Causes and Lffects of the kap|d S|nk|ng

of the 1|tan|c


Cn Aprll 14 1912 Lhe 8MS 1lLanlc colllded wlLh a masslve lceberg and sank ln less Lhan Lhree
hours AL Lhe Llme more Lhan 2200 passengers and crew were aboard Lhe 1lLanlc for her
malden voyage Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes Cnly 703 survlved Accordlng Lo Lhe bullders of Lhe 1lLanlc
even ln Lhe worsL posslble accldenL aL sea Lhe shlp should have sLayed afloaL for Lwo Lo Lhree
days 1hls arLlcle dlscusses Lhe maLerlal fallures and deslgn flaws LhaL conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe rapld
slnklng of Lhe 1lLanlc ln addlLlon Lhe arLlcle addresses Lhe changes LhaL have been made ln boLh
Lhe deslgn of shlps and Lhe safeLy regulaLlons governlng shlps aL sea as a resulL of Lhe 1lLanlc
dlsasLer


Introduct|on
AL Lhe Llme of her consLrucLlon Lhe 1lLanlc was Lhe largesL shlp ever bullL She was nearly 900
feeL long sLood 23 sLorles hlgh and welghed an lncredlble 46000 Lons ulvlslon 1997 WlLh
LurnofLhecenLury deslgn and Lechnology lncludlng slxLeen ma[or waLerLlghL comparLmenLs ln
her lower secLlon LhaL could easlly be sealed off ln Lhe evenL of a puncLured hull Lhe 1lLanlc was
deemed an unslnkable shlp Accordlng Lo her bullders even ln Lhe worsL posslble accldenL aL
sea Lwo shlps collldlng Lhe 1lLanlc would sLay afloaL for Lwo Lo Lhree days whlch would provlde
enough Llme for nearby shlps Lo help Cannon 1993
Cn Aprll 14 1912 however Lhe 1lLanlc sldeswlped a masslve lceberg and sank ln less Lhan Lhree
hours uamaglng nearly 300 feeL of Lhe shlps hull Lhe colllslon allowed waLer Lo flood slx of her
slxLeen ma[or waLerLlghL comparLmenLs Cannon 1993 She was on her malden voyage Lo Lhe
unlLed SLaLes carrylng more Lhan 2200 passengers and crew when she foundered Cnly 703 of
Lhose aboard Lhe 1lLanlc ever reached Lhelr desLlnaLlon Plll 1996 AfLer whaL seemed llke a
mlnor colllslon wlLh an lceberg Lhe largesL shlp ever bullL sank ln a fracLlon of Lhe Llme
esLlmaLed for her worsL posslble accldenL aL sea
1he purpose of Lhls arLlcle ls Lo explaln Lhe maLerlal fallures and deslgn flaws LhaL conLrlbuLed Lo
Lhe rapld slnklng of Lhe 1lLanlc Speclflcally brlLLle fracLure of Lhe hull sLeel fallure of Lhe rlveLs
and flaws ln Lhe waLerLlghL comparLmenLs wlll be analyzed Puman facLors LhaL conLrlbuLed Lo
Lhe slnklng wlll noL be revlewed ln addlLlon Lo Lhe causes for Lhe slnklng Lhe effecLs of Lhe
dlsasLer are revlewed As a resulL of Lhe 1lLanlc dlsasLer changes were made ln shlp deslgn such
as double hulls and Laller bulkheads Also sLrlcLer sLandards for safeLy regulaLlons governlng
shlps aL sea were lmplemenLed lncludlng mandaLory use of elecLronlc communlcaLlon
mlnlmum llfeboaL capaclLles and Lhe developmenL of Lhe lce paLrol
1he flrsL secLlon of Lhe arLlcle ls a hlsLorlcal overvlew of Lhe 1lLanlc dlsasLer 1hls secLlon lncludes
sLaLlsLlcs on Lhe 1lLanlc and a Llme llne of Lhe dlsasLer 1he nexL secLlon of Lhe arLlcle ls a
dlscusslon of Lhe maLerlal fallures and deslgn flaws LhaL conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe rapld slnklng of Lhe
1lLanlc ln Lhe lasL secLlon Lhe deslgn changes made Lo shlps and Lhe safeLy regulaLlons LhaL
have been developed as a resulL of Lhe 1lLanlc dlsasLer are explalned 1he arLlcle concludes wlLh
a revlew of Lhe causes and effecLs of Lhe rapld slnklng of Lhe 1lLanlc ln addlLlon Lhe concluslon
provldes a fuLure perspecLlve on Lhe llmlLaLlons of Lhe shlpbulldlng lndusLry
|stor|ca| Cverv|ew
1he 1lLanlc was a WhlLe SLar Llne sLeamshlp bullL ln Lhe early nlneLeen hundreds by Parland and
Wolff of 8elfasL lreland AL Lhe Llme of her consLrucLlon she was Lhe largesL movlng ob[ecL ever
bullL WlLh a welghL of more Lhan 46000 Lons a lengLh of nearly 900 feeL and a helghL of more
Lhan 23 sLorles she was Lhe largesL of Lhree slsLer shlps owned by Lhe WhlLe SLar Llne ulvlslon
1997 1he 1lLanlc was also equlpped wlLh Lhe ulLlmaLe ln LurnofLhecenLury deslgn and
Lechnology lncludlng slxLeen ma[or waLerLlghL comparLmenLs ln her lower secLlon LhaL could
easlly be sealed off ln Lhe evenL of a puncLured hull 8ecause of her many safeLy feaLures and a
commenL by her deslgner LhaL she was nearly unslnkable Lhe 1lLanlc was lmmedlaLely deemed
an unslnkable shlp Cannon 1993
Cn Aprll 10 1912 Lhe 1lLanlc commenced her malden voyage from SouLhampLon Lngland Lo
new ?ork wlLh 2227 passengers and crew aboard ulvlslon 1997 1he passengers lncluded
some of Lhe wealLhlesL and mosL presLlglous people aL LhaL Llme CapLaln Ldward !ohn SmlLh
one of Lhe mosL experlenced shlpmasLers on Lhe ALlanLlc was navlgaLlng Lhe 1lLanlc 8ogers and
oLhers 1998 Cn Lhe nlghL of Aprll 14 alLhough Lhe wlreless operaLors had recelved several lce
warnlngs from oLhers shlps ln Lhe area Lhe 1lLanlc conLlnued Lo rush Lhrough Lhe darkness aL
nearly full sLeam A Llme llne of Lhe evenLs LhaL followed ls shown ln 1able 1 AL 1133 pm Lhe
lookouLs spoLLed a masslve lceberg less Lhan a quarLer of a mlle off Lhe bow of Lhe shlp
lmmedlaLely Lhe englnes were Lhrown lnLo reverse and Lhe rudder Lurned hard lefL 8ecause of
Lhe Lremendous mass of Lhe shlp slowlng and Lurnlng Look an lncredlble dlsLance more Lhan
LhaL avallable AL 1140 wlLhouL enough dlsLance Lo alLer her course Lhe 1lLanlc sldeswlped Lhe
lceberg damaglng nearly 300 feeL of Lhe rlghL slde of Lhe hull above and below Lhe waLerllne
Cannon 1993
1ab|e 1 1lmellne of Lhe Slnklng of Lhe 1lLanlc Cannon 1993
113S
pm
Lookouts spot the |ceberg 1]4 m||e ahead
1140
1he 1|tan|c s|desw|pes the |ceberg damag|ng near|y 300 feet of the
hu||
M|dn|ght
Watert|ght compartments are f||||ng water beg|ns to sp||| over the
tops of the transverse bu|kheads
120 am 1he bow p|tches water f|oods through anchorcha|n ho|es
200 1he bow cont|nues to submerge prope||ers ||ft out of the water
210
1he 1|tan|c t||ts 4S degrees or more the upper structure stee|
d|s|ntegrates
212
1he stern ra|ses up out of the water the bow f||||ng w|th water
grows heav|er
218
We|gh|ng 16000 tons the bow r|ps |oose the stern r|ses to a|most
vert|ca|
220 1he stern s||ps beneath the surface
229 Coast|ng at about 13 mph the bow str|kes the ocean f|oor
2S6 Ia|||ng at about 4 mph the stern str|kes the ocean f|oor

1he damage caused by Lhe colllslon allowed waLer Lo flood slx of Lhe slxLeen ma[or waLerLlghL
comparLmenLs As waLer rushed lnLo Lhe sLarboard slde of Lhe shlps bow Lhe shlp began Lo LllL
down ln fronL and sllghLly Lo Lhe rlghL 8y mldnlghL waLer ln Lhe damaged comparLmenLs began
Lo splll over lnLo oLhers because Lhe comparLmenLs were waLerLlghL only horlzonLally and Lhe
walls exLended only a few feeL above waLerllne 8y 120 am waLer began floodlng Lhrough
anchorchaln holes Around 200 as Lhe bow conLlnued submerglng Lhe propellers ln Lhe sLern
were llfLed ouL of Lhe waLer lloodlng progressed unLll aL abouL 210 Lhe bow of Lhe shlp was
under waLer and Lhe sLern was llfLed ouL of Lhe waLer almosL 43 degrees 8ecause of Lhe
Lremendous welghL of Lhe Lhree large propellers ln Lhe sLern of Lhe shlp Lhe sLresses ln Lhe
shlps mldsecLlon lncreased lmmensely as Lhe sLern was llfLed ouL of Lhe waLer AL an angle of 43
degrees or more Lhe sLresses ln Lhe mldsecLlon exceeded Lhe ulLlmaLe sLresses of Lhe sLeel and
Lhe sLeel falled Carzke and oLhers 1994 SLresses aL fallure were esLlmaLed aL nearly 13 Lons
per square lnch Cannon 1993 WhaL survlvors of Lhe dlsasLer Lhen descrlbed was a loud nolse
LhaL sounded llke breaklng chlna or falllng equlpmenL Plll 1996 1hls nolse can be aLLrlbuLed Lo
Lhe Learlng and dlslnLegraLlon of Lhe 1lLanlcs upper sLrucLure 8y 212 wlLh Lhe bow and sLern
aLLached by only Lhe lnner boLLom sLrucLure Lhe sLern angled hlgh ouL of Lhe waLer 1he bow
dangllng beneaLh conLlnued Lo flll wlLh waLer AL 218 when Lhe bow reached a welghL of abouL
16000 Lons lL rlpped loose from Lhe sLern lree from Lhe welghL of Lhe bow Lhe sLern rose
agaln sharply Lo an almosL verLlcal poslLlon Slowly fllllng wlLh waLer Lhe sLern began Lo slnk lnLo
Lhe waLer AL 220 Lhe sLern slld beneaLh Lhe surface Meanwhlle Lhe bow had been coasLlng
down aL abouL 13 mlles per hour (mph) AL 229 Lhe bow sLruck Lhe boLLom of Lhe ocean lalllng
nearly verLlcal aL abouL 4 mph Lhe sLern crashed lnLo Lhe ocean floor 27 mlnuLes laLer
1he Lwo pleces of Lhe 1lLanlc lle 2000 feeL aparL polnLlng ln opposlLe dlrecLlons beneaLh 12300
feeL of waLer 1he bow secLlon remalns mosLly lnLacL alLhough Lhe damaged porLlon of Lhe hull
ls covered wlLh a 33fooL hlgh wall of sllL and mud LhaL plowed up when Lhe 1lLanlc hlL boLLom
so Lhe polnL of fracLure can noL be seen 1he sLern secLlon ls a Langled wreck as lmploslons
occurred durlng Lhe descenL due Lo alr Lrapped wlLhln Lhe sLrucLure succumblng Lo Lhe
lncreased waLer pressure aL greaLer depLhs 8eLween Lhe Lwo secLlons ls a wlde fleld of debrls
Plll 1996
lor 73 years Lhe 1lLanlc remalned undlsLurbed on Lhe ocean floor Cn SepLember 1 1983
oceanographer 8ob 8allard and hls crew dlscovered Lhe wreck of Lhe 1lLanlc abouL 330 mlles
souLheasL of newfoundland Canada Cannon 1993 Slnce Lhen four more expedlLlons have
vlslLed Lhe 1lLanlc ln 1991 Lhe flrsL purely sclenLlflc Leam vlslLed Lhe slLe 1he dlve was called
Lhe lmax dlve because Lhe purpose was Lo creaLe a fllm for lmax LheaLers 1he SovleL
submerslbles used ln Lhe dlve were capable of sLaylng submerged for LwenLy hours and were
equlpped wlLh 110000lumen lamps WlLh Lhls equlpmenL sclenLlsLs were able Lo Lake plcLures
of Lhe 1lLanlc wreck and evenLually uncover new evldence lnLo Lhe cause of Lhe 1lLanlc dlsasLer

Causes of the kap|d S|nk|ng
Cn an expedlLlon ln 1991 Lo Lhe 1lLanlc wreck sclenLlsLs dlscovered a chunk of meLal lylng on
Lhe ocean floor LhaL once was a parL of Lhe 1lLanlcs hull 1he lrlsbee slzed plece of sLeel was an
lnch Lhlck wlLh Lhree rlveL holes each 123 lnches ln dlameLer Cannon 1993 Slnce Lhe
reLrleval of Lhls plece of sLeel exLenslve research has been done Lo uncover addlLlonal clues Lo
Lhe cause of Lhe rapld slnklng of Lhe 1lLanlc 1he followlng ls a dlscusslon of Lhe maLerlal fallures
and deslgn flaws LhaL conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe dlsasLer
Mater|a| Ia||ures
When Lhe 1lLanlc colllded wlLh Lhe lceberg Lhe hull sLeel and Lhe wroughL lron rlveLs falled
because of brlLLle fracLure A Lype of caLasLrophlc fallure ln sLrucLural maLerlals brlLLle fracLure
occurs wlLhouL prlor plasLlc deformaLlon and aL exLremely hlgh speeds 1he causes of brlLLle
fracLure lnclude low LemperaLure hlgh lmpacL loadlng and hlgh sulphur conLenL Cn Lhe nlghL
of Lhe 1lLanlc dlsasLer each of Lhese Lhree facLors was presenL 1he waLer LemperaLure was
below freezlng Lhe 1lLanlc was Lravelllng aL a hlgh speed on lmpacL wlLh Lhe lceberg and Lhe
hull sLeel conLalned hlgh levels of sulphur
1he u|| Stee| 1he flrsL hlnL LhaL brlLLle fracLure of Lhe hull sLeel conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe 1lLanlc
dlsasLer came followlng Lhe recovery of a plece of Lhe hull sLeel from Lhe 1lLanlc wreck AfLer
cleanlng Lhe plece of sLeel Lhe sclenLlsLs noLed Lhe condlLlon of Lhe edges !agged and sharp
Lhe edges of Lhe plece of sLeel appeared almosL shaLLered llke broken chlna Also Lhe meLal
showed no evldence bendlng or deformaLlon 1yplcal hlghquallLy shlp sLeel ls more ducLlle and
deforms raLher Lhan breaks Cannon 1993
Slmllar behavlor was found ln Lhe damaged hull sLeel of Lhe 1lLanlcs slsLer shlp Clymplc afLer a
colllslon whlle leavlng harbor on SepLember 20 1911 A 36fooL hlgh openlng was Lorn lnLo Lhe
sLarboard slde of Lhe Clymplcs hull when a 8rlLlsh crulser broadslded her lallure of Lhe rlveLed
[olnLs and rlpplng of Lhe hull plaLes were apparenL ln Lhe area of lmpacL Powever Lhe plaLe
Lears exhlblLed llLLle plasLlc deformaLlon and Lhe edges were unusually sharp havlng Lhe
appearance of brlLLle fracLures Carzke and oLhers 1994
lurLher evldence of Lhe brlLLle fracLure of Lhe hull sLeel was found when a clgareLLeslzed
coupon of Lhe sLeel Laken from Lhe 1lLanlc wreck was sub[ecLed Lo a Charpy LesL used Lo
measure Lhe brlLLleness of a maLerlal Lhe Charpy LesL ls run by holdlng Lhe coupon agalnsL a
sLeel backlng and sLrlklng Lhe coupon wlLh a 67 pound pendulum on a 23fooLlong arm 1he
pendulums polnL of conLacL ls lnsLrumenLed wlLh a readouL of forces elecLronlcally recorded ln
mllllsecond deLall A plece of modern hlghquallLy sLeel was LesLed along wlLh Lhe coupon from
Lhe hull sLeel 8oLh coupons were placed ln a baLh of alcohol aL 1C Lo slmulaLe Lhe condlLlons
on Lhe nlghL of Lhe 1lLanlc dlsasLer When Lhe coupon of Lhe modern sLeel was LesLed Lhe
pendulum swung down and halLed wlLh a Lhud Lhe LesL plece had benL lnLo a v Powever
when Lhe coupon of Lhe 1lLanlc sLeel was LesLed Lhe pendulum sLruck Lhe coupon wlLh a sharp
plng barely slowed and conLlnued up on lLs swlng Lhe sample broken lnLo Lwo pleces salled
across Lhe room Cannon 1993 lcLures of Lhe Lwo coupons followlng Lhe Charpy LesL are
shown ln llgure 1 WhaL Lhe LesL showed and Lhe readouL conflrmed ls Lhe brlLLleness of Lhe
1lLanlcs hull sLeel When Lhe 1lLanlc sLruck Lhe lceberg Lhe hull plaLes dld noL deform 1hey
fracLured
A mlcrosLrucLural analysls of Lhe 1lLanlc sLeel also showed Lhe plauslblllLy of brlLLle fracLure of
Lhe hull sLeel 1he LesL showed hlgh levels of boLh oxygen and sulphur whlch lmplles LhaL Lhe
sLeel was semlkllned low carbon sLeel made uslng Lhe openhearLh process Plgh oxygen
conLenL leads Lo an lncreased ducLlleLobrlLLle LranslLlon LemperaLure whlch was deLermlned
as 23 Lo 33C for Lhe 1lLanlc sLeel MosL modern sLeels would need Lo be chllled below 60C
before Lhey exhlblLed slmllar behavlor Plgh sulphur conLenL lncreases Lhe brlLLleness of sLeel by
dlsrupLlng Lhe graln sLrucLure 1he sulphur comblnes wlLh magneslum ln Lhe sLeel Lo form
sLrlngers of magneslum sulphlde whlch acL as hlghways for crack propagaLlon AlLhough mosL
of Lhe sLeel used for shlpbulldlng ln Lhe early 1900s had a relaLlvely hlgh sulphur conLenL Lhe
1lLanlcs sLeel was hlgh even for Lhe Llmes Plll 1996
1he k|vets 1he wroughL lron rlveLs LhaL fasLened Lhe hull plaLes Lo Lhe 1lLanlcs maln sLrucLure
also falled because of brlLLle fracLure from Lhe hlgh lmpacL loadlng of Lhe colllslon wlLh Lhe
lceberg and Lhe low LemperaLure waLer on Lhe nlghL of Lhe dlsasLer llgure 2 shows Lhe 1lLanlc
durlng her consLrucLlon wlLh Lhe rlveLed hull plaLes of her sLern vlslble WlLh Lhe shlp Lravelllng
aL nearly 23 mph Lhe conLacL wlLh Lhe lceberg was probably a serles of lmpacLs LhaL caused Lhe
rlveLs Lo fall elLher ln shear or by elongaLlon Carzke and oLhers 1994 As Lhe lceberg scraped
along secLlons of Lhe 1lLanlcs hull Lhe rlveLs were sheared off whlch opened up rlveLed seams
Also because of Lhe Lremendous forces creaLed on lmpacL wlLh Lhe lceberg Lhe rlveL heads ln
Lhe areas of conLacL were slmply popped off whlch caused more seams Lo open up normally
Lhe rlveLs would have deformed before falllng because of Lhelr ducLlllLy buL wlLh waLer
LemperaLures below freezlng Lhe rlveLs had become exLremely brlLLle
When Lhe lceberg Lore Lhrough Lhe hull plaLes huge holes were creaLed LhaL allowed waLer Lo
flood Lhe hull of Lhe shlp As a resulL rlveLs noL ln Lhe area of conLacL wlLh Lhe lceberg were also
sub[ecLed Lo lncredlble forces Llke a glanL lever Lhe hull plaLes Lransferred Lhe lnward forces
applled Lo Lhe edges of Lhe cracked plaLes by Lhe waLer rushlng lnLo Lhe hull Lo Lhe rlveLs along
Lhe plaLe seams 1he rlveLs were Lhen elLher elongaLed or snapped ln Lwo whlch broke Lhe
caulklng along Lhe seams and provlded anoLher lnleL for waLer Lo flood Lhe shlp
Des|gn I|aws
Along wlLh Lhe maLerlal fallures poor deslgn of Lhe waLerLlghL comparLmenLs ln Lhe 1lLanlcs
lower secLlon was a facLor ln Lhe dlsasLer 1he lower secLlon of Lhe 1lLanlc was dlvlded lnLo
slxLeen ma[or waLerLlghL comparLmenLs LhaL could easlly be sealed off lf parL of Lhe hull was
puncLured and leaklng waLer AfLer Lhe colllslon wlLh Lhe lceberg Lhe hull porLlon of slx of Lhese
slxLeen comparLmenLs was damaged as shown ln llgure 3 Seallng off Lhe comparLmenLs was
compleLed lmmedlaLely afLer Lhe damage was reallzed buL as Lhe bow of Lhe shlp began Lo
plLch forward from Lhe welghL of Lhe waLer ln LhaL area of Lhe shlp Lhe waLer ln some of Lhe
comparLmenLs began Lo splll over lnLo ad[acenL comparLmenLs AlLhough Lhe comparLmenLs
were called waLerLlghL Lhey were acLually only waLerLlghL horlzonLally Lhelr Lops were open
and Lhe walls exLended only a few feeL above Lhe waLerllne Plll 1996 lf Lhe Lransverse
bulkheads (Lhe walls of Lhe waLerLlghL comparLmenLs LhaL are poslLloned across Lhe wldLh of Lhe
shlp) had been a few feeL Laller Lhe waLer would have been beLLer conLalned wlLhln Lhe
damaged comparLmenLs ConsequenLly Lhe slnklng would have been slowed posslbly allowlng
enough Llme for nearby shlps Lo help Powever because of Lhe exLenslve floodlng of Lhe bow
comparLmenLs and Lhe subsequenL floodlng of Lhe enLlre shlp Lhe 1lLanlc was gradually pulled
below Lhe waLerllne
1he waLerLlghL comparLmenLs were useless Lo counLerlng Lhe damage done by Lhe colllslon wlLh
Lhe lceberg Some of Lhe sclenLlsLs sLudylng Lhe dlsasLer have even concluded LhaL Lhe
waLerLlghL comparLmenLs conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe dlsasLer by keeplng Lhe flood waLers ln Lhe bow of
Lhe shlp lf Lhere had been no comparLmenLs aL all Lhe lncomlng waLer would have spread ouL
and Lhe 1lLanlc would have remalned horlzonLal LvenLually Lhe shlp would have sunk buL she
would have remalned afloaL for anoLher slx hours before founderlng Cannon 1993 1hls
amounL of Llme would have been sufflclenL for nearby shlps Lo reach Lhe 1lLanlcs locaLlon so all
of her passengers and crew could have been saved
Lffects of the D|saster
ln an efforL Lo prevenL repeaLlng Lhelr mlsLakes Lhe WhlLe SLar Llne modlfled several of Lhelr
exlsLlng shlps followlng Lhe 1lLanlc dlsasLer 1he changes were based on Lhe deslgn flaws LhaL
were assumed Lo have conLrlbuLed Lo Lhe dlsasLer Along wlLh Lhese deslgn changes Lhe WhlLe
SLar Llne and all shlpbulldlng companles aL Lhe Llme had newly esLabllshed safeLy regulaLlons
agreed upon by boLh Lhe 8rlLlsh and Amerlcan governmenLs LhaL Lhey had Lo follow ueveloplng
safeLy regulaLlons for shlps aL sea was anoLher aLLempL Lo avold accldenLs slmllar Lo Lhe 1lLanlc
1he followlng ls a dlscusslon of Lhe changes made ln Lhe deslgn of shlps and Lhe safeLy
regulaLlons lmplemenLed as a resulL of Lhe 1lLanlc dlsasLer
Sh|p Des|gn
lollowlng Lhe 1lLanlc dlsasLer Lhe WhlLe SLar Llne modlfled Lhe deslgn of Lhe 1lLanlcs slsLer
shlps ln Lwo ways Lhe double boLLoms were exLended up Lhe sldes of Lhe hull and Lhe
Lransverse bulkheads of Lhe waLerLlghL comparLmenLs were ralsed 1he double boLLom on shlps
ls consLrucLed by Laklng Lwo layers of sLeel LhaL span Lhe lengLh of Lhe shlp and separaLlng Lhem
by flve feeL of space Carzke and oLhers 1994 When a shlp runs aground or sLrlkes someLhlng
ln Lhe waLer Lhe boLLom plaLe of Lhe hull can be puncLured wlLhouL damage lncurred Lo Lhe Lop
plaLe WlLh a double boLLom Lhe chance LhaL a puncLured hull would allow waLer lnLo Lhe
waLerLlghL comparLmenLs ls mlnlmlzed 8y exLendlng Lhe double boLLoms up Lhe sldes of Lhe
hull whlch adds anoLher layer of sLeel Lo Lhe sldes of Lhe shlp a slmllar evenL can be prevenLed
lf an lceberg or a colllslon wlLh anoLher shlp barely puncLures Lhe hull only Lhe space beLween
Lhe lnner and ouLer sldewalls would flood wlLh waLer 1he waLerLlghL comparLmenLs would
remaln undamaged
1he ends of Lhe Lransverse bulkheads of Lhe waLerLlghL comparLmenLs were ralsed Lo prevenL a
Lragedy slmllar Lo Lhe 1lLanlc When Lhe hull of Lhe 1lLanlc was Lorn open ln Lhe colllslon wlLh Lhe
lceberg waLer began Lo flood Lhe damaged comparLmenLs ln Lhe bow As Lhe shlp plLched
forward under Lhe welghL of Lhe waLer ln Lhe bow comparLmenLs waLer began Lo splll over Lhe
Lops of Lhe bulkheads lnLo ad[acenL undamaged comparLmenLs AlLhough called waLerLlghL Lhe
waLerLlghL comparLmenLs were acLually only waLerLlghL horlzonLally Lhelr Lops were open and
Lhe walls exLended only a few feeL above Lhe waLerllne 8y ralslng Lhe ends of Lhe Lransverse
bulkheads lf a shlp were Laklng ln waLer Lhrough Lhe bow comparLmenLs and Lhe shlp began Lo
plLch forward Lhe waLer ln Lhe comparLmenLs could noL flow over Lhe Lops of Lhe bulkheads
lnLo Lhe nexL comparLmenLs As a resulL floodlng of Lhe damaged comparLmenLs could be
conLrolled and lsolaLed Lo only Lhe damaged secLlons Cannon 1993
AL Lhe 1948 ConvenLlon on SafeLy of Llfe aL Sea speclflcaLlons for Lhe orlenLaLlon lengLh and
number of waLerLlghL comparLmenLs ln passenger shlps were esLabllshed 1he waLerLlghL
comparLmenLs whlch lmprove a shlps ablllLy Lo wlLhsLand Lhe effecLs of underwaLer damage
are used Lo conLrol floodlng ln Lhe hull of Lhe shlp 1o malnLaln a nearly level poslLlon Lhe walls
of Lhe waLerLlghL comparLmenLs are Lo be orlenLed horlzonLally or across Lhe wldLh of Lhe shlp
raLher Lhan verLlcally lf one slde of Lhe hull ls damaged Lhe waLer LhaL fllls Lhe hull wlll even ouL
across Lhe wldLh of Lhe shlp WlLh verLlcal walls Lhe waLer ln Lhe hull would remaln on Lhe
damaged slde of Lhe shlp causlng Lhe shlp Lo lean Lo LhaL slde 1he lengLh of Lhe waLerLlghL
comparLmenLs ls deLermlned by Lhe lengLh of Lhe shlp ShorLer shlps should have shorLer
comparLmenLs whlle longer shlps should have longer comparLmenLs 1he number of
comparLmenLs ls also deLermlned by Lhe slze of Lhe shlp Cne crlLerla LhaL musL be meL
however ls LhaL Lhe shlp musL remaln afloaL wlLh Lwo of Lhe waLerLlghL comparLmenLs flooded
Muckle 1931
Safety kegu|at|ons
Along wlLh Lhe changes ln shlp deslgn LhaL resulLed from Lhe 1lLanlc dlsasLer safeLy regulaLlons
were esLabllshed Lo govern passenger shlps whlle aL sea Many of Lhese regulaLlons were
esLabllshed aL Lhe 1948 ConvenLlon on SafeLy of Llfe aL Sea 1he mandaLory use of Lhe wlreless
Lhe lncreased llfeboaL capaclLy and Lhe lmplemenLaLlon of Lhe lce paLroleach of Lhese was
developed Lo prevenL accldenLs slmllar Lo Lhe slnklng of Lhe 1lLanlc Carzke and oLhers 1994
Wlreless ls Lhe means of communlcaLlon for shlps aL sea 1he regulaLlons requlre LhaL shlps
exceedlng 1600 Lons be equlpped wlLh wlreless apparaLus use of Lhe wlreless ls beneflclal for
shlps because Lhey are able Lo recelve weaLher reporLs check Lhelr poslLlons and call for help ln
emergencles SocleLy 1977 Cn Lhe nlghL of Lhe 1lLanlc dlsasLer several warnlngs were called ln
Lo Lhe 1lLanlc from shlps aware of her poslLlon lollowlng her colllslon wlLh Lhe lceberg Lhe
1lLanlc was able Lo send ouL dlsLress slgnals Lo oLher shlps wlLh her poslLlon and Lhe sLaLus of
her damage so help was on Lhe way lmmedlaLely
AlLhough Lhere was room on deck for Lwlce as many llfeboaLs Lhe 1lLanlc carrled llfeboaLs for
[usL over half of Lhe passengers and crew on board 1he deslgner of Lhe 1lLanlc had allowed
room on deck for Lwo rows of llfeboaLs buL one row was removed before Lhe voyage began Lo
make Lhe deck more aesLheLlcally pleaslng 8ogers and oLhers 1998 WlLh ouLdaLed 8rlLlsh
8oard of 1rade regulaLlons Lhe 1lLanlcs LwenLy llfeboaLs acLually exceeded requlremenLs by 10
percenL capaclLy 8efrlgeraLor 1998 1he new safeLy regulaLlons lncreased Lhe requlred
number of llfeboaLs Lo a number LhaL would accommodaLe all passengers and crew aboard Lhe
shlp 8ased on Lhe lengLh of Lhe shlp a glven number of davlLs whlch are Lhe mechanlsm used
Lo ralse and lower Lhe llfeboaLs are mounLed along Lhe perlmeLer of Lhe lower deck llgure 4
shows Lhe davlLs and llfeboaLs on Lhe deck of Lhe 1lLanlc lf Lhe mlnlmum llfeboaL capaclLy ls noL
meL addlLlonal llfeboaLs musL be sLowed under oLher boaLs 8egulaLlons also speclfy LhaL each
of Lhe llfeboaLs musL carry oars salls a compass slgnalllng devlces food and waLer ln addlLlon
for large shlps Lwo of Lhe boaLs need Lo be moLor boaLs Mannlng 1936
1he unlLed SLaLes CovernmenL began Lhe lce paLrol so LhaL shlps Lravelllng beLween Lngland
and Lhe unlLed SLaLes could be alerLed of approachlng lce flelds 1he lce paLrol sLudles and
observes Lhe lce condlLlons ln Lhe norLh ALlanLlc ln order Lo keep Lrack of where Lhe lce flelds
are ln relaLlon Lo nearby shlps SocleLy 1977 lce flelds large expanses of floaLlng lce LhaL are
more Lhan flve mlles ln Lhelr greaLesL dlmenslon shlfL around dependlng on weaLher condlLlons
1herefore wlLhouL Lhe lce paLrol shlps would need Lo consLanLly monlLor Lhe poslLlons of Lhe
lce flelds lor Lhe 1lLanlc Lhe lce paLrol could have lnformed Lhe capLaln of Lhe lce flelds and
surroundlng lcebergs and lnsLrucLed hlm Lo sLop Lhe shlp unLll mornlng

Conc|us|on
1he slnklng of Lhe 1lLanlc has become one of Lhe mosL well known dlsasLers ln hlsLory 8ecause
of Lhe Lerrlble loss of llfe and Lhe demlse of whaL everyone belleved was an unslnkable shlp
people are lnLrlgued and curlous abouL whaL caused Lhe rapld slnklng of Lhe 1lLanlc Several
Lheorles have developed slnce Lhe slnklng Lo explaln Lhe evenLs LhaL occurred on LhaL faLeful
nlghL 1hls arLlcle has presenLed Lhe mosL probable Lheory whlch has become domlnanL as a
resulL of evldence acqulred durlng several expedlLlons Lo Lhe 1lLanlc slLe
1he fallure of Lhe hull sLeel resulLed from brlLLle fracLures caused by Lhe hlgh sulphur conLenL of
Lhe sLeel Lhe low LemperaLure waLer on Lhe nlghL of Lhe dlsasLer and Lhe hlgh lmpacL loadlng of
Lhe colllslon wlLh Lhe lceberg When Lhe 1lLanlc hlL Lhe lceberg Lhe hull plaLes spllL open and
conLlnued cracklng as Lhe waLer flooded Lhe shlp Low waLer LemperaLures and hlgh lmpacL
loadlng also caused Lhe brlLLle fallure of Lhe rlveLs used Lo fasLen Lhe hull plaLes Lo Lhe shlps
maln sLrucLure Cn lmpacL Lhe rlveLs were elLher sheared off or Lhe heads popped off because
of excesslve loadlng whlch opened up rlveLed seams Also Lhe rlveLs around Lhe perlmeLer of
Lhe plaLes elongaLed due Lo Lhe sLresses applled by Lhe waLer whlch broke Lhe caulklng and
provlded anoLher lnleL for Lhe waLer
1he rapld slnklng of Lhe 1lLanlc was worsened by Lhe poor deslgn of Lhe Lransverse bulkheads of
Lhe waLerLlghL comparLmenLs As waLer flooded Lhe damaged comparLmenLs of Lhe hull Lhe
shlp began Lo plLch forward and waLer ln Lhe damaged comparLmenLs was able Lo splll over lnLo
ad[acenL comparLmenLs noL only dld Lhe comparLmenLs noL conLrol Lhe floodlng buL Lhey also
conLalned Lhe waLer ln Lhe bow whlch lncreased Lhe raLe of slnklng
lollowlng Lhe 1lLanlc dlsasLer doubleslded hulls were added Lo shlps Lo prevenL mlnor hull
puncLures from causlng ma[or damage Also Lhe Lransverse bulkheads of Lhe waLerLlghL
comparLmenLs were ralsed so LhaL waLer could noL splll over Lhe Lops lf Lhe shlp were plLched aL
a sllghL angle SafeLy regulaLlons esLabllshed afLer Lhe slnklng lnclude Lhe mandaLory use of Lhe
wlreless for large shlps Lhe mlnlmum llfeboaL capaclLy equal Lo Lhe number of passengers and
crew aboard and Lhe lmplemenLaLlon of Lhe lce paLrol Lo warn shlps of nearby lce flelds
undersLandlng Lhe causes for Lhe rapld slnklng of Lhe 1lLanlc ls necessary Lo prevenL slmllar
accldenLs ln Lhe fuLure 1he changes made ln shlp deslgn and safeLy regulaLlons followlng Lhe
dlsasLer were effecLlve ln decreaslng Lhe casualLles of accldenLs aL sea Lxamples lnclude Lhe
successful rescues of 1600 passengers and crew from Lhe Andrea uorla ln 1936 700 passengers
from Lhe rlnsendam ln 1980 and all Lhe passengers and crew from Mlkhall LermenLov ln 1986
and Lhe Cceanos ln 1992 Carzke and oLhers 1994 CLher lessons need Lo be learned however
!usL because shlpbulldlng companles have Lhe Lechnology Lo bulld someLhlng does noL mean
LhaL Lhey should ln Lhe case of Lhe 1lLanlc dlsasLer Lhe causes for Lhe slnklng lndlcaLe LhaL
shlpbulldlng Lechnology was far more advanced Lhan Lhe undersLandlng whlch englneers had of
Lhe maLerlals Lhey were uslng Lo bulld Lhe shlps