Twelve Chapter Thirteen Chapter Fourteen
18001900
295
The Directoire Period and the Empire Period 17901820 307 The Romantic Period 18201850 327 The Crinoline Period 18501869 353 The Bustle Period and the Nineties 18701900 379
Part Six
From the twen t i e t h t o t h e tw e n t y - f i r s t Ce n t u r y

Chapter Fifteen Chapter Sixteen Chapter Seventeen Chapter Eighteen Chapter Nineteen
19002008
411
The Edwardian Period and World War I 19001920 417 The Twenties, Thirties, and World War II 19201947 447 The New Look: Fashion Conformity Prevails 19471960 495 The Sixties and Seventies: Style Tribes Emerge 19601980 529 The Eighties, the Nineties, and the Twenty-first Century 19802008 579
Bibliography 652 Credits 659 Index 661
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EXTENDED CONTENTS
Preface xix Acknowledgments xxi Some Notes on Using This Book xxv CHAPTER ONE Introduction 1 The Origins of Dress 1 Limitations to the Design of Garments 2 Common Themes in Costume History across Time 3 Functions of Dress in the Social Context 3 Clothing as a Means of Social Communication 5 The Historical Context 5 Cross-Cultural Influences 6 Geography, the Natural Environment, and Ecology 7 Clothing as an Art Form 7 The Phenomenon of Fashion in Western Dress 8 Sources of Evidence for the Study of Historic Costume 9 Summary 10 Notes 11 Selected Readings 11
PART ONE The Ancient World c. 3000 b.c. a.d. 300

Table I.1 Civilizations of the Ancient World Decorative Arts Table 14 CHAPTER TWO The Ancient Middle East c. 3500600 b.c. 19 Chronology 18 Historical Background: Mesopotamia 20 Historical Background: Egypt 20 Differences in the Development of Egyptian and Mesopotamian Civilizations 21 Mesopotamian Civilization 22 Social Structure 22
13
14
The Family 23 Fabrics and Cloth Production 23 Sources of Evidence about Sumerian Costume 23 Mesopotamian Costume/Sumerian Costume for Men and Women: c. 35002500 b.c. 24 Costume Components for Men and Women 24 Mesopotamian Costume/Later Sumerians and Babylonians: c. 25001000 b.c. 24 Costume Components for Men/Military Dress: c. 25001000 b.c. 25 Costume Components for Men/Civilian Dress: c. 25001000 b.c. 26 Costume Components for Women: c. 25001000 b.c. 26 Mesopotamian Costume/Later Babylonians and the Assyrians: c. 1000600 b.c. 27 The Tunic 28 Costume Components for Men: c. 1000600 b.c. 28 Costume Components for Men/Military Dress 29 Costume Components for Women: c. 1000600 b.c. 29 Mesopotamian Costume for Children: c. 3500600 b.c. 30 Egyptian Civilization 30 Social Structure 30 Sources of Evidence for the Study of Egyptian Costume 31 Egyptian Art 31 The Contents of Tombs 31 Egyptian Decorative Motifs 32 Contributions of Artisans to Costume 32 Textile Production and Technology 32 Jewelry 33 Egyptian Costume: c. 3000300 b.c. 33 Costume Terminology 34 Table 2.1 Garments Worn by Egyptian Men and Women during Various Historical Periods 34
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Egyptian Costume for Men: c. 3000300 b.c. 35 Costume Components for Men 35 Contemporary Comments 2.1 35 Egyptian Costume for Women: 3000300 b.c. 38 Costume Components for Women 38 Costume Components for Men and Women 41 Egyptian Costume for Children: 3000300 b.c. 43 Illustrated Table 2.1 Some of the Headdresses Worn in Ancient Egypt 44 Egyptian Costume for Specialized Occupations 45 Military Costume 45 Religious Costume 45 Costume for Musicians, Dancers, and Acrobats 45 Summary 45 Themes 45 Visual summary Table 46 Later Survivals of Mesopotamian and Egyptian Dress 47 Notes 48 Selected Readings 48 CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece c. 2900300 b.c. 51 Chronology 50 Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations 52 Historical Background 52 Social Organization and Material Culture of Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations 52 Art and Technology of Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations 53 Minoan Costume for Men and Women: 29001100 b.c. 53 Costume Components for Men and Women 54 Minoan Costume for Children: 29001100 b.c. 57 Transitions in the Dominant Styles 57 Greek Civilization 57 Historical Background 57 Social Organization of the Greek Civilization 58 Fabrics and Cloth Production 60 Sources of Evidence for the Study of Greek Costume 61 Greek Art 61
Greek Costume for Men and Women: 650300 b.c. 62 Table 3.1 Types of Chitons Worn by Greek Men and Women 62 Costume Components for Men and Women 63 Contemporary Comments 3.1 64 Illustrated Table 3.1 Examples of Hairstyles and Headdress Worn by Men and Women in Greece 66 Greek Costume for Children: 650300 b.c. 67 Costume Components for Children 68 Greek Costume for Specialized Occupations or Occasions 68 Wedding Dress 68 Contemporary Comments 3.2 69 Military Costume 69 Theatrical Costume 70 Summary 70 Themes 70 Visual summary Table 71 Later Survivals of Greek Dress 72 Notes 72 Selected Readings 73 CHAPTER FOUR Etruria and Rome c. 800 b.c.a.d. 400 75 Chronology 74 The Etruscans 76 Historical Background 76 Social Life of the Etruscans 76 Art and Trade of the Etruscans 77 Etruscan Costume for Men and Women: c. 800200 b.c. 77 Costume Components for Men and Women 77 Etruscan Costume for Children: c. 800200 b.c. 80 The Romans 80 Historical Background 80 Social Life in the Roman Empire 81 Fabrics and Clothing Production 81 Sources of Evidence for the Study of Roman Costume 82 Roman Costume for Men and Women 83 The Toga 83
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Table 4.1 The Appearance and Significance of Various Types of Togas 83 Contemporary Comments 4.1 85 Costume Components for Men: 500 b.c.a.d. 400 87 Costume Components for Women: 500 b.c.a.d. 400 87 Costume Components for Men and Women: 500 b.c.a.d. 400 90 Illustrated Table 4.1 Examples of Hairstyles and Headdress Worn by Men and Women during the Roman Empire 91 Roman Costume for Children: 500 b.c.a.d. 400 92 Military Costume for Men during the Roman Empire 92 Roman Costume for Special Events 93 The Synthesis 93 Bridal Costume 93 Religious Garb 93 Changes in Costume during the Declining Years of the Roman Empire 93 Summary 94 Differences between Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Costume 94 Themes in Etruscan and Roman Dress 94 Visual Summary Table 95 Survivals of Etruscan and Roman Dress 95 Notes 96 Selected Readings 96
PART TWO The Middle Ages c. 3001500

Decorative Arts Table 104
99
CHAPTER FIVE The Early Middle Ages c. 3001300 107 Chronology 106 The Byzantine Period c. 3391453 108 Historical Background 108 Social Organization in the Byzantine Period 109 Culture, Art, and Technology in the Byzantine Period 109
Byzantine Costume for Men: a.d. 3001450 110 Costume Components for Men 110 Byzantine Costume for Women: a.d. 3001453 113 Costume Components for Women 113 Byzantine Costume for Men and Women: a.d. 3001450 114 Costume Components for Men and Women 114 Western Europe from the Fall of the Roman Empire to a.d. 900 115 Historical Background: The Fall of the Roman Empire 115 Historical Background: The Merovingian and Carolingian Dynasties 115 Sources of Evidence about Costume 116 Costume in Western Europe: Fall of the Roman Empire to a.d. 900 116 The Production of Cloth 116 Costume for Men: The Merovingian and Carolingian Dynasties 117 Costume Components for Men: The Merovingian Period 117 Costume Components for Men: The Carolingian Period 117 ConTemporary CommenTs 5.1 118 Costume for Women: The Merovingian and Carolingian Dynasties 118 Costume Components for Women: The Merovingian Period 118 Costume Components for Women: The Carolingian Period 119 Clerical Costume in the Early Middle Ages 119 Dress of Priests 119 Monastic Dress 120 Historical Background: The 10th13th Centuries 121 The Feudal Monarchies 121 Political Developments in Europe: 9001300 122 The German Dynasties 122 Anglo-Saxon and Norman Britain 123 The French Kings 123 Factors Related to Developments in Costume 123 The Crusades 123 Medieval Castles and Courts 124
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Town Life 124 Early Indications of Fashion Changes 124 Fabric Production 124 Art 125 Costume in the 10th and 11th Centuries 126 Costume Components for Men: 10th and 11th Centuries 126 Costume Components for Women: 10th and 11th Centuries 128 Costume for Men and Women: 12th Century 129 Costume Components for Men: 12th Century 130 Costume Components for Women: 12th Century 131 Problems of Costume Terminology in the 13th Century 132 Contemporary Comments 5.2 133 Table 5.1 Old English and French Costume Terms 134 Costume in the 13th Century 135 Costume Components for Men: 13th Century 135 Costume for Women: 13th Century 137 Accessories of Dress for Men and Women: 10th13th Centuries 138 Military Costume 138 Visual Summary Table 140 Summary 141 Themes 141 Origins, Developments, and Survivals of Byzantine and Early Medieval Styles 141 Notes 142 Selected Readings 143 CHAPTER SIX The Late Middle Ages c. 1300 1500 145 Chronology 144 Historical Background 146 Medieval Social Structure 147 The Peasant 147 The Nobility 147 The Bourgeoisie 148 Contemporary Comments 6.1 149 Fabrics and Tailors 149 Sources of Evidence for the Study of Costume 150 Art 150 Documentary Sources 150
Fashion Change Becomes Evident 151 Costume for Men: 14th Century 151 Costume Components for Men: 14th Century 151 Costume for Women: 14th Century 155 Costume Components for Women: 14th Century 155 Illustrated Table 6.1 Late Middle Ages Accessories 156 Costume for Men and Women: 15th Century 158 Costume for Men: 15th Century 158 Contemporary Comments 6.2 159 Costume for Women: 15th Century 162 Illustrated Table 6.2 Evolution and Styles of 15th-Century Headdress for Women 167 Costume for Children: 14th and 15th Centuries 168 Dress for Rites of Passage 168 Costume for Specialized Occupations 169 Student Dress 169 Military Dress 169 Summary 170 Themes 170 Visual Summary Table 171 Survivals of Styles from the Late Middle Ages 172 Notes 172 Selected Readings 173
PART THREE The Renaissance c. 14001600

Decorative Arts Table 178
175
CHAPTER SEVEN The Italian Renaissance c. 14001600 181 Chronology 180 Historical Background 182 The Political Organization in Renaissance Italy 182 Life in Renaissance Italy 182 The Production and Acquisition of Textiles 183 The Cloth Industries in Renaissance Italy 183 The Manufacture and Acquisition of Clothing 184 Cross-Cultural Influences from the Middle East 184 Sources of Evidence about Costume 184 ConTemporary CommenTs 7.1 185 Costume for Men and Women: 14001600 185 Costume for Men: 14001450 185 Costume for Women: 14001450 185
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Costume for Men: 14501500 187 Costume for Women: 14501500 189 Costume for Men and Women: 16th Century 192 Costume for Men: 16th Century 192 Costume for Women: 16th Century 193 Illustrated Table 7.1 Italian Renaissance: Accessories 194 Regional Distinctions in Costume for Men and Women: 15th and 16th Centuries 195 Distinctive Venetian Costume for Women 195 Distinctive Venetian Costume for Men 195 Contemporary Comments 7.2 196 Venetian Dress for Officials 197 Costume for Children During the Italian Renaissance 197 Summary 198 Themes 198 Visual Summary Table 199 Survival of Italian Renaissance Styles 200 Notes 200 Selected Readings 201 CHAPTER EIGHT The Northern Renaissance c. 15001600 203 Chronology 202 Historical Background 204 Developments in Germany 204 Developments in Spain 204 Developments in England 205 Developments in France 205 Factors in the Dissemination of Fashion Information 206 Table 8.1 Royal Intermarriages during the 16th Century 206 Cross-Cultural Influences from the Middle East 206 Textiles 207 Changes in Technology 207 Decorative Techniques of the 16th Century 207 Sources of Evidence for the Study of Costume 208 Art 208 Documentary Sources 208 Actual Garments 208 Costume for Men and Women: 16th Century 208 Costume for Men: 15001515 208
Costume for Men: 15151550 210 Costume for Men: 15501600 211 Contemporary Comments 8.1 214 Costume for Women: 16th Century 214 Costume for Women: 15001530 215 Costume for Women in Germany: 15301575 215 Costume for Women in Other Northern European Countries: 15301575 216 Costume Components for Women: 15751600 219 Costume Accessories for Men and Women: 16th Century 220 Illustrated Table 8.1 Northern Renaissance: Accessories 221 Costume for Children: 16th Century 223 Summary 224 Themes 224 Visual Summary Table 225 Survivals of 16th Century Dress 226 Notes 226 Selected Readings 226
PART FOUR Baroque and Rococo c. 16001800
229
The Arts During the Baroque and Rococo Periods 229 Expanding Trade with the Far East 230 The Cotton Trade with India 231 The Industrial Revolution 232 The Consumer Society and the Acceleration of Fashion Change 232 Notes 233 Decorative Arts Table 234 CHAPTER NINE The Seenteenth Century 16001700 237 Chronology 236 Historical Background 238 France 238 England 239 Social Life During the 17th Century 239 The French Court 239 England 240 Holland 240 America 240
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Some Distinctive Costume Traditions 241 Puritan Costume 241 Spanish Costume 242 Production and Acquisition of Textiles and Clothing 242 Sources of Evidence of Historic Costume 243 Costume for Men: 17th Century 244 Costume for Men: 16251650 244 Table 9.1 Terms Describing Mens Trouser-type Garments: 16th Century to 19th Century 245 Costume for Men: 16501680 247 Contemporary Comments 9.1 249 Costume for Men: 16801710 250 Costume for Women: 17th Century 251 Costume for Women: 16301660 251 Illustrated Table 9.1 17th-century Accessories 252 Costume for Women: 16601680 254 Costume for Women: 16801700 255 Costume for Men and Women: 17th Century 256 Contemporary Comments 9.2 257 Costume for Children: 17th Century 258 Costume Components for Children 259 Summary 260 Themes 260 Visual Summary Table 261 Survivals of 17th Century Styles 262 Notes 263 Selected Readings 263 CHAPTER TEN The Eighteenth Century 17001790 265 Chronology 264 Historical Background 266 The Arts 266 Social Life in 18th-century France 267 Contemporary Comments 10.1 268 Social Life of the Affluent in 18th-century England 268 Production and Acquisition of Clothing and Textiles 269 Advances in Textile Technology 269 Home versus Factory Production of Cloth Clothing Manufacture and Sale 269
Sources of Information about Costume 270 The American Colonies in the 18th Century 270 Urban Clothing Styles 270 Working-class and Rural Dress 270 Some Influences on Costume in the 18th Century 271 Costume for Men: 18th Century 271 Costume for Men: Up to Mid-18th Century 272 Contemporary Comments 10.2 273 Changes in Mens Costume After the Mid-18th Century 274 Costume for Men: After the Mid-18th Century 275 Illustrated Table 10.1 18th-Century Accessories 278 Costume for Women: 18th Century 279 Costume for Women: 17151730 280 Costume for Women: 17301760 281 Costume for Women: 17601790 282 Contemporary Comments 10.3 283 Other Costume Components for Women: The 18th Century 284 Illustrated Table 10.2 Typical Womens Hairstyles and Headdress in the 18th Century 286 Costumes for Active Sports for Men and Women: The 18th Century 287 Costume for Children: The 18th Century 287 First Half of the 18th Century 287 Second Half of the 18th Century 288 Summary 290 Themes 290 Visual Summary Table 291 Survivals of 18th Century Dress 292 Notes 292 Selected Readings 293
PART FIVE The Nineteenth Century 18001900

Historical Background 295 France 295 England 295 Italy and Austria 295 The United States 296 Industrialization 299
295
269
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Cross-Cultural Influences on Fashion 299 Textiles from India 299 Resumption of Trade with Japan 300 Morality and Values in the 19th Century 301 Dress Reform for Women 302 Changes in Clothing for Men 302 The End of an Age 303 Notes 303 Decorative Arts Table 304 CHAPTER ELEVEN The Directoire Period and the Empire Period 17901820 307 Chronology 306 Historical Background 308 France: The Revolution and the Directory 308 France: The Empire 310 England 311 Contemporary Comments 11.1 312 The United States 313 The Arts and Costume Styles of the Period 313 The Revolution in Mens Clothes 314 Production and Acquisition of Clothing and Textiles 314 Sources of Information about Costume 315 Costume for Women: Directoire and Empire Periods 315 Illustrated Table 11.1 Typical Womens Hairstyles and Headdress in the Empire Period 318 Costume for Men: Directoire and Empire Periods 319 Illustrated Table 11.2 Empire Period: Accessories 320 Costume for Children: The Empire Period 323 Costume for Girls 323 Costume for Boys 323 Summary 323 Themes 323 Visual Summary Table 324 Survivals of Empire Style Costume 324 Notes 324 Selected Readings 325
CHAPTER TWELVE The Romantic Period 18201850 327 Chronology 326 Historical Background 328 England 328 France 328 The United States 329 Womens Social Roles and Clothing Styles 330 Manufacture and Acquisition of Clothing and Textiles 330 Sources of Evidence about Costume 330 Costume for Women: The Romantic Period 331 Costume for Women: 18201835 331 Costume for Women: 18361850 335 Illustrated Table 12.1 Examples of Womens Hairstyles and Headdress: 18201850 337 Costume Components for Women: 18201850 338 Illustrated Table 12.2 Romantic Period: Accessories 339 Costume for Men: The Romantic Period 340 Costume for Men: 18201840 340 Costume for Men: 18401850 342 Costume for Men: 18201850 343 Costume for Children: The Romantic Period 344 Costume Components for Girls 345 Costume Components for Boys 345 Contemporary Comments 12.1 346 Clothing for Slaves in North America 347 Summary 348 Themes 348 Visual Summary Table 349 Survivals of Romantic Period Costume Styles 350 Notes 350 Selected Readings 351 CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Crinoline Period 18501869 353 Chronology 352 Historical Background 354 Worth and the Paris Couture 354 England 354 France 354
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The United States 355 Contemporary Comments 13.1 357 Production of Clothing: The Sewing Machine 358 Early Attempts at Dress Reform: The Bloomer Costume 358 Gymnastics for Women 359 Sources of Evidence about Costume 359 Costume for Men and Women: The Crinoline Period 360 Costume for Women: 18501870 361 Illustrated Table 13.1 Selected Undergarments for Women, Men, and Children: 18501870 364 Illustrated Table 13.2 Typical Womens Hairstyles and Headdress: 18501870 368 Illustrated Table 13.3 Accessories: Crinoline Period, 18501870 369 Costume for Men: 18501870 370 Costume for Children: The Crinoline Period 372 Costume for Boys and Girls: 18501870 372 Costume for Boys: After Age 5 or 6 373 Summary 374 Themes 374 Visual Summary Table 375 Survivals of Crinoline Period Costume Styles 376 Notes 377 Selected Readings 377 CHAPTER FOURTEEN The Bustle Period and the Nineties 18701900 379 Chronology 378 Historical Background: 18701890 380 Historical Background: 18901900 380 Social Life: 18701900 380 Sports for Women 381 The Manufacture and Acquisition of Clothing and Textiles 381 Textile Technology 381 Ready-to-Wear Clothing 382 Merchandising of Ready-to-Wear 383 The Visual Arts and Costume 383 Aesthetic Dress 383 Art Nouveau 384
Sources of Evidence about Costume 384 Costume for Women: The Bustle Period, 18701890 385 General Features of Womens Costume: 18701890 385 Contemporary Comments 14.1 385 Specific Features of Womens Dress Styles during Different Phases of the Bustle Period 387 Illustrated Table 14.1 Selected Undergarments for Women, Men, and Children: 18701900 388 Illustrated Table 14.2 Selected Hats and Hairstyles for Women: 18701900 394 Illustrated Table 14.3 Selected Footwear for Women and Men: 18701900 395 Costume for Women: The Nineties 396 Costume Components for Women 396 Illustrated Table 14.4 Bustle Period and Nineties Accessories: 18701900 398 Costume for Men: 18701900 401 Costume for Children: 18701900 403 Costume Components for Girls 403 Costume Components for Boys 404 Costume for Boys and Girls 404 Table 14.1 Typical Stages in the Acquisition of Adult Clothing in the Late 19th Century 405 Mourning Costume in the Second Half of the 19th Century 405 Summary 406 Themes 406 Visual Summary Table 407 Survivals of Bustle and Nineties Costume Styles 408 Notes 408 Selected Readings 409
PART SIX From the Twentieth to the Twenty-first Century 19002008 411
Art and Costume 412 Globalization of Fashion 413 New Media Depict Dress 413 Decorative Arts Table 414
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CHAPTER FIFTEEN The Edwardian Period and World War I 19001920 417 Chronology 416 Historical Background 418 The United States 418 Great Britain and France at the Turn of the Century 418 World War I 418 The Effect of the War on Fashions 419 Influences on Fashion 419 The French Couture and Paul Poiret 419 Contemporary Comments 15.1 420 Fortuny 421 Oriental Influences on Art and Fashion 422 The Changing Social Roles of American Women 422 The Automobile 423 American High Society 424 The Production and Acquisition of Clothing 424 Sources of Information About Costume 424 Costume for Women: 19001920 424 Costume Components for Women: 19001908 424 Illustrated Table 15.1 Selected Undergarments for Women, Men, and Children: 19001920 426 Illustrated Table 15.2 Selected Hairstyles and Hats for Women: 19001920 429 Illustrated Table 15.3 Selected Examples of Footwear for Women: 19001920 430 Illustrated Table 15.4 Accessories: 19001920 431 Costume for Women: 19091914 432 Costume for Women: 19141918 434 Costume for Women: 19181920 436 Costume for Men: 19001920 437 Costume for Children: 19001920 441 Costume for Girls 441 Costume for Boys 442 Costume for Boys and Girls 442 Summary 443 Themes 443 Survivals of Edwardian and World War I Styles 443 Visual Summary Table 444 Notes 445 Selected Readings 445
CHAPTER SIXTEEN The Twenties, Thirties, and World War II 19201947 447 Chronology 446 Historical Background 448 The Twenties 448 Changes in the Social Life of the Twenties 449 The Thirties 450 Contemporary Comments 16.1 450 World War II 451 Some Influences on Fashions 451 The Movies 451 Contemporary Comments 16.2 452 Royalty and Cafe Society 454 Sports 454 The Automobile 454 Production and Acquisition of Textiles and Clothing 454 Technological Developments Affecting Fashion 454 The French Couture 455 American Designers 457 Table 16.1 Designers of the French Couture: 19201947 458 Thtre de la Mode 461 Art Movements and Their Influence on Fashion 462 Art Deco 462 Surrealism 462 Sources of Information about Costume 462 Costume for Women: 19201947 462 Costume for Women: 19201930 462 Illustrated Table 16.1 Selected Undergarments for Women, Men, and Boys: 19201947 464 Illustrated Table 16.2 Selected Hairstyles and Hats for Women: 19201947 468 Costume for Women: 19301947 469 Illustrated Table 16.3 Selected Examples of Footwear for Women: 19201947 471 Costume for Women: 19201947 474 Illustrated Table 16.4 Accessories: 19201947 479 Costume for Men: 19201947 480 Costume for Children: 19201947 487
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Costume for Girls 487 Costume for Boys 487 Costume for Boys and Girls 488 Illustrated Table 16.5 Childrens Clothing Styles: 19201938 489 Costume for the Teenage Market 490 Summary 490 Themes 490 Visual Summary Table 491 Survivals of Styles of the 1920s and 1930s 492 Notes 492 Selected Readings 493 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN The New Look: Fashion Conformity Preails 19471960 495 Chronology 494 Historical Background 496 International Developments: 19471960 496 The United States: 19471960 497 Influences on Fashion 499 The Silent Generation Moves to the Suburbs 499 Fashion Influences from the Young 499 The Impact of Television 500 Internationalism 500 Production and Acquisition of Clothing and Textiles 502 The Fabric Revolution 502 The Changing Couture 502 The American Mass Market 504 Table 17.1 Influential Paris-Based Designers, 19471960 504 New Centers of Fashion Design 505 Costume for Women: 19471960 505 Table 17.2 Some Major American Fashion Designers Who Came to Prominence during World War II and Were Important in the 1950s 506 Style Features of the New Look 507 Costume for Women: 19471954 507 Contemporary Comments 17.1 508 Illustrated Table 17.1 Selected Undergarments for Women, Men, and Boys: 19471960 509
Illustrated Table 17.2 Typical Hats for Women: 19471960 515 Illustrated Table 17.3 Selected Examples of Popular Footwear: 19471960 516 Illustrated Table 17.4 Accessories: 19471960 517 Signs of Silhouette Changes: 19541960 518 Costume for Men: 19471960 519 Clothing for Active Sports 522 Costume for Children: 19471960 523 Costume for Infants and Preschool Children 523 Costume Components for Girls 523 Illustrated Table 17.5 Childrens Clothing Styles: 19471960 524 Costume for Boys 524 Costume for Boys and Girls 524 Summary 525 Themes 525 Survival of New Look Styles 525 Visual Summary Table 526 Notes 527 Selected Readings 527 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN The Sixties and Seenties: Style Tribes Emerge 19601980 529 Chronology 528 Historical Background 530 Europe and the Soviet Union 530 The Middle East 530 Africa and the End of Colonialism 530 The Emergence of Japan as an Economic Power 530 The United States 531 The Impact of Social Change on Fashion 535 Style Tribes and Street Styles 535 Some Style Tribes of 19601980 535 The Womens Movement 538 The Civil Rights Movement 539 Other Influences in Fashion 539 The White House Influences Styles 539 Table 18.1 Some Media Influences on Fashion: 19601980 540 Political Events 541
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The Space Age 541 The Fine Arts 542 Ethnic Looks 543 The Changing Fashion Industry 543 Increasing Variety in Fashion Segments 543 Attempts to Curb Fashion Changes 544 Changes in Fashion Design 544 Contemporary Comments 18.1 545 Labeling and Licensing 546 Designers of Mens Clothing 546 Costume for Women: 19601980 546 Table 18.2 Influential Designers in Paris and Other Fashion Centers: 19601980 547 Costume for Women: 19601974 550 Illustrated Table 18.1 Selected Undergarments for Women and Men: 19601980 551 Illustrated Table 18.2 Typical Hats and Hairstyles for Women: 19601980 558 Illustrated Table 18.3 Selected Examples of Popular Footwear for Women and Men: 19601980 559 Illustrated Table 18.4 Accessories: 19601980 560 The Introduction of the Midi: 19701974 561 Changes in Costume for Women: 19741980 562 Contemporary Comments 18.2 563 Costume for Men: 19601980 567 Costume for Children: 19601980 572 Infants and Toddlers 572 Preschool and School-Age Children 572 Costume for Girls 572 Illustrated Table 18.5 Childrens Clothing Styles: 19601980 573 Costume for Boys 574 Costume for Boys and Girls 574 Summary 574 Themes 574 Visual Summary Table 575 Survivals of Styles of 19601980 576 Notes 576 Selected Readings 576
CHAPTER NINETEEN The Eighties, the Nineties, and the Twenty-first Century 19802008 579 Chronology 578 Historical Background: International 580 The Cold War Ends 580 Progress Continues toward European Union 580 The Middle East 580 Japanese Economic Influences 581 Historical Background: United States 582 Political and Economic Developments 582 Energy and Environmental Issues 583 The Changing American Family 585 Changes in the Roles of Women 586 The Computer Revolution 586 The New Immigrants 587 AIDS 588 The Fashion Industry Undergoes Changes 589 Table 19.1 Some Style Tribes and Their Impact on Mainstream Fashion 590 Postmodernism 592 Elements of the Fashion System 592 The Role of Haute Couture in the 1980s and 1990s 593 Ready-to-Wear 594 Table 19.2 Some Prominent Designers Working in Paris and Other Fashion Centers: 19802008 596 Changes in the Production and Retailing of Apparel 598 Table 19.3 Some American Designers Who Became Prominent in the Period 19802008 600 The Origins of Major Fashion Trends of 19802008 602 Retro Fashions 602 Contemporary Comments 19.1 603 Various Social Groups Influence Fashion 604 Current Events 607 The Media as Fashion Influences 608 Table 19.4 Some Media Influences on Fashion: 19802008 609 Influences from the Fine Arts 610
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Demographic Changes 610 Contemporary Comments 19.2 611 The Trend to Casual Dress 612 High-Tech Fabrics 612 Contemporary Comments 19.3 614 Fashionable Fabrics 615 Sports and Activewear 615 Costume Components for Women: 19801995 616 Illustrated Table 19.1 Selected Undergarments for Women and Men: 19802008 619 Illustrated Table 19.2 Typical Hairstyles and Headcoverings for Women and Men: 19802008 624 Illustrated Table 19.3 Selected Examples of Popular Footwear for Women, Men, and Children: 19802008 626 Costume Components for Women: 19952008 627 Illustrated Table 19.4 Accessories: 19802008 629
Costume Components for Men: 19742008 635 Costume for Children: 19802008 641 Infants and Preschool-Age Children 641 School-Age Children: Trends Affecting Boys and Girls 642 Costume Components for Girls 643 Costume Components for Boys 643 Illustrated Table 19.5 Childrens Clothing Styles: 19802008 644 Summary 646 Visual Summary Table 647 New Views of Fashion 648 Notes 650 Selected Readings 651 Bibliography 652 Credits 659 Index 661
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PREFACE
ith each new edition of a book some elements of that book change. And those changes may provide an opportunity to focus on some aspect that adds to the usefulness of the publication. Survey of Historic Costume has, from its beginnings, taken seriously the need to accompany the text with appropriate illustrations. The history of costume is in major part a visual history. In this fifth edition, the major change is the incorporation of full color throughout the book. Although a separate color section has been a feature of previous editions, having the color illustrations throughout the book enriches the text and the concepts. Survey of Historic Costume is intended for use as a basic text for readers who desire an overview of the history of costume in the West. We continue to emphasize A History of Western Dress so that readers will recognize that the book focuses on historic costume in the Western world and makes no attempt to survey the vast topic of historic costume in all parts of the world. Our purpose is to present a survey of this vast subject rather than an infinitely detailed picture. At the same time, it is our intention to make that picture as complete as possible within the limitations of space. All chapters after the introduction of chapter 1 begin with a chronology of important events during the time period covered in the chapter. A new element in this edition is the inclusion of illustrations that relate to aspects of some of the items in the chronology. These photographs are joined to the relevant events with a dotted line. Six other groups of photographs are located in Decorative and Fine Arts Tables, which appear at the end of each of the six parts into which the book is divided. These illustrations provide a sense of the aesthetic context that surrounded individuals living at this time. The objects shown range from textiles of the period, furniture, domestic and monumental architecture to sculpture and paintings by some of the greatest
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artists of the era. Taken together, these new color features will help the reader enter more fully into these periods of Western history. Dress of each era must be viewed within the context of the period. To assist readers who may have a limited background in history, a brief summary of the major historical developments related to the chapter is provided. Clothing is a part of the basic equipment for everyday life, and so in each chapter brief note is made of some of the important aspects of the life of the people of the time. Where the arts, specific individuals, events, or societal values can be seen to influence styles, these are discussed. The technology and economy of the production and distribution of fabrics often influence clothing; therefore, changes in technology for the making of cloth and clothes and in the economic systems of production and distribution are noted where appropriate. As the fashion industry becomes more complex in the 20th century, changes in its organization and function are stressed. After the setting has been delineated, specific styles of each period worn by men, by women, and by children are described. Organization and contents are parallel in all chapters, and all elements of dress, ranging from undergarments to accessories, are included for every period. In this way a rather detailed picture of costume can be provided even within the space limitations imposed on a single volume. We also believe that it is important for readers to have depictions of costume from original source materials available not only to illustrate some of the unfamiliar terms, but also to supplement the general, survey approach of the text. The captions of the illustrations not only identify various parts of the costume and provide the contemporary names for elements of the styles, but also identify the aspects of the pictures that provide supporting evidence to the costume historian of the nature of costume at this period. The material in the
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Preface
captions of illustrations is as important as the contents of the book and should be read as carefully as the text. Tables and illustrated tables are utilized throughout the book in an attempt to summarize material briefly and effectively. Each chapter includes at least one box in which comments from contemporary sources on some aspect of clothing are reproduced. These quotations are intended to provide readers with a flavor of the attitudes toward clothing that individuals of the period held as well as contemporary descriptions. Historic costume reference books and materials (particularly for some of the early periods where actual records are confusing, contradictory, and scarce) show marked differences in terminology and content. We have attempted to present as accurate a summary as possible and one that we hope is free from the tendency to present largely apocryphal stories of the origins of styles as fact. When such material is introduced, it is clearly labeled as questionable or as legend. In this text, the terms clothes and clothing are synonymous and mean wearing apparel. Dress is a general term that includes not only garments, but also aspects of personal appearance that can be changed, such as grooming. Style is the predominant form of dress of any given period or culture. Styles may persist for very long or shorter periods of time. Fashion is synonymous with style after the latter part of the Medieval Period but implies styles of relatively short duration. Costume is used as a synonym for dress by those who work in the museum field and by many scholars who study historic dress. Some scholars prefer the use of the word dress because to many people costume means dress used in the theater or in dance or for masquerade. Bibliographies at the end of each chapter are intended to serve three purposes. They list books that contain a good cross section of illustrations of original source materials for costumes of the period covered in that chapter. They identify books that provide a more complete picture of life in the period covered so that those who desire can learn more about the period. Finally, periodical articles dealing with costume or related topics are cited. The purpose of including such articles is to introduce students to some of the journals that are sources of further information about cos-
tume and also to provide some of the detailed analyses of costume topics that are not possible in a text that surveys so broad a topic. A bibliography at the end of the book lists some of the many books written about historic costume, organized by topic. This bibliography does not duplicate materials listed at the end of each chapter, nor does it include books dealing with techniques of theatrical costuming or sociocultural aspects of dress. Several tools have been provided for readers. Each chapter contains a chronology listing important dates and events in the order in which they occurred. Many of the words for items of historic costume are not English terms. Where the pronunciation of these terms is not obvious, a phonetic pronunciation of the word is provided in parentheses just after the word. New features in this edition are many. The text and illustrations have been updated to 2008. The results of recent research have been incorporated in the text where they are relevant. New illustrations have been added throughout. The most important of these are the Visual Summary Tables that present a visual and verbal summary for each chapter. The idea of recurring themes or concepts in dress introduced in the third edition continues, as do the sections that identify and illustrate later revivals of styles from each period. The index is organized so that it can be utilized as a glossary of terms. Terms printed in boldface type are defined within the text; the page numbers printed in bold type immediately after these words in the index are the pages on which these words are defined or explained. Two supplementary publications are available for those using this book as an academic textbook. One is an Instructors Guide, the other is a PowerPoint. Both can be obtained from the publisher. The Instructors Guide provides information about sources of DVD and video materials that complement and amplify this book and Web sites that provide information about costume, as well as suggested teaching strategies and evaluative techniques. The PowerPoint program is an interactive visual presentation. Beginning with early civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt and ending in 2008, the
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Preface
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program parallels the organization of the book as it reviews the geographic, economic, and artistic context for each culture and period in the history of Western dress. Visuals provide users with a wide array of primary source images from all periods in combination with drawings and diagrams showing the structure of clothing, and photographs of actual garments. A special feature is the inclusion of links to the Internet for additional visuals and further research and study.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
No person, even after a lifetime of study, can be expected to be knowledgeable in all aspects of historic costume solely on the basis of his or her own research. Fortunately there are many individuals who have specialized in certain countries or periods and whose work has been invaluable in the preparation of a broad survey of this type. It is important that these sources be given special acknowledgment beyond a citation in footnotes or a listing in the bibliography. Elizabeth Barbers books on prehistoric textiles, which contain both the results of the most recent scholarship and her interesting insights, were very useful. For materials dealing with costume of the ancient world, the books of Mary Houston and Lillian Wilson were of inestimable help, while the work of Gillian Vogelsang-Eastwood on Egyptian dress and of Judith Sebesta and Larissa Bonfante (editors) on Roman dress added new information. The work of Larissa Bonfante served as a basis for much of the material on Etruscan costume and related Greek styles. For the Medieval Period, Joan Evanss work on costume of the Middle Ages and the fine handbook by Phillis and Cecil Willet Cunnington were invaluable. Goddards work on French costume of the 11th and 12th centuries also provided useful information, as did works by Piponnier and Mane and by Koslin and Snyder. A recent addition to scholarship about the Middle Ages that is helpful in understanding the beginnings of fashion change is Sarah-Grace Hellers Fashion in Medieval France. Elizabeth Birbiris fine study of Italian Renaissance costume provided not only detailed information but a wealth of excellent illustrative materials, as did the
work of Heard. For the 16th through the 19th centuries, the several volumes of handbooks on costume by the Cunningtons, and that by Mrs. Cunnington and Alan Mansfield for the 20th century, were among the most useful of the materials cited. Not only were they a superlative source for detailed information, but they were also a helpful tool for cross-checking conflicting information. For menswear of the 20th century, the Esquire Encyclopedia of 20th Century Mens Fashion was by far the most useful secondary source an author or researcher could find with its wealth of detailed information quoted directly from the fashion press and its many illustrations from the periods covered in this book. For womens fashions in the 20th century, probably the most extensive reference prepared to date is Vogue History of 20th Century Fashion. For information about fashion designers, Whos Who in Fashion, fourth edition, by Anne Stegemeyer was invaluable. Underclothing has been thoroughly illustrated and explored in the books by C. W. Cunnington, Nora Waugh, and Elizabeth Ewing. Waughs work is especially helpful in its inclusion of quotations from the literature of various periods concerning different types of undergarments. For some specialized material in the area of bathing costume, Claudia Kidwells monograph was useful, as was the work she and Marjorie Christman did on American ready-to-wear. The works of Franois Boucher and Millia Davenport should be noted for their wealth of illustrative material drawn from sources from the various periods, although we recommend that readers approach these books armed with a magnifying glass. A number of scholars have explored the many complex changes that fashion has undergone in the 20th and 21st centuries. We note particularly the work of Ted Polhemus, Amy de la Haye, and Cathie Dingwall on style tribes, Diana Cranes insightful work on the contemporary fashion system, as well Valerie Steeles corpus of work. Books on subjects related to fashion and fashion design in the recent past have proliferated. There are too many to cite specifically.
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Preface
Having begun by citing some of the books to which we are indebted, we also acknowledge libraries that were especially helpful from the first edition to this edition: the Costume Institute Library of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York City, the research library of the New York Public Library, the Queens College Library, the Port Washington Public Library, the library of the Fashion Institute of Technology, Alderman Library and Darden Graduate School of Business Administration Library, University of Virginia, the Charlottesville branches of the Jefferson-Madison Regional Library, the Briarcliff Public Library, the Westchester Public Library system, and the library of Westchester Community College. Some individuals also deserve special recognition. The late Vincent Tortora took many of the photographs used in this and previous editions and also reviewed and corrected phonetic pronunciations. His encouragement and contributions made this book possible. We missed his assistance in this edition. Thanks to Nan Mutnick, who assisted with the research about twenty-first century fashionable dress. Don Kurka, artist and Emeritus Professor, University of Tennessee, offered invaluable advice on illustrative material for the fine arts pages for the 20th and 21st centuries. We appreciate the willingness of designer Rob Hillestad, who provided photographs of his fine work. We are also grateful that the Huntington Historical Society, Huntington, New York, has continued to permit reproduction of images from its collection. Other important assistance in finding illustrative material came from the Cleveland Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art Photographic Services Department, and Jeffrey Ryan of the Museum of Modern Art. We express gratitude to the New York Public Library for maintaining the superlative picture collection that is available to researchers. Dover Publications has been very generous in permitting reproduction of images from its books. We cannot thank individually all of our colleagues and friends who contributed in many ways, but we would like to note that the International Textile and Apparel Association (ITAA), and the Costume Society
of America have consistently provided settings for the reporting of new research and the interchange of ideas with colleagues from around the world, and these opportunities to hear about the latest scholarship have been much appreciated. A number of anonymous reviewers had offered suggestions over the many years during which the first edition was developed, and their input continues to influence subsequent editions. Prior to publication of the first edition, Elizabeth Ann Coleman, curator, author, and scholar, did a careful reading and made excellent suggestions to the chapters on the 19th and 20th centuries. We express grateful thanks, also, to the many users and readers of previous editions who have made helpful suggestions for revisions. Among those who have consistently offered sound advice are included Patricia Warner of the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Patricia Cunningham of the Ohio State University, and Linda Welters of the University of Rhode Island, who not only offered valuable critiques and suggestions, but willingly shared resources. Other readers selected by the publisher were also very helpful. Working with Fairchild Books was, as always, a pleasure. Sincere appreciation is due to Olga T. Kontzias, Executive Editor, who once again smoothed the way for this project. Elizabeth Marotta, Senior Production Editor, always displayed cheerful efficiency and skill as she facilitated a variety of tasks. Because the new art is such an important part of this edition we especially want to acknowledge the major efforts of Erin Fitzsimmons, Associate Art Director; Elizabeth Greenberg, Photo Researcher; and Sarah Silberg, Photo Researcher, in searching for and locating the illustrations that add so much to this book. Claire King designed, crafted, and produced the handsome PowerPoint program, a valuable supplement to this text. 2009 Phyllis Tortora Keith Eubank Briarcliff Manor, New York, and Charlottesville, Virginia
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SOME NOTES ON USING THIS BOOK
umans select the clothing they wear for many reasons. When one studies the dress of various historical periods one may focus on any or all of a variety of aspects. For some individuals, it is the item of costume itself that is important: How did it look? Of what materials was it constructed? How was it worn? For others the object itself is of lesser importance. Instead, the interest lies in its relationship to the world in which it was worn. What symbolic meaning did it have? What status did it confer? How does it reflect its times? Or, it may be that aesthetic aspects are foremost in the mind of the reader who may be viewing dress as an art form. For the most part, one looks at costume for some combinations of these reasons. The task of a text of this kind, a survey of the subject, is to attempt to satisfy the needs of all readers. In doing so, some depth is necessarily sacrificed. From this introduction to the topic, individuals can go on to pursue their special interests more intensively, and we have provided lists of resources in each chapter as well as an extensive bibliography at the end of the book. These should enable readers to move beyond this survey to a more specialized look at areas of particular interest. The first chapter of the book provides a general introduction to dress, to theories about its origins, and to its functions. Common themes (recurring or unifying subjects or ideas) that can be seen in many costume periods are identified and discussed. Readers will encounter many of these themes in subsequent chapters. To guide readers we have organized each of the Chapters 2 through 19 in much the same way. The book is divided into six parts, and each part is introduced not only with some historical background but also ends with a two-page Decorative and Fine Arts Table, depicting a wide range of the arts of the period. Each chapter has
an opening page on which a chronology summarizes important events, developments in the fine or applied arts, and other developments relative to costume history. This chronology is accompanied by photographs illustrating selected elements on the timeline. Opposite the chronology page is an illustration typical of the period and a brief paragraph about the chapter contents. Chapter textual material begins by providing a brief summary of historical developments in the period under study. Where those periods extend for thousands of years, this summary is written in very broad strokes. With shorter periods, especially those from the recent past, the picture is presented in more detail. Following the setting of historical context, we introduce those sociocultural, artistic, political, economic, and/or technological developments of the period that are relevant to or have influenced costume. Each chapter also includes one or more readings from contemporary sources about some aspect of dress. From these materials, readers should be able to get a glimpse of attitudes and values about clothing as they were expressed by individuals of that period. A detailed presentation of the specifics of costume for each period for men, women, and children follows the contextual materials. These details begin with a description of the silhouette or predominant lines. From silhouette, the reader moves on to a comprehensive review of types of clothing in the period under study. Each chapter ends with a summary that identifies some of the themes that are most evident in that chapter, as well as a discussion of revivals of style elements that are evident in later periods. To make these examples more concrete, we have added an illustration showing one example of a twentieth or twentyfirst century design that has been inspired by some aspect of dress important during the period.
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Some Notes on using this Book
In any work dealing with costume, the illustrations are particularly important. This work contains several different types of illustrations. In the body of each chapter, illustrations come as much as possible from works of art, drawings, or, photographs made at the time being discussed. Where such material is not readily available, redrawings are based on original sources or work by scholars. Beginning in Chapter 6, there are Illustrated Tables that depict important accessory items in addition to illustrated tables of footwear and headwear. Photographs of works of art from early periods are often difficult to interpret; therefore, visual summaries that consist of clear line drawings have been added at the end of all chapters. When compared to the photographs illustrating the chapters, these drawings should make it easier to understand what scholars believe the silhouette and construction of garments to have been. Visual Summary Tables consist of brief verbal summaries of the major styles within each period along with a sketch of typical styles. These tables serve as a summary for the period covered in the chapter and are intended to clarify the duration and features of the various fashion trends in each century or decade.
By comparing a Visual Summary Table from one chapter to that of previous and/or subsequent chapters, changes of fashions over time should be clear. The aforementioned list of references can lead readers to additional illustrations of the period from primary source materials, books that illuminate the sociocultural context of the period more completely, and some research, scholarly, or other writings about some narrower aspect of costume in this period. The index has been organized for use as a glossary of terms. Immediately after each term in the index is a page notation in boldface italic type. Readers will find a definition of this term on that page. Words that are defined are printed in boldface type in both the index and the text. The themes in the chapters are in small capital letters in both the text and index. Also, as an aid to readers, when new terms for which the pronunciation is not clear are introduced in the text, a phonetic rendering of the pronunciation is provided in parentheses after the word. Our objective throughout has been to provide a comprehensive survey of historic costume in the Western world, one that can serve as a basis for looking at dress from a variety of perspectives.
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CHRONOLOGY
29002100 b.c.
Early Minoan period
2000 b.c.
Development of the city of Knossos
21001600 b.c. 16001100 b.c.

Late Minoan period
Middle Minoan period
15711521 b.c. c. 1450 b.c.
Minos, legendary ruler of Crete Eruption of volcano on the island of Thera, (now called Santorini), destroying Cretan cities, including Knossos
14001200 b.c. 1200750 b.c. 776 b.c.
Domination by Myceneans Dark Age of Greece First Olympic games in Greece
c. 650480 b.c.
Archaic period
500323 b.c.
Classical Age Flowering of Greek philosophy, art, drama, literature
356323 b.c.
Alexander the Great
after 323 b.c.
Hellenistic period Decline of Greek power
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c. 2900 300
b.c.
CHAPTER THREE
Crete and Greece
he remains of Minoan Civilization can be found on the Mediterranean island of Crete, whereas traces of the Mycenaean Civilization that succeeded them are found on the mainland, which is now part of the modern country of Greece. The unique dress of these early peoples did not survive the Dark Ages that preceded the Archaic Greek Period. The culture of the Classical Period that followed influenced the arts, philosophy, and political thought of many later periods in Western world history. Likewise, the styles of Greek Classical period dress have continued to inspire design up to the present time.
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52 PARTONETheAncientWorld
MINOAN AND MYCENAEAN C I V I L I Z AT I O N S

HISTORICAL BACkGROuND On the narrow island of Crete in the eastern Mediterranean, another civilization flourished over much the same period of time as that of the Egyptians and Mesopotamians. Named for their legendary king, Minos, the Minoan people enjoyed peace and prosperity from about 2900 to 1450 b.c. and developed an elegant culture. The Minoans were a prosperous seafaring people who carried on an active trade with Egypt, Syria, Sicily, and even Spain. The Minoan people are depicted in the wall paintings of Egypt; their pottery and other traces of their contact with foreign lands have been discovered in Asia Minor, mainland Greece, and islands in the Aegean Sea. Their cities had no fortifications because they depended on their fleet for protection. The pleasure-loving, secure life of the Minoan people was caught by their artists in delicate, brightly colored frescoes that have been found on the walls of excavated palaces in Crete and on the island of Thera. The crowning achievement of Crete was the palace of Knossos. Its many rooms gave rise to the legend that a labyrinth under the palace housed a fearsome creature, half man and half bull, that devoured prisoners. Sir Arthur Evans, the English archeologist who first revealed the rich civilization of Crete, divided Minoan history into three main periods: Early Minoan (c. 29002100 b.c.), Middle Minoan (c. 21001600 b.c.), and Late Minoan (c. 16001100 b.c.). During most of the Middle Minoan period, the Minoans maintained political control not only over Crete, but also over what is today mainland Greece. The mainland people, named for their most powerful city-state, Mycenae, gradually grew stronger. By about 1400 b.c., in a reversal of political control, the Mycenaeans (My-seh-ne'-ans) had come to dominate Crete and the Minoan people. Archeologists had believed that this reversal of power probably resulted from a volcanic eruption on the island of Thera that caused earthquakes, fires, and tidal waves that wrecked Cretan cities. Recent discoveries, however, place this eruption
about 200 years earlier than the fall of Crete and it is now thought that the Mycenaeans probably invaded and overcame the Minoans. The Mycenaean civilization extended throughout Greece, centered in more than 300 towns. The towns spread out around the palaces, which each king tried to make a monument to his power and glory. The palaces were decorated with magnificent frescoes of great artistic and technical quality. The remains of these towns reveal works of architecture and large-scale engineering projects, which so astounded later generations of Greeks that they thought the walls of the Mycenaean cities and palaces had been built by giants. Other sources of information about the Mycenaeans include grave sites in which the artifacts of gold and silver reveal a wealthy and sophisticated civilization. At the end of the 13th century, the mysterious Sea People (whose origins are not known by historians) devastated the eastern Mediterranean area and ruined trade in a series of piratical raids. Many Mycenaean cities and towns suffered. The people were driven within the city walls for safety while their houses outside the fortifications were destroyed. Mycenae survived another century before it was destroyed, probably by the Dorians, invaders from the north. Some settlements were abandoned because they had depended on trade that no longer existed. Throughout Greece the population declined. Among the Mycenaean cities, Athens survived although it was somewhat impoverished. At the beginning of the 13th century b.c., Greece entered a Dark Age about which little is known; the Minoan civilization disappeared at about the same time.
S O C I A L O R G A N I Z AT I O N A N D M AT E R I A L C u LT u R E O F M I N O A N A N D M Y C E N A E A N C I V I L I Z AT I O N S
Evidence about the organization and structure of Minoan and Mycenaean society is fragmentary. Apparently the Minoans had what amounted to a twoclass society, with the ruling classes separated from the common people by a great gulf. No genuine middle class developed in ancient Greece.
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CHAPTERTHREECreteandGreece 53
Women occupied a higher place in society than in most early cultures. They enjoyed equality with men, and they were not secluded in the household but participated with men in public festivals. They engaged in athletics, often joining men in a favorite Minoan sport, vaulting over bulls. The position of women in Minoan civilization was an exception in the ancient world, possibly reflecting the importance of female deities. The major figure in Minoan religion was the mother goddess. At the same time, unlike Egypt where queens did rule as pharaohs in some periods, the rulers of Crete were invariably men. For the wealthy standards of material comfort were high. Several palaces have been excavated and their remains reveal that the private apartments in the palace were well lighted, decorated with wall paintings (frescos), and even had running water piped into bathrooms. The Mycenaeans imitated many aspects of Minoan decoration and styles, but their social organization seems to have differed somewhat. Little is known of the manner of life of the ordinary citizen. Wealth apparently was concentrated in the kings court. There was a lesser nobility and a large group of lower-class craftsmen, peasants, and shepherds. ART AND TECHNOLOGY OF MINOAN A N D M Y C E N A E A N C I V I L I Z AT I O N S ARTASASOURCEOFINFORMATION ABOUTCOSTUME As a result of the close contacts between Mycenaeans and Minoans, the styles of clothing utilized by both groups were essentially the same from the Middle Minoan period until the Later Minoan period. Most of the evidence for costume during the Minoan civilization comes from the statuary and wall paintings discovered in Crete. Some frescoes and statuary of the period have also been found in mainland Greece. The costume of the small statuettes of Minoan goddesses and priestesses is depicted in good detail. The dress of these statues has been taken to be characteristic of the dress of upper-class women. Wall paintings of general scenes of Minoan life confirm these details.
Mens costume is more often shown on wall paintings than in statuary. Many of the wall paintings have been restored, with details reconstructed from fragments of the original paintings, so that inaccuracies may have been incorporated into the restorations. TEXTILEPRODUCTIONANDTECHNOLOGY Barber (1994) describes a Minoan village in which evidence has been uncovered for spinning, weaving, and dyeing both linen and wool textiles. Minoan wall paintings and other art forms such as clay figurines depict brightly colored, elaborately patterned garments. Barbers (1991) careful analysis of evidence about Minoan textiles shows that many of the design motifs seen in Minoan art could have been woven easily. Many others, more difficult and time-consuming, are also technically possible with the types of looms in use. A few could have been achieved only by tapestry weaving, by embroidery, or by painting on textiles. Color was used lavishly, and skill in dyeing textiles must have been well developed. Egyptian wall paintings of traders dressed in Minoan garments provide evidence of trade between Egypt and Crete. Archeological evidence shows that chemicals used to fix dyes on linen were imported to Crete. A seafaring people, the Minoans undoubtedly traveled widely around the Mediterranean trading their textiles for other goods.
MINOAN COSTuME FOR MEN AND WOMEN: 29001100 b.c.

In commenting on many of the objects from the early Greek civilizations that archeologists have found, a Greek archeologist George Mylonas (1966) said . . . these may be likened to the illustrations of a picture book for which the scholar must provide the text. This text, however, can be widely divergent in its interpretations and highly subjective. Precisely the same comment can be made about the representations of costume from the Minoan period. The lack of any body of literature, legal texts, or religious writings and even the fragmentary nature of many of the paintings from this period leave the costume historian at a loss
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appearance of a garment depends very much on the fibers and fabrics used. She criticizes efforts that did not use textile fibers and fabrics of the same types that would have been used by the Minoans. COSTuME COMPONENTS FOR MEN AND WOMEN GARMENTS The garment worn closest to the skin was the loincloth, a fitted garment that covered much the same area as a pair of modern athletic briefs. A similar costume (called the perizoma in Greek) was worn by Greeks and Etruscans. (See Figure 4.1, page 77.) Loincloths were depicted as worn by men and by women athletes. Men and women performed athletic leaps over the horns of bulls. For this activity they both wore loincloths, which, when used for this purpose, were reinforced at the crotch to protect against the horns of the bulls. Men wore skirts. Some were short, ending at the thigh. These apparently wrapped around the body and generally ended in a point with a suspended, weighted tassel at center front and/or center back. They are shown as being made of elaborately patterned fabric. (Figure 3.1.) Ariane Marcar (2005), in a detailed analysis of all the known representations of Minoan dress, identified a mens garment that has the appearance of modern-day shorts. But in examining these depictions she could find no indication of seams at the side or at the crotch,
FIGuRE 3.1 Restoredfrescoesfromthepalaceat
KnossosdepictmenfromCretewhowearwrapped skirtswithatasselatthefront.(PhotographbyVincent
R.Tortora.)
as to the precise function of many items of dress and the conclusions that are drawn are, therefore, somewhat tentative. Scholars differ as to whether the dress of Minoans is more tailored and fitted or more draped. Clearly, some depictions show closely fitting, shaped garments that would appear to be more tailored, while others show simpler more draped styles (Figure 3.1). Houston (1966) suggests that the tailored costume of the Minoans (Figure 3.2) may have evolved from the early use of leather for clothing. Attempts have been made to reconstruct Minoan dress based on wall paintings and sculpture. Barber (2000), an expert on early textiles, notes that the
FIGuRE 3.2 FemaleMinoanSnakeDeity
dressedinagarmenttypicalofthose depictedforwomen.Thebodicehas short,slightlypuffedsleevesandis opentobelowthebreasts.Whetherall womenbaredtheirbreastsisnotclear, butfigurinesofeitherpriestessesorgoddessesarerepresentedwiththisbodice style.Theflaredskirtwithhorizontalbands isoneofthreecommonskirttypes.An apronlikecoveringextendsfrombelowthe waisttothehiparea.AlsoseeFigures3.3 and3.4.(Scala/ArtResource,NY.)
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FIGuRE 3.3 Inanotherdepictionofasnake goddess,hereisaskirtthatisapparently madefromrowsofruffles.Herbodice ismadeofpatternedfabricorfabric withornamentedappliedbands,andshe hasaround,rolledbeltatthewaist.Likethe goddessinFigure3.2,shewearstheapronlikecoveringbelowherwaist.(ErichLessing/Art

Resource,NY.)
and concluded that these were wrapped and draped skirts, which she calls kilts as they resemble, somewhat, the Scottish mens skirt called a kilt. Other skirts were depicted in longer lengths, ending either below the knee or at the ankle. Some mens skirts also appear to be made of sheep fleece, not unlike the Mesopotamian kaunakes skirt. Womens skirts were bell shaped and had at least three different forms. One version was fitted at the waist, and flared gently to the ground. (See Figure 3.2.) Another style (Figure 3.3) seemed to have been made of a series of horizontal or V-shaped ruffles or flounces, with each successive ruffle wider in circumference than the one above it. In drawings and sculpture a third form (Figure 3.4) shows a line down the center of womens skirts. Some scholars have interpreted this as a bifurcated garment similar to modern culottes. This may, however, have been an artistic convention used to depict V-shaped ruffles or could be the overlapping edge of a wrapped skirt. Women are also shown wearing sheep fleece skirts. Womens costume had a unique aspect. Smoothly fitted bodices, laced or otherwise, fastened beneath the breasts, leaving the breasts exposed. (See Figure 3.2.)
Because most depictions of this breastexposing style are of priestesses, some authorities believe ordinary women covered the breasts with sheer fabric (Boucher 1987). Most bodices had sleeves that fit the arms closely. A few examples have small puffs at the shoulders. Paintings and sculpture show apronlike garments worn by women on top of skirts. (See Figures 3.2 and 3.3.) They extend in front and back to about mid-thigh. Archeologist Arthur Evans (1963) believed that this
FIGuRE 3.4 Athirdtypeofskirtisseeninwallpaintings.The
exactconstructionisunclear.Somescholarssuggestthatthe garmentmayhavebeenwide-leggedtrousers,butitseems morelikelythatitisawrappedskirt.(Scala/ArtResource,NY.)
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garment was a costume worn in religious rituals by women and that it derived from a primitive loincloth worn originally by members of both sexes. Poncholike capes were usually worn by men in combination with skirts. These capes covered the upper part of the body and appeared to consist of a rectangle of fabric, folded in half, with an opening cut for the head. Both men and women wrapped shawllike garments made from animal skins or heavy wool around the body in cold weather. Tight, rolled belts were apparently made from fabric or leather and decorated with metal. Belts were worn by men and boys from the earliest periods and adopted by women during later Minoan periods. Because Minoan men are shown with abnormally small waists (which may have been an artistic convention), some authorities speculate that these belts may have been placed on young boys from age 12 or 14 in order to constrict the development of the waist. Men and women wore T-shaped tunics with long or short sleeves. Womens tunics were long; mens were long or short. Tunics were generally decorated with patterned bands at the hem, along the sides, and following the shoulderlines. These bands may have
been decorative selvages, woven tapes, or embroidery. (See Figure 3.5.) Mycenaean men are more likely to be depicted in tunics rather than skirts or loincloths. HAIRANDHEADDRESS Curly hair was apparently an ethnic characteristic. Probably much of the headdress had religious significance and may have served as a symbol designating priest or priestess status. Men wore their hair long and curly or short and cut close to the head. Sometimes men tied their hair into a braid or lock at the back of the head; sometimes they held it in place with a fillet. Hat styles include elaborate, possibly ritual types: high, round, and crownlike with a tall plume; turbans; small caps; and widebrimmed hats. Womens long, curled hair was often held in place with a fillet or elaborate arrangement of plain or jeweled bands. (See Illustrated Table 3.1, page 66.) Hats ranged from high, tiered, brimless styles to beretlike flat hats. FOOTWEAR Men and women wore sandals or shoes with pointed toes that fitted the foot closely and ended at the ankle. Athletes (bull-leapers) wore a soft shoe with what appears to be a short sock or ankle support. Archeologists have found that the floors of Minoan palaces show little wear from shoes, while entrance stairs are worn away from the passing of shod feet. This has led to the conclusion that people went barefoot indoors but wore shoes outside. JEWELRY Men and women wore rings, bracelets, and armlets. Women wore necklaces. Although earrings were found in Minoan graves, they are not generally depicted in the art. COSMETICSANDGROOMING Women apparently used eye makeup and, probably, lip coloring. Men were clean shaven.
FIGuRE 3.5 Figuresdepictedonasarcophagusfromthe14th centuryb.c.atHagiaTriada,Crete,showingaprocessionof twowomenandaman.Thewomanattheleftwearsasheepskinskirtandafittedbodice.Themanandwomanattheright arewearinglongtunicsdecoratedwithtrimmingthatmaybe wovenbraid.(CourtesyofFairchildPublications,Inc.)
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MINOAN COSTuME FOR CHILDREN: 29001100 b.c.

Little evidence exists for the costume of children. Boys depicted in the paintings found on Thera wore little clothing: a fishing boy wore nothing; those boxing had strings around their waists. Their heads were shaven except for some locks of hair. One statuary group from Mycenae shows a small boy of perhaps about 3 or 4 years of age dressed in a floor-length skirt and wearing a necklace and a padded, rolled belt. Probably children wore simple costumes such as skirts or tunics. After puberty they undoubtedly assumed adult clothing.
After a period of more than 400 years, mainland Greece emerged from the Dark Ages into the Archaic period. By this time costume in general and the costume of women in particular had altered dramatically.
G R E E k C I V I L I Z AT I O N
HISTORICAL BACkGROuND Written records vanished during the Dark Ages. The political history of the period does not exist. Intellectual achievements were limited to epic ballads, sung perhaps by wandering bards, which were eventually woven into a cycle familiar to modern readers from the poems attributed to Homer, The Iliad and The Odyssey. Although he related stories about the heroes of the Trojan War, which occurred during the Mycenaean period, his epic poems describe the life and customs of his own times, probably before 700 b.c. As the Dark Ages ended and Greece entered the Archaic period, c. 650480 b.c., the Greek people began to prosper as their culture revived. Village communities began to evolve into independent city-states that would provide the first type of democratic government with elections, juries, and government by citizens of the city-state. In the Classical Age, c. 500323 b.c., Greece enjoyed a golden age, one of the most creative eras in the history of Western civilization. Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle pondered the nature of the universe, the meaning of life, and ethical values. Tragic dramatists such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides wrote dramas for the public dealing with the nature and fate of man. The Greeks developed history, a new literary form, which related and analyzed past experiences. Greek sculpture glorified the human body; using new techniques to build in marble, the Greeks created architectural masterpieces. Even before the Classical Age, Greeks had for centuries been establishing colonies throughout the Mediterranean. The first were on the western coasts of present-day Turkey, which the Greeks called Ionia. Greek settlements had also been established in Sicily,
TRANSITIONS IN THE DOMINANT STYLES

Some costume historians have pointed out parallels between the tiered skirts of Minoan women and the fringed kaunakes garments of Mesopotamia. Similarities also exist in language elements between Crete and the Middle East. Cretan traders traveled extensively throughout the Mediterranean area both to the east and to Egypt in the south. Certainly the Cretan traders reached the areas of Asia Minor where the kaunakes garments were worn, but even if the origin of the tiered skirt for Minoan women was to be found in the Middle East, the forms that evolved during the height of Minoan civilization differed markedly from the dress of Mesopotamia and Egypt during concurrent periods. Sometime during the Dark Ages after the close of the MinoanMycenaean period, the fitted, full-skirted costume for women disappeared. Just how long it persisted after the beginning of the Dark Ages and how it came to be supplanted by the later Greek styles is unknown. By the time political control of Crete had passed to the Mycenaeans the elaborately patterned fabrics declined in use, giving way to plain cloth with simpler edgings. Barber (1991) speculates about this development, saying One wonders if the Mycenaeans cheerfully bought up and wore the sumptuous Minoan fabrics as they began to take over affairs on Crete, but then allowed the local native industry to fade (p. 330).
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throughout southern Italy, and as far west as southern France. These centers of Greek culture and trade helped to spread Greek culture. Etruscan costume (the Etruscans were a people living on the Italian peninsula whose civilization predated the that of the Romans) shows many resemblances to that of the Greeks, as do the later Roman styles. At the same time Greek costumes borrowed from the regions with which the Greeks came into contact, particularly from the Middle East. Greek influence was spread also by the conquests of Alexander the Great of Macedonia (356323 b.c.), whose father had brought Greece under his control. Alexander carved out an empire that stretched from Greece and Egypt in the west to the shores of the Indian Ocean in the east. After Alexanders death his empire fell apart; Greek influence waned while that of the Romans began to expand. Gradually the Romans supplanted the Greeks as the dominant force in the Mediterranean region, although the art and the wisdom of Greece continued to influence the world long after its political power was eclipsed. S O C I A L O R G A N I Z AT I O N O F T H E G R E E k C I V I L I Z AT I O N Society in the time of Homer was made up of nobility and commoners. Households were largely self-sufficient, each one producing its own food and clothing textiles. A mans home was, quite literally, his fortress, protected by walls against the raiders who frequently attacked the Greek settlements, which were located near the sea. By the Classical Age, a period for which written and art records abound, Greek communities had grown into city-states, and had developed a far more sophisticated and urban organization. A quite detailed picture of daily life in ancient Greece can be painted. Athens, the most famous city-state in Greece, was composed of a population of adult men (the active citizens), their dependent women and children, resident foreigners, and slaves. An ordinary Athenian lived in a small, unpretentious house made of sun-dried brick that lacked central heating and running water. When not engaged
in work, a man might attend the assembly of the law courts. His recreation was found in the festivals and public facilities like gymnasiums which were provided by the city. Luxuries of diet, clothing, and furniture were for the very rich, although they, too, lived relatively simply. In democratic Athens extravagance and ostentation were quick to attract attention and draw censure (Roebuck 1966). In Homeric times, women occupied a subordinate position, but judging from the writings of Homer they had a rather open, companionable relationship with men. The general view of the place of women in classical times has been that women lacked political power and had little control over their own destinies. It has been said that from birth to death they were under the control of some man. Even widows or divorced women, although they retained title to their inherited property, had to be supervised by their nearest male relative. Marriages were arranged, and monogamy was the rule. Girls married at about age 14 to men who were usually about age 30. Scholars believe the average life span for women was about 40 years. Husbands did not consider their wives as equals, socially or intellectually, and did not appear with them in public. Secluded in the household, the wife oversaw the running of the home, where she was responsible for the children, food, and clothing. Through the spinning and weaving of fabrics and the making of clothing, she made a very real contribution to the economy of the household. Scholars differ as to how freely women could move around the city outside the home. The current belief is that women were able to carry out at least some activities outside the home. They had to obtain water from the town fountains, attended public speeches, visited religious sanctuaries, and participated in religious festivals. Some of these activities included members of both sexes, but others were strictly for women. They could visit close friends and were permitted to attend tragic plays but not comedies, perhaps because these tended to be bawdy. As Reeder (1995) notes, In all movements outside the home, a woman was supposed to be inconspicuous to the point of invisibility, and although the use of the veil is not yet well understood,
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she was probably expected upon leaving her house to wrap her mantle or a veil around her head so that it obscured part of her face and neck. This practice may have come to Greece from Ionia and the Near East about 530 b.c., along with such styles as the Ionic form of dress. This veiling symbolized the subjugation of women to their husbands. Scholars see evidence for this custom in a large number of statues of women that have been found in which veils are pulled down at least partially over the face (Galt 1931) and in references in the writing of poets such as Homer. There were exceptions to the strict regulation of womens activities. In Sparta, the largest and the most militaristic Greek city-state, women were less restricted, a state of affairs other Greeks found disquieting. The historian Plutarch described Spartan women as bold, masculine, and overbearing and seemed shocked at the notion that they spoke openly even on the most important subjects (Durant 1966). Recently, Connelly (2007), in Portrait of a Priestess, has shown that the office of priestess was one area in which women could attain status equal to that of men. Although there are exceptions, female priestesses pre-
sided over the cults of goddesses and male priests over those of gods. To be qualified to become a priestess, women had to come from affluent families of high social rank. Some appointments were hereditary. The duties included the care of the sanctuary, especially tending to the holy things kept there. Priestesses had to pay for some of the supplies used in ceremonies. They took part in processions. Often depicted in art carrying trays of holy objects, priestesses made liquid offerings called libations to the goddess (see Figure 3.6). They offered prayers, and participated in sacrifices and ritual feasting. Laws relating to appropriate dress for participation in religious rites were inscribed within sanctuaries. These were not universal, but were developed locally and were different for different cults. In many sanctuaries white garments, which were associated with purity, were required. In some places of worship limits were placed on the cost of clothing. Purple (only available in very costly fabrics), flower-decorated or black garments, sandals, and rings were prohibited in another place. Some temples confiscated dress that violated prohibitions on decorated robes. In art it is not possible to identify priestesses by their clothing,
FIGuRE 3.6 Depictionofafamilyperformingsacrifices,c.530b.c.WomenaredressedinblueDoricpep-
loswithredcloaks.Youngboyswearhimation-likedrapedcloaks.(Scala/ArtResource,NY.)
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but some of the objects they carried were signifiers of their status. One in particular, the key to the sanctuary, seems to have been almost universal. Unlike a modern key, it was a large, long, narrow piece of metal with a sharp right-angled turn and often a circular garland hung from it. Another group of women not subject to the constraints of married women were the prostitutes. The lowest class of prostitutes lived in brothels, often in seaports. They dressed in such lightweight clothing that literary references described them as naked. Nudity for women was not socially acceptable. A slightly higher class of courtesans were the flute girls who entertained with music and dancing at the otherwise all-male parties that were customary. These women are often depicted on vase paintings where some are shown clad in ordinary dress, some in special short dancing costumes, and others in the nude. The highest class of courtesans was the hetairi, the literal translation of the word is companions. These women moved freely among men. They were often better educated than ordinary women, and some were known for their skill in philosophical disputation or for their literary efforts. A few became quite famous. Many dyed their hair blonde (the predominant hair color among Greek women was dark), and it appears that the law required them to wear specially decorated robes to distinguish them from respectable women. In the Hellenistic period (after the death of Alexander the Great, 323 b.c.) the status of women seems to have risen somewhat. Female nudity in art increased (although it is not likely that women ever appeared nude in public), women were treated more openly and sympathetically in drama, and, interestingly, the influence of the hetairi on Athenian life diminished. FABRICS AND CLOTH PRODuCTION Spinning and weaving were considered fit occupations for queens and goddesses. In Homers Odyssey, Ulysses faithful queen, Penelope, promises to choose a new king for Ithaca after she has completed the
weaving of a shroud or burial sheet. After each day of weaving she secretly, at night, unravels the work that she has done. In this way she avoids taking a new husband. Athena, goddess of wisdom, patroness of the city of Athens, and patroness of artisans, is credited in Greek mythology as being the first woman to work with wool. As part of the religious ceremonies held in Athens every four years in honor of the goddess, a magnificently patterned garment, the sacred peplos, was carried in procession to the temple to be placed upon her statue. It had been woven by two women selected from those who participated in fertility rites associated with the cult of Athena. Sheepherding was practiced in the mountainous Greek peninsula, and from those sheep wool for weaving was obtained. The Greeks also used linen, particularly after the 6th century b.c. Linen use seems to have come to Greece from Egypt by way of Asia Minor, particularly from the Ionian region where many Greeks had settled. Most of the linen used in Greece was imported from the Middle East and Egypt. The island of Cos was known, in the late Greek period, for the production of silk, but scholars believe that the silk produced there was made from fabrics imported from China by way of Persia. Weavers unraveled the fabrics, turning them into fibers by untwisting the yarns. They combined silk fibers with linen fibers in order to make the precious silk go farther. Cotton fiber was apparently brought to Greece by the soldiers of Alexander the Great. For the most part, however, Greek clothing was made from wool or from linen (Faber CIBA Review). The visual evidence for Greek styles often comes from marble statues that have been bleached white over the centuries or from vase paintings that do not show color. As a result it is often mistakenly assumed that Greek clothing had little color. Fabrics were colored with dyes obtained from plants, minerals, and shellfish. Decoration of fabrics during weaving or by embroidery was common. Greek women were gifted weavers, and they were talented in embroidery. Skill was developed in pleating fabrics, and some sort of clothes press existed for smoothing and flat-
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FIGuRE 3.7 Athenianwomen,c.560b.c.,(lefttoright)preparingwool,foldingcloth,spinningyarn, weavingonanuprightloom,andweighingwoolfiber.Thesewomenaredressedintheform-fitting DorianpeplosoftheArchaicperiod.(CourtesyofTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,FletcherFund,1931.)
tening fabrics and pressing in pleats. Fabrics were bleached with the fumes of a sulfur compound. Because Greek costume was draped, not cut and sewn, the fabric was probably woven to the correct size and did not require cutting. (See Figure 3.7.) Women manufactured all of the family clothing and covers for beds, cushions, and chests. Women making cloth at home generally carried out all of the steps in the process with the possible exceptions of dyeing and fulling. (See Figure 3.7.) Fulling is a process whereby wool fabrics are washed and shrunk to produce a dense, close weave. Dyeing and fulling were both processes that produced strong, unpleasant odors and required both space and a good supply of water; therefore, they were not especially suited to urban households. When textiles were produced commercially for sale in the marketplace, the labor was divided into specialties that included wool combers, preparers of flax, spinners of yarn, dyers, fullers, and, when necessary, tailors to do the cutting and sewing.
SOuRCES OF EVIDENCE FOR THE STuDY OF GREEk COSTuME

GREEk ART The sculpture and vase paintings of Greece provide evidence concerning the costume of ancient Greece. However, records from the early Archaic period are unclear. The art of that time was highly stylized (it is called geometric art), and provides little information
about dress. The statuary of the 7th century b.c. begins to be sufficiently representational to permit some conclusions to be drawn about costume. The later periods, particularly the Classical period, abound in representations of costume in sculpture and painting. The Greeks developed the concept of ideal human form and proportions. Polyclitis, a sculptor (c. 450 b.c.), wrote an influential treatise about his view of the appropriate standard of proportions for sculptors. Through Greek art and writings this Greek ideal, a figure about seven and a half heads high with the hipline at wrist level halfway down the body, continued to influence ideas about perfect male and female proportions in subsequent periods and became a part of the heritage of classical influences in the Western world. Although Greek vase painting and sculpture provide plenty of evidence about the construction of clothing, the conventions of Greek art limit information about color in dress. Greek marble statues had been colorfully painted, but over the centuries that color has been bleached away. Major Greek vase painting styles include black figure painting, with black figures on an orange-red background; red figure painting, with red figures on black background; and white ground vases. Only on these latter vases can one see color. The Greek attitude toward nudity should be mentioned in this context. Nudity was not acceptable to the Minoans, the Mycenaeans, or the Homeric Greeks. Tradition records the date at which Greek men began to participate in athletic events in the nude as around
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720 b.c. (Bonfante 1977). Athletic games in Greece were part of religious ritual. Athletes performing in the nude therefore had a religious context. Furthermore, the Greek ideal stressed not only perfection of the soul but perfection of the body as well. At about the same time that nudity came into athletics, artists began to make representations of the male nude. Depiction of female nudity did not, however, follow. Although in earlier periods the ideal of the wellformed female body was clearly visible beneath the softly flowing draperies of the costume, only in Sparta did women participate in athletics or attend the games. Women dancers and acrobats wore, at the minimum, a perizoma (a loincloth) and usually also a band covering the breasts. It is only after 400 b.c., when attitudes toward women seem to have become somewhat less restrictive, that artists sculpted some of the now famous nude or partially nude statues of women such as the Venus de Milo.
GREEk COSTuME FOR MEN AND WOMEN: 650300 b.c.

The garment called the tunic heretofore was called a chiton (ky'tn) by the Greeks. Although many of the earliest depictions of Greek chitons give the impression of a garment sewn together at the shoulders and under the arms, later versions were not necessarily sewn, but often were created by taking a single rectangle of fabric and wrapping it around the body, securing it at the shoulders with one or more pins. (See Figure 3.7.) Variations in the appearance of chitons were often achieved by belting the chiton at any of several locations, by creating and manipulating a fold over the top of the fabric, and by varying the placement of the pins at the shoulder. Full-length chitons were woven to the same size no matter how tall or short the person who was to
TABLE 3.1 TypesofChitonsWornbyGreekMenandWomen

NAMEOFSTYLE chitoniskos WORNBY men LENGTH usuallyshort, betweenhip andthigh Doricpeplos (SeeFigures3.6 and3.7.) Ionicchiton (SeeFigures3.8 and3.9.) Doricchiton (SeeFigure3.10.) women Hellenisticchiton (SeeFigure3.11.) women women men long,toground short,withfew exceptions long long men shortorlong women toankles FIT closetobody,similar inshapingtothedoric peplos closetobody,fastened withlargestraightpinat shoulder full,longersleeves, fastenedwithmanysmall broochesatshoulder narrowerthanIonic, withoutsleeves,fastened withonebrooch(fibula) atshoulders similartoDoricchilton, butnarrower,oftenbelted justbelowbosom exomis (SeeVisual SummaryTable.) workingclassmen andslaves short fastenedoverone shoulder lightweight wool,linen, orsilk sturdy,durable fabric,probably wool throughoutall Greekperiods 450b.c.to300b.c. 300to100b.c. lightweight woolorpleated linen wool,linen, orsilk 550b.c.to480b.c., lessoftenfrom 480b.c.to300b.c. 400b.c.to100b.c. usually patternedwool Archaicperiodto c.550b.c. FABRIC usually patternedwool DURATION Archaicperiodto c.550b.c.
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FIGuRE 3.8 OnlyrarelydoesGreek
artshowcolorsofcostumes. Here,awomanwearing agold-coloredIonic chitonhasalavenderchlamydonover hershoulder.(The

MetropolitanMuseumof Art/ArtResource,NY/TheBothmer PurchaseFund,FletcherFund,and RogersFund,1979[1979.11.15].)
wear the garment. Lengths could be easily adjusted by increasing or decreasing the size of the overfold. Over the chiton Greek men and women placed shawls or cloaks. Some of the overgarments were decorative; others were utilitarian. The summary and illustrations that follow describe the major costume forms in use during the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods of ancient Greek history. Various authors use conflicting terminology to identify different types of chitons. The terms used here are those that seemed to the authors to be most consistently used by reliable sources. COSTuME COMPONENTS FOR MEN AND WOMEN THECHITON Greek art and literature indicate that the chiton underwent a number of changes over time. Table 3.1 summarizes the variations in the type of chitons worn by men and women at various times. Chitons are shown in Figures 3.8 and 3.9. The Greek author Herodotus claims the Doric peplos style of the Archaic Period was abandoned because of an incident toward the beginning of the 6th century b.c. in which Athenian women supposedly used their dress pins
to stab to death a messenger who brought the bad news of the almost total destruction of an Athenian military force in battle. According to Herodotus, the wearing of the Ionic chiton, which did not utilize these large, sharp pins, was mandated as a result. Contemporary Comments 3.1, page 64, contains Herodotuss description of the scene. Geddes (1987) relates mens change from the Ionic chiton to the Doric chiton in the Classical period to changes in social and political attitudes. He believes that the luxurious fabrics and elaborate draperies of the full Ionic chiton had offered many opportunities for the display of a mans wealth. But beginning in the late 5th century b.c., Greek political thought and practices encouraged values such as fitness, equality, and a sense of thinking alike that required, at the least, less flaunting of wealth. The Doric chiton, which had simple, relatively straight lines, was seen to best advantage on a fit body and did not lend itself to ostentatious display. It was, therefore, more in keeping with these new values. THEHIMATION Just when the word himation (hi-mat'eahn) came to be applied to a large rectangle of fabric that wrapped around the body is not entirely clear. (See Figures
FIGuRE 3.9 WomaninIonicchitonover whichshewearsachlamydon.(Atlanta

Lekythos,FuneraryOilJug,attributedtoDouris, Greek,Athenian,1sthalf5thcenturyB.C.Painted whitegroundterra-cotta,H.31.8cm,500490B.C. TheClevelandMuseumofArt,LeonardG. Hanna,Jr.,Fund,1966.114.)
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3.12 and 3.13.) This garment has been compared to the wrapped shawls of Mesopotamia. An earlier version worn in the Archaic period seems to have been called a chlaina (Evans 1964). Under the name himation, this garment was in wide use by the late 5th century b.c. Various methods of draping the himation are depicted by artists, but the most common way of wearing it seems to have been with the upper corner covering the left shoulder, the bulk of the fabric wrapped across the back, passed under the right arm, and draped over the left shoulder or carried across the left arm. Both women and men wore this garment over a chiton. Philosophers and older gods are depicted in the himation alone, without a chiton beneath, but whether this was an artistic convention or actual practice is unclear. Geddes (1987) suggests that the popularity of
the himation may have been related to an emphasis on athletic fitness because it was easily taken off for sports, and just as easily put back on. OTHERGARMENTS The perizoma (per-i-zo'ma), Greek for a loincloth, was a garment worn by men either as an undergarment or for athletic contests. (See Figure 4.1, page 77.) Greek vases show women with bands of cloth that wrapped around the upper torso and, depending on how the bands were placed, either bound or supported the breasts. Stafford has found these bands and also a garment that looks much like a 21st-century sports brassiere depicted on vases showing women athletes. These garments seem to be similar to a Roman garment called the strophium (see Figure 4.10, page 88).
C ontemporary Comments 3.1

HERODOTuS DESCRIBES THE ORIGINS OF THE CHANGE FROM DORIC TO IONIC CHITONS
In his history of the Persian Wars, Book V, Herodotus recounts the story of how the women of Athens were required to change the style of their dress. Only one Athenian warrior escaped death in battle and returned, to tell the story of the defeat. ...WhenhecamebacktoAthens,bringingwordofthecalamity,thewivesofthosewhohadbeensentoutonthe expeditiontookitsorelytoheart,thathealoneshouldhavesurvivedtheslaughterofalltherest;theytherefore crowdedroundtheman,andstruckhimwiththebroochesbywhichtheirdresseswerefastened1each,asshe struck,askinghimwherehehadleftherhusband.Andthemandiedinthisway.TheAtheniansthoughtthedeed ofthewomenmorehorribleeventhanthefateofthetroops;ashowevertheydidnotknowhowtopunishthem, theychangedtheirdressandcompelledthemtowearthecostumeoftheIonians.TillthistimetheAthenian womenhadwornaDoriandress[seeFigure3.7.],shapednearlylikethatwhichprevailsatCorinth.Henceforth theyweremadetowearthelinentunic,whichdoesnotrequirebrooches.2[BookV,Chapter87.]
1
T hesebroochesarenotlikemodernbroacheswithsafetyclasps,butlong,sharp,daggerlikepins. I onicstyles(seeFigure3.9)werefastenedwithsmall,button-shapedclosuresoffibulae,probablyclosingmorelikeasmallsafetypin. ThelaterrevivalofDorianstylesdidnotincludetheuseofthedaggerlikepinforfastening.
FromThe Persian Wars,byHerodotus,trans.byGeorgeRawlinson.Copyright1942byRandomHouse,Inc.;reprintedwithpermission ofRandomHouse,Inc.
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FIGuRE 3.11 Greekwomanwearsthe
Hellenisticchiton,whichisbelted typicallyhighunderthebreasts andmadeoflightweightfabric thatmoldsthebodylines.

(Dancing Lady,Greek,c.50B.C. Marble,H.85.4cm[withcase]. TheClevelandMuseumof Art,JohnL.ServeranceFund, 1965.24.)
FIGuRE 3.10 Figurefroma
GreekvasebyThomasHope (18thcentury).Womanfastens theshoulderofherDoric chiton.Noticethesmallweights attheendofthedraperythat fallsfromherrightshoulder.

(CourtesyofDoverPublications,Inc.)
The diplax (dy'plax), a small rectangle of fabric worn by women, especially over the Ionic chiton, was draped in much the same way as the himation. The chlamydon (kla'mi-don) was a more complicated form of the womans diplax in which fabric was pleated into a fabric band. (See Figure 3.9.) Various styles of cloaks and capes were worn for cool weather. The most notable example was the chlamys (kla'mis), a rectangular cloak of leather or wool pinned over the right or left shoulder. Worn by men over a chiton, especially for traveling, it could be used as a blanket for sleeping at night. (See Figure 3.13.) HAIRANDHEADDRESSFORMEN See Illustrated Table 3.1, for a cross section of hairstyles for the period. In the Archaic Period, long or medium-length hair and beards predominated, whereas in the Classical Period, young men wore short hair and no beards and older men longer hair and beards. Types of hats often shown in art included fitted caps and the petasos (pet'a-sos), usually worn with
the chlamys. Its wide brim provided shade in summer or kept rain off the head. Though not Greek styles, Phrygian (frig'ee-an) bonnets, brimless caps with a high padded peak that fell forward, were often depicted. Phrygian bonnets in Greek art identify wearers as foreigners from the Middle East. This type of hat reappears in European styles in the Middle Ages. Both men and women wore the pilos (pi'los), a narrow-brimmed or brimless hat with a pointed crown. HAIRANDHEADDRESSFORWOMEN See Illustrated Table 3.1, page 66, for a cross section of hairstyles for the period. In the Archaic Period, women wore their hair long in curling tresses with small curls arranged around the face. In the Classical Period, it was pulled into a knot or chignon at the back of the head. Fillets, scarves, ribbons, and caps were used to confine the hair. Paintings and sculpture of women depict veils that were worn over the head and are sometimes shown pulled across to cover the face.
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Illustrated Table 3.1

Examples of Hairstyles and Headdress Worn by Men and Women in Greece
Youthfulmalefigurewith short,curlyhairfrom ClassicalPeriod
Beardedphilosopherfrom ClassicalPeriod
Youthwearingapetasos
Youthwearinga Phrygianbonnet
Womanshairstyle WomenshairstylesdepictedonArchaicGreeksculpture depictedinMinoan wallpainting
WomenshairstylesandheaddressfromClassicalPerioddepictedonvasepaintings
ThomasHope,reproducedcourtesyofDoverPublications,Inc.
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FOOTWEAR Both men and women wore sandals. Men also wore fitted shoes, ankle high or high mid-calf length; or, for travel or warfare, leather boots that laced up the front. (See Figures 3.12, and 3.13.) JEWELRY More often worn by women than men, jewelry consisted of necklaces, earrings, rings, decorative pins for fastening the chiton, and brooches. COSMETICS Statues and vase paintings do not reveal the extent to which makeup was worn. Writings of the period do record the use of perfumes. Contemporary Comments 3.2, page 69, reprints passages from The Iliad and The Odyssey that describe not only some of the clothing worn by women, but also cosmetics and jewels.
GREEk COSTuME FOR CHILDREN: 650300 b.c.

Infants were wrapped in swaddling clothes (bands of fabric wrapped around the body) and wore close-fitting, peaked caps. Swaddling babies was a common practice throughout Europe until the 19th century and was thought to prevent deformity of childrens limbs. As the Greeks emphasized bodily perfection, it may be that they held similar beliefs. A few repre-
FIGuRE 3.12 Greekyouthwearinghimation.(Courtesyof

PhotoArtsCompany.)
FIGuRE 3.13 5thcenturyb.c.Greekvaseshows(fromlefttoright)awomaninanIonicchitonwithashawldrawn
overherhead;anakedcupid;agoddessinaDoricchiton;awomaninanIonicchiton,aveiloverherheadanda cloakoverhershoulders;twomeninchlamysandpetasos;andamaninahimation.Oldermenarebearded,the youthiscleanshaven.(CourtesyofTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,RogersFund,1907.)
5/21/09 3:21:34 PM
sentations of infants, perhaps older ones, show them wrapped in loose cloth draperies rather than in swaddling bands. COSTuME COMPONENTS FOR CHILDREN Sometimes small boys are depicted in the nude. School-age boys wore short, belted or unbelted chitons. Girls chitons were arranged much as those of older women and belted in a variety of ways. Boys and girls wore himations; those for girls were worn over a chiton and for boys, either alone or over a chiton. For protection outdoors, art of the period depicts small, rectangular cloaks with clasps on the right shoulder. Another warm garment was a long cape with a pointed hood that either closed in front or had an opening through which it could be slipped over the head. HAIRANDHEADDRESS Small children and boys had short hair. Older girls dressed their hair the same ways as women. Boys and girls wore a flat-crowned hat with a heavy roll as a brim. Girls wore a high, peaked hat with a flat, stiff brim. FOOTWEAR Children were often shown barefoot. Foot coverings included sandals and closed shoes.
JEWELRY Children wore earrings, necklaces, and bracelets, especially those in the form of a serpent.
GREEk COSTuME FOR SPECIALIZED O C C u P AT I O N S O R O C C A S I O N S

WEDDING DRESS The Greek brides costume for weddings was laden with symbolism. (See Figure 3.14.) The wedding garment had some areas that were dyed purple with a costly dye obtained from a rare type of mollusk called the murex. The bride wore a belt tied with a double knot known as a bridal or Hercules knot. The loosening of this knot, which took place on the wedding night, was both a symbol of and a necessary preface to the sexual union of the bride and groom. Her veil, which was either a mantle pulled up over the back of the head or a separate veil, was colored yellow-orange with the dye from the saffron plant. Saffron was associated with women because of its use as a medicine for menstrual problems. Over the veil was placed the stephane or bridal crown. Before and during the ceremony, the veil covered the brides face until the ritual unveiling of the bride, the anakalypteria, took place. Not until this unveiling had either the bride or groom seen each other, and this part of the ceremony is thought to have symbolized the brides willing acceptance of the groom. Both bride and groom were also crowned with laurel wreaths, a religious symbol with divine associations that was intended to glorify the weddings of mortals. The bride also wore special sandals called nymphides and decked herself with elaborate jewelry. (See Figure 3.14.) Finally, the bride presented
FIGuRE 3.14 Womanpreparingforher wedding.Theattendantattheleftis handingherthestephane,orbridal crown.Thebride,ontheright,hasa belttiedwithabridalknotaround herwaistandisintheprocessofdonningherbridalveil.(OilFlask[Lekythos]inthe

formofanacorn[410400B.C.]MuseumofFine Arts,Boston.)
5/21/09 3:21:43 PM
C o ntemporary Comments 3.2

HOMER DESCRIBES WOMENS GROOMING AND DRESS
In TheIliad, [Book 14, lines 169186], Homer describes how Hera, a goddess, beautifies herself so that she may persuade the god Zeus to do something she wishes. Shewenttoherchamber....Thereenteringshedrewshuttheleavesoftheshiningdoor,thenfirstfromher adorablebodywashedawayallstainswithambrosia,1andnextanointedherselfwithambrosialsweetoliveoil, whichstoodthereinitsfragrancebeside....Whenwiththisshehadanointedherdelicatebodyandcombed herhair,nextwithherhandsshearrangedtheshiningandlovelyandambrosialcurlsalongherimmortalhead, anddressedinanambrosialrobethatAthene[anothergoddess]hadmadehercarefully,smooth,andwithmany figuresuponit,andpinneditacrossherbreastwithagoldenbrooch,andcircledherwaistaboutwithazone [belt]thatfloatedahundredtassels,andinthelobesofhercarefullypiercedearssheputringswithtripledropsin mulberryclusters,radiantwithbeauty,and,lovelyamonggoddesses,sheveiledherheaddownwardwithasweet freshveilthatglimmeredpalelikethesunlight.Underneathhershiningfeetsheboundonthefairsandals. In TheOdyssey, an epic describing the adventures of Odysseus, a Greek warrior, suitors who believe Odysseus is dead give presents to his wife Penelope. These gifts include clothing and jewels. ...everymansentasquiretofetchagiftAninoosawideresplendentrobe,embroideredfine,andfastened withtwelvebrooches,pinspressedintosheathingtubesofgold;Eurymakhos,anecklacewroughtingold,with sunraypiecesofclearglintingamber.Eurydamassmencamebackwithpendants,ear-dropsintripleclustersof warmlights;andfromthehoardofLordPolyktorsson,Peisandros,cameabandforherwhitethroat,jewelled adornment.
1
Asweet-smellingsubstance.
TheIliad of Homer.[N.D.]TranslatedwithanintroductionbyRichmondLattimore.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Homer:The Odyssey1961.TranslatedbyRobertFitzgerald.GardenCity,NY:Doubleday.
the groom with a tunic, a chlanis, she had woven herself. This gift probably symbolized her mastery of an essential housewifely skill. M I L I TA R Y C O S T u M E Military costume during both the Archaic and Classical Periods varied from one city-state to another but usually included some form of protective clothing worn over a tunic. In the Archaic Period, soldiers wore cloaks of rough wool. They protected themselves with such devices as breastplates made from
metal plates or disks mounted on fabric corselets and held up by shoulder straps. Helmets made of either leather or bronze that had chin straps and high crests were intended to make warriors look more fearsome. Greaves, shaped leather or metal protectors for the lower legs, and wide metal belts and shields provided additional protection. In the Classical Period, chlamys-style cloaks were worn. Protective devices for common soldiers included a leather cuirass (kwi-ras') (a modern term for a closefitting, shaped armor that covered the body), a metal
5/21/09 3:21:44 PM
belt, and greaves. Heavily armed infantry wore a metal or leather cuirass with a row of leather tabs hanging down from the cuirass at the waist to protect the lower part of body. (See Figure 3.15.) Helmets, worn either with or without crests, became more protective. They had extended pieces to cover the cheekbones, nose, jaws, and neck. In both periods men either went barefoot, or wore high boots. T H E AT R I C A L C O S T u M E The theater was important in Greece and eventually acquired a traditional style of costume through which the theatergoer could immediately identify the characters. Male actors played all of the parts in both comedies and tragedies. Tragic actors wore a tragic mask, with either tall wigs or tufts of hair fastened to the mask, and thick-soled platform shoes. Kings, queens, gods, goddesses, happy characters, tragic figures, and slaves were each identified by a specific style of dress, special insignia, or color. For those who are interested in a more lengthy exploration of Greek theatrical costume, several references are listed in the Selected Readings at the end of this chapter.
FIGuRE 3.15 Greeksoldierwearingleathercuirasswith
suspendedleatherpanels.Notethatthecheekguards ofthehelmetareraised.Wheninuse,thesepanels wouldfolddowntoprotectthesideoftheface.The soldierwearsgreavesonhislegs.(CourtesyofDover Publications,Inc.)
SuMMARY
VISuAL SuMMARY The accompanying Visual Summary Table illustrates the major styles of Greek costume. Major items of Minoan dress can be seen in Figures 3.1 to 3.5. THEMES Although lack of precise information about Minoan life and culture limits our ability to explore themes related to social life, we can readily see the impact on dress of themes such as the production of textiles and related technology. Skills related to weaving and dyeing, especially of wool fibers, made possible the wide variety of highly ornamented fabrics used in Minoan dress. trade, exporting textiles and importing dyestuffs to and from other Mediterranean countries, was another factor that contributed to the development of Minoan styles. The resulting cross-cultural interchanges may also have influenced some specific garments, such as shoes and sheep fleece skirts. Minoan political control of Mycenae helped to spread Minoan-influenced styles to the mainland of Greece. Eventually political conflict in the form of the conquest of the Minoans and the Mycenaeans by outside forces closed off information about these peoples for a number of centuries. The Archaic and Classical Greek Periods provide more fertile territory for identification of important themes. Some of the variations in the forms of the chiton illustrate themes such as politics, cross-cultural influences, and changes in social values. The Ionic chiton was a style with non-Greek origins,
5/21/09 3:21:45 PM
most probably a Middle Eastern style adopted by Greeks in Ionia, a settlement at the far eastern end of the Mediterranean. From Ionia the style spread to the mainland, where it supplanted the Doric peplos. About 480 b.c., as a result of war with Persia, a period of intense interest in the Greek past and a denigration of oriental styles apparently led to a rejection of the Ionic chiton in favor of a new style, the Doric chiton, which represented a sort of revival of the older, native Doric peplos. For men the simpler Doric chiton was
more compatible with the social value of equality than the more elaborate Ionic chiton. The shape and construction of costume for men and for women in Greece was not markedly different. Nevertheless, the theme of gender roles does appear in the dress of brides and in veiling of married women. Many writers have commented on similarities between certain aspects of Greek arts and dress. These similarities are especially notable in architec-
Visual Summary Table

Major Greek Garments
Doricpeplos(c.550b.c.)
Ionicchiton(c.550480b.c.)
Doricchiton(c.400100b.c.)
Himation
Chlamys(cloak)andpetasos(hat)
Exomis
5/21/09 3:21:53 PM
ture. Decorative motifs often appear both on buildings and as ornamentation on garments. Tall, slender Doric and Ionic building columns with their fluted surfaces have been compared to the long, pleated tubular chitons worn by the Greeks.
Romanized Europe for the six centuries following the death of Alexander the Great. It can even be argued that its influence in certain aspects of dress can be felt until the latter part of the Middle Ages. Moreover, Greek influence on dress was not limited to the civilizations that coexisted with Classical Greece. Elements of Classical art have been revived during the Renaissance (15th and 16th centuries), the Neoclassical Period (18th century), and the Empire Period (early 1800s.) In this latter period a method of belting the dress high, under the bustline, was copied from Hellenistic chiton styles. (See Figures 11.2 and 11.3, pages 310 and 311.) Called the empire waistline, this Greek-inspired style was revived periodically by fashion designers of the 20th century, many of whom looked to historic periods for design inspiration. The soft, flowing lines of the Greek styles seem to appeal particularly to lingerie designers and designers of evening dress. NOTES
Barber, E. J. W. 1991. Prehistoric Textiles. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. . 1994. Womens Work: the First 20,000 Years. New York: W. W. Norton. . 2000. Letter to the editor. Archeaology (Nov.Dec.), p. 6. Bonfante, L. 1977. Etruscan Dress. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Boucher, F. 1987. 20,000 Years of Fashion. London: Thames and Hudson. Connelly, J. B. 2007. Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient Greece. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Durant, W. 1966. The Life of Greece. The Story of Civilization, Vol. 2. New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 84. Evans, A, 1963. Scenes from Minoan Life. In J. Hawkes, ed., The World of the Past. New York: Knopf. Evans, M. M. 1964. Greek Dress. In M. Johnson, ed., Ancient Greek Dress. Chicago: Argonaut. Faber, A. 1938. Dress and Dress Materials in Greece and Rome. CIBA Review, p. 297. Galt, C. 1931. Veiled Ladies. American Journal of Archeology, Vol. 35, No. 4, p. 373. Geddes, A. G. 1987. Rags and Riches: The Costume of Athenian Men in the Fifth Century. Classical Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. ii, pp. 307331.
L AT E R S u R V I VA L S OF GREEk DRESS
The travels of the chiton do not end with the decline of Greek power. The spread of Greek settlements and Greek culture throughout the Mediterranean world resulted in the adoption of many elements of Greek costume by contemporary Egyptians, by the Etruscans, and, later, by the Romans in Italy. By way of Roman costume, Greek costume can be said to have served as a basis for the costume of
M ODERN I NFLuENCES
Twenty-firstcentury echoesofwomens dressinancientGreece canbeseeninthis pleated,high-waisted, softlyflowingwhite gownwithcharacteristicssimilartotheDoric chiton.(CourtesyofFairchild
Publications,Inc.)
5/21/09 3:22:02 PM
Houston, M. G. 1966. Ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Costume. London: Adam & Charles Black. Marcar, A. 2005. Reconstructing Aegean Bronze Age Fashion. In L. Cleland., M. Harlow, and L. Llewellyn-Jones, eds., The Clothed Body in the Ancient World. Oxford: Oxbow, p. 34. Mylonas, G. 1966. Mycenae and the Mycenaean World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, p. 136. Reeder, E. D. 1995. Women and Men in Classical Greece. In E. Reeder, ed., Pandora: Women in Classical Greece. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, p. 20. Roebuck, C. 1966. The World of Ancient Times. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, p. 366. Stafford, E. J. 2005. Viewing and Obscuring the Female Breast: Glimpse of the Ancient Bra. In L. Cleland, M. Harlow, and L. Llewellyn-Jones, eds., The Clothed Body in the Ancient World. Oxford: Oxbow, pp. 96110.
Galt, C. 1931. Veiled Ladies. American Journal of Archeology, Vol. 35, No. 4, p. 373. Geddes, A. G. 1987. Rags and Riches: The Costume of Athenian Men in the Fifth Century. Classical Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. II , p. 307. Jones, B. 2000. Revealing Minoan Fashions. Archeology, Vol. 53, No. 3 (May/June), p. 36. Llewellyn-Jones, L. 2002. A Womans View? Dress, Eroticism, and the Ideal Female Body in Athenian Art. In L. Llewellyn-Jones, ed., Womens Dress in the Ancient Greek World. London: Duckworth, p. 171. Peterson, S. 1981. A Costuming Scene from the Room of the Ladies on Thera. American Journal of Archeology, Vol. 85, No. 2 (Apr.), p. 211. Rebak, P. 1996. Aegean Breechcloths, Kilts, and the Keftiu Paintings. American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 100 (Jan.), p. 35. daily life Browning, R., ed. 2000. The Greek World. New York: Thames and Hudson. Castleden, R. 1993. Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete. New York: Routledge. Chadwick, J. 1976. The Mycenaean World. New York: Cambridge University Press. Garland, R. 1998. Daily Life of the Ancient Greeks. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Grant, M. 1992. A Social History of Greece and Rome. New York: Scribner/Maxwell Macmillan International. Hawkes, J. 1968. Dawn of the Gods. New York: Random House. Lefkowitz, M. R. and M. B. Fant, eds. 1992. Womens Life in Greece and Rome. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Pomeroy, S. B. 1995. Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity. New York: Schocken Books. Robinson, C. E. 1989. Everyday Life in Ancient Greece. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. greek theater Costume Brooke, I. 2003. Costume in Greek Classic Drama. Mineola, NY: Dover. Simon, E. 1982. The Ancient Theatre. New York: Methuen. Stone, L. M. 1981. Costume in Aristophanic Poetry. Salem, NH: Ayer.
SELECTEDREADINGS
Books Containing illustrations of Costume of the Period from original sourCes Beard, M. and J. Henderson. 2001. Classical Art: From Greece to Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. Hale, W. H. 1985. The Horizon Book of Ancient Greece. New York: Random House. Higgins, R. 1997. Minoan and Mycenaean Art. New York: Thames and Hudson. Kaltsas, N. 2003. Ancient Greek and Roman Sculpture in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Los Angeles: Getty Trust. Mylonas, G. 1966. Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Preziosi, D. and L. A. Hitchcock. 2000. Aegean Art and Architecture. New York: Oxford University Press. Richter, G. 1994. A Handbook of Greek Art. New York: Phaidon. PeriodiCal and other artiCles Alexander, S. M., ed. 1978. Information on Historical Techniques, Textiles: 1. The Classical Period. Art and Archeology Technical Abstracts, Vol. 15, No. 2. Blundell, S. 2002. Clutching at Clothes. In L. LlewellynJones, ed., Womens Dress in the Ancient Greek World. London: Duckworth, p. 143. DeBrohun, J. 2001. Power Dressing in Ancient Greece and Rome. History Today, February, p. 18. Faber, G. A. 1938. Dress and Dress Materials in Greece and Rome. CIBA Review, Vol. 1, p. 296.
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Survey of

Fairchild Books New York

Copyright 2010 Fairchild Books

From the twen t i e t h t o t h e tw e n t y - f i r s t Ce n t u r y

Bibliography 652 Credits 659 Index 661

PART ONE The Ancient World c. 3000 b.c. a.d. 300

PART TWO The Middle Ages c. 3001500

PART THREE The Renaissance c. 14001600

PART FOUR Baroque and Rococo c. 16001800

PART FIVE The Nineteenth Century 18001900

SOME NOTES ON USING THIS BOOK

Some Notes on using this Book

Development of the city of Knossos

21001600 b.c. 16001100 b.c.

Middle Minoan period

15711521 b.c. c. 1450 b.c.

14001200 b.c. 1200750 b.c. 776 b.c.

Domination by Myceneans Dark Age of Greece First Olympic games in Greece

Classical Age Flowering of Greek philosophy, art, drama, literature

Alexander the Great

after 323 b.c.

Hellenistic period Decline of Greek power

Crete and Greece

MINOAN AND MYCENAEAN C I V I L I Z AT I O N S

MINOAN COSTuME FOR MEN AND WOMEN: 29001100 b.c.

FIGuRE 3.1 Restoredfrescoesfromthepalaceat

FIGuRE 3.2 FemaleMinoanSnakeDeity

FIGuRE 3.3 Inanotherdepictionofasnake goddess,hereisaskirtthatisapparently madefromrowsofruffles.Herbodice ismadeofpatternedfabricorfabric withornamentedappliedbands,andshe hasaround,rolledbeltatthewaist.Likethe goddessinFigure3.2,shewearstheapronlikecoveringbelowherwaist.(ErichLessing/Art

FIGuRE 3.4 Athirdtypeofskirtisseeninwallpaintings.The

exactconstructionisunclear.Somescholarssuggestthatthe garmentmayhavebeenwide-leggedtrousers,butitseems morelikelythatitisawrappedskirt.(Scala/ArtResource,NY.)

FIGuRE 3.5 Figuresdepictedonasarcophagusfromthe14th centuryb.c.atHagiaTriada,Crete,showingaprocessionof twowomenandaman.Thewomanattheleftwearsasheepskinskirtandafittedbodice.Themanandwomanattheright arewearinglongtunicsdecoratedwithtrimmingthatmaybe wovenbraid.(CourtesyofFairchildPublications,Inc.)

MINOAN COSTuME FOR CHILDREN: 29001100 b.c.

TRANSITIONS IN THE DOMINANT STYLES

FIGuRE 3.6 Depictionofafamilyperformingsacrifices,c.530b.c.WomenaredressedinblueDoricpep-

FIGuRE 3.7 Athenianwomen,c.560b.c.,(lefttoright)preparingwool,foldingcloth,spinningyarn, weavingonanuprightloom,andweighingwoolfiber.Thesewomenaredressedintheform-fitting DorianpeplosoftheArchaicperiod.(CourtesyofTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,FletcherFund,1931.)

SOuRCES OF EVIDENCE FOR THE STuDY OF GREEk COSTuME

GREEk COSTuME FOR MEN AND WOMEN: 650300 b.c.

TABLE 3.1 TypesofChitonsWornbyGreekMenandWomen

FIGuRE 3.8 OnlyrarelydoesGreek

artshowcolorsofcostumes. Here,awomanwearing agold-coloredIonic chitonhasalavenderchlamydonover hershoulder.(The

FIGuRE 3.9 WomaninIonicchitonover whichshewearsachlamydon.(Atlanta

C ontemporary Comments 3.1

T hesebroochesarenotlikemodernbroacheswithsafetyclasps,butlong,sharp,daggerlikepins. I onicstyles(seeFigure3.9)werefastenedwithsmall,button-shapedclosuresoffibulae,probablyclosingmorelikeasmallsafetypin. ThelaterrevivalofDorianstylesdidnotincludetheuseofthedaggerlikepinforfastening.

FromThe Persian Wars,byHerodotus,trans.byGeorgeRawlinson.Copyright1942byRandomHouse,Inc.;reprintedwithpermission ofRandomHouse,Inc.

FIGuRE 3.11 Greekwomanwearsthe

Hellenisticchiton,whichisbelted typicallyhighunderthebreasts andmadeoflightweightfabric thatmoldsthebodylines.

FIGuRE 3.10 Figurefroma

GreekvasebyThomasHope (18thcentury).Womanfastens theshoulderofherDoric chiton.Noticethesmallweights attheendofthedraperythat fallsfromherrightshoulder.

Illustrated Table 3.1

Youthfulmalefigurewith short,curlyhairfrom ClassicalPeriod

Womanshairstyle WomenshairstylesdepictedonArchaicGreeksculpture depictedinMinoan wallpainting

GREEk COSTuME FOR CHILDREN: 650300 b.c.

FIGuRE 3.12 Greekyouthwearinghimation.(Courtesyof

FIGuRE 3.13 5thcenturyb.c.Greekvaseshows(fromlefttoright)awomaninanIonicchitonwithashawldrawn

overherhead;anakedcupid;agoddessinaDoricchiton;awomaninanIonicchiton,aveiloverherheadanda cloakoverhershoulders;twomeninchlamysandpetasos;andamaninahimation.Oldermenarebearded,the youthiscleanshaven.(CourtesyofTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,RogersFund,1907.)

GREEk COSTuME FOR SPECIALIZED O C C u P AT I O N S O R O C C A S I O N S

FIGuRE 3.14 Womanpreparingforher wedding.Theattendantattheleftis handingherthestephane,orbridal crown.Thebride,ontheright,hasa belttiedwithabridalknotaround herwaistandisintheprocessofdonningherbridalveil.(OilFlask[Lekythos]inthe

C o ntemporary Comments 3.2

TheIliad of Homer.[N.D.]TranslatedwithanintroductionbyRichmondLattimore.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Homer:The Odyssey1961.TranslatedbyRobertFitzgerald.GardenCity,NY:Doubleday.

FIGuRE 3.15 Greeksoldierwearingleathercuirasswith

suspendedleatherpanels.Notethatthecheekguards ofthehelmetareraised.Wheninuse,thesepanels wouldfolddowntoprotectthesideoftheface.The soldierwearsgreavesonhislegs.(CourtesyofDover Publications,Inc.)

Visual Summary Table

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