mouein

woilu
histoiy
a summary
from varlous sources
lsLory 2138

2

PlS1C8?
ConLenLs
1 1e afLermaL of World War l eace 1reaLles
a Le arls eace 1reaLles (or Le arls eace Conference) 1919
l Le 1reaLy of versallles
ll Le 1reaLy of SalnLCermaln
lll Le 1reaLy of 1rlanon
2 1e League of naLlons
a Alms of Le League
b CrganlzaLlon of Le League
c Successes
d eacekeeplng
e lallure
3 1e 8lse of ulcLaLors
a Mussollnl and lasclsm
l 8lse Lo power
ll ConsolldaLlon of ower
b PlLler and Le nazl arLy
l 8lse Lo power
ll ConsolldaLlon of power
4 1e 8oad Lo World War ll
l AppeasemenL
ll 1e Causes of World War ll
3 1e Cold War
a recedlng lssues and LvenLs
b osLwar developmenL
l Causes of Le Cold War
ll varlous LvenLs
lll 1e Cerman lssue
c 1aw
l 8easons for 1aw
ll 8eLurn of 1enslon
61e unlLed naLlons CrganlsaLlon
l SLrucLure and Comparlson
7 1e 8usslan 8evoluLlon of 1917
a 1e 8evoluLlons
l 1e lebruary 8evoluLlon
ll 1e CcLober 8evoluLlon
b 8olsevlk ConsolldaLlon
lsLory 2138

3

1 1e afLermaL of World War l eace 1reaLles
a 1e arls eace 1reaLles
l Le 1reaLy of versallles
ll Le 1reaLy of SalnLCermaln
lll Le 1reaLy of 1rlanon

ln18CuuC1lCn
8easons for a peace LreaLy
A peace LreaLy was Lo be drawn up Lo
a) punls aggressors
b) provlde for reparaLlons and compensaLlons Lo areas affecLed and powers lnvolved respecLlvely
c) dlsarm Le aggressors and prevenL anoLer ouLbreak of war
d) pln blame on aggressors (legally Lo [usLlfy reparaLlons)
e) reLurn/lnlLlaLlon of lndependence and freedom and resLore conquered LerrlLorles
eace 1reaLles of WWl
arLlclpaLlng powers
Losers 1e CenLral owers Cermany AusLrlaPungary Le CLLoman Lmplre 8ulgarla and lLaly
vlcLors 1e Allled owers 8rlLaln lrance 8ussla and Le unlLed SLaLes of Amerlca (uSA)
Wllson's 14 polnLs
Amerlcan resldenL Woodrow Wllson sLaLed Le uS war alms ln 14 polnLs
1 AbollLlon of secreL dlplomacy
2 lree navlgaLlon aL sea for all naLlons ln war and peace
3 8emoval of economlc barrlers beLween sLaLes
4 Allround reducLlon of armamenLs
3 lmparLlal ad[usLmenL of colonlal clalms ln Le lnLeresLs of Le populaLlons concerned
6 LvacuaLlon of 8usslan LerrlLory
7 8esLoraLlon of 8elglum
8 LlberaLlon of lrance and resLoraLlon of AlsaceLorralne
9 8ead[usLmenLs of lLallan fronLlers along Le llnes of naLlonallLy
10 SelfgovernmenL for Le peoples of AusLrlaPungary (selfdeLermlnaLlon Su)
11 8omanla Serbla and MonLenegro Lo be evacuaLed and Serbla glven access Lo Le sea
12 SelfgovernmenL for Le non1urkls peoples of Le 1urkls Lmplre and permanenL openlng of Le
uardanelles
13 An lndependenL oland wlL secure access Lo sea
14 A general assoclaLlon of naLlons Lo preserve peace
(noLe LaL many Lerms ln Le 6 arls eace 1reaLles adered Lo Le polnLs as presenLed)

lsLory 2138

4

l Le 1reaLy of versallles
(28
L
!une 1919 slgned by Cermany under Le Welmar CovernmenL)
Alms Lo weaken Cermany as well as allow for compensaLlons for cosLs of war and resLoraLlon of nonCerman
land and also Lo furLer selfdeLermlnaLlon alongslde Le reLurn of conquered LerrlLory
1erms

1 1errlLorlal
lmplles land canges border canges waLerways colonles and more lmporLanLly waL ls on Le land for
example agrlculLure and lndusLry
Areas affecLed
a Luropean sLaLes
l AlsaceLorralne reLurned Lo lrance
lrenc naLlonallLy was adered Lo owever Lere was no pleblsclLe (def voLe) for Le Cermans Lus causlng
an exodus of Cerman mlgranLs
ll Lupen MoresneL and Malmedy Lransferred Lo 8elglum
allowed for a resLoraLlon of 8elglum
lll norL Scleswlg Lransferred Lo uenmark Lroug a pleblsclLe
selfdeLermlnaLlon applled
lv WesL russla osen and upper Sllesla Lransferred Lo oland
creaLlon of Le olls Corrldor
oland ls glven producLlve farmland and access Lo Le 8alLlc Sea for Lrade
olls Corrldor a vlolaLlon of selfdeLermlnaLlon for Cermany
LasL russla ls compleLely cuL off from Le resL of Cermany lnLernaLlonal border ave Lo be crossed
Cermany loses a porL ()
upper Sllesla Lroug a pleblsclLe Le smallesL yeL rlcesL parL of upper Sllesla was ceded Lo oland
Cermany losL valuable lndusLrlal land
v uanzlg creaLed as a free clLy under League of naLlons admlnlsLraLlon (buL under olls conLrol)
vl Saar under League admlnlsLraLlon for 13 years afLer wlc a pleblsclLe would be conducLed
lrance was also granLed access Lo lLs coalmlnes as parL of compensaLlon
vll LsLonla LaLvla and LlLuanla esLabllsed as lndependenL sLaLes
selfdeLermlnaLlon applled LerrlLorles galned from Le 1reaLy of 8resLLlLovsk wlL 8ussla
vlll Memel Lransferred Lo LlLuanla
allows for Lrade
lx 8lneland demlllLarlsed under League admlnlsLraLlon for 13 years
x Anscluss (unlon of Cermany and AusLrla) forbldden
vlolaLlon of selfdeLermlnaLlon because ma[orlLy of AusLrlans were Cermanspeaklng
owever Lls was also Lo prevenL Le musLerlng of power beLween Le onceaggressors

lsLory 2138

3


b Cerman colonles
Cermany ad Lo renounce all rlgLs Lo colonles
seL up as mandaLes under League admlnlsLraLlon
advanced (sLable/wealLy) naLlons (greaL powers) would see Lo Lelr developmenL
counLrles LaL are noL ready for lndependence are 'Laken care' of (by 8rlLaln and lrance) economlcally and
pollLlcally
conLroversy raclsm no selfdeLermlnaLlon for ma[orlLy of Aslan and Afrlcan colonles
mandaLed sLaLes seemed Lo be spolls of war lndependence noL aLLalned for long Llme consldered Allles'
annexaLlon wlLouL Lruly admlLLlng
ceded Lo 8rlLaln Cerman LasLAfrlca 1anzanla Cameroon parLs of 1ogoland
ceded Lo lrance mosL of 1ogoland Cerman SouL Afrlca (presenLday namlbla)
ceded Lo !apan norL aclflc lslands SanLung and Morocco (Clna)
ceded Lo 8elglum 8wanda and urundl
1rade concesslons
Cermany gave up Lradlng concesslons SanLung and Morocco ceded Lo !apan resulLlng ln loss of Lrade and
lnvesLmenL
Cerman waLerways
8lne Llbe Cder upper uanube and Le klel Canal puL under lnLernaLlonal conLrol
freedom of passage and Lrade lmplemenLed
8esulL of land loss
Cermany losL prlde land money agrlculLure lnfrasLrucLure resources lndusLry and people (vlolaLlon of rlgLs)
133 of land
123 of populaLlon
13 of agrlculLural producLlon
48 of lron producLlon
16 of coal producLlon

2 MlllLary
Lo keep Cerman mlllLary weak so se could noL aggress agaln
a Army
soldlers cuL Lo 100000 volunLeers (no conscrlpLlon) lncludlng offlcers enllsLed
no armoured reglmenLs and alrcrafL no eavy arLlllery
b navy
no more Lan 6 baLLleslps
6 crulsers
12 desLroyers
12 Lorpedo boaLs
andful of smaller vessels
no submarlnes
resL of Cerman Plg Seas lleeL (PocseefloLLe) Lo be glven Lo Allles (buL scuLLled by Admlral Ludwlg von
8euLer)
lsLory 2138

6

c uemlllLarlzaLlon of 8lneland
wole lefL bank of Le 8lne and 30km sLrlp on Le rlgL was Lo be demlllLarlzed
lrance wanLed 8lnelandcompromlse of 13 years wlL Allled brldgeeads
pleblsclLe afLer 13 years
(buL PlLler Lakes lL back ln 1919)
8rlLaln and uSA agreed Lo elp lrance ln Lls aspecL

3 ollLlcal
War CullL clause (ArLlcle 231) 'Cermany accepLs Le responslblllLy of Cermany and er allles for causlng all
Le loss and damage Lo wlc Allled CovernmenLs and Lelr naLlonals ave been sub[ecLed Lo ln war by
Cerman aggresslon'
a urpose of ArLlcle 231
Lo provlde legal [usLlflcaLlon for Le clalm of reparaLlons by maklng Cermany responslble for sLarLlng Le war
Lo punls war crlmlnals
b ConLroversy of War CullL Clause
sole blame plnned on Cermany
c Crlmlnals
Le kalser among oLers Lo be Lrled and ung
kalser Wllelm escaped Lrlal by fleelng Lo Polland were Le uuLc refused Lo exLradlLe lm
was Le kalser Le only one Lo be blamed?
Le Cermans supporLed ls war efforL durlng ls Lerm of rule
kalser escaped convlcLlon and Welmar CovernmenL suffered lnsLead

4 Lconomlcal
reparaLlons Lo geL compensaLlon for war losses and cosLs as well as Lo weaken Cermany
llnked Lo ArLlcle 231 afflrms LaL Cermany was responslble and llable for war damage (legal [usLlflcaLlon)
a 8eparaLlons
payable ln
cas
klnd
mercanL fleeL of 1600 Lons
23 of flslng fleeL
locomoLlves
rolllng sLock
coal
maclnery
Llmber
llvesLock
ocean cable
b Cas amounL
1920 lnlLlal amounL of 6000 mllllon
1921 revlsed Lo 600000 mllllon (Lo lnclude war penslons)
payable over 42 years
lsLory 2138

7

c Cerman reacLlon
enLlrely osLlle crlLlclsed as unllmlLed lndemnlLy
found every loopole Lo defaulL on paymenL
8ur Crlsls
uecember 1922
Cermany defaulLed on Llmber conslgnmenL
beyond
!anuary 1923
lrenc and 8elglum Lroops lnvaded 8ur and selzed 40 mllllon of goods
lndlcaLors
Cerman passlve reslsLance vla sLrlkes
paralyzed lndusLrlal producLlon
lncrease ln prlces
yperlnflaLlon caused by excesslve money prlnLlng Lo pay salarles depreclaLlon of Cerman 8elc Mark
resulLlng ln savlngs wlped ouL and loss of confldence ln governmenL managemenL
Cerman yperlnflaLlon
englneered by governmenL Lo defaulL on reparaLlons paymenL?
valuaLlon of Mark
1914 13 Lo 1
1919 230 Lo 1
4/21 300 Lo 1
8/21 760 Lo 1
11/21 1000 Lo 1
8/22 33 000 Lo 1
1/23 72 000 Lo 1
11/23 16 000 bllllon Lo 1
d Cradual scemes
uawes lan 1924
Lo sLablllse Cerman economy
Lo elp bulld up Cerman lndusLry so LaL Cermany can make paymenL
2 years' moraLorlum on paymenL
8ur mlllLary occupaLlon ended
loan of uS$ 40 mllllon
Cermany agreed Lo make annual paymenL
?oung lan 1929
new reparaLlon scedule and revlslon of amounL
reparaLlon blll reduced Lo 2000 mllllon made payable over 39 years
addlLlonal uS$ 60 mllllon loan

lsLory 2138

8

ll Le 1reaLy of SalnLCermaln
(10
L
SepLember 1919 slgned by AusLrla)
1erms
1 1errlLorlal
a 8oemlaMoravla SudeLenland Lransferred Lo Czecoslovakla
rlc lndusLrlal land Lo allow Le new sLaLe Lo grow
b SouL 1yrol 1renLlno lsLrla parL of 1rlesLe ola some of Le AdrlaLlc lslands Lransferred Lo lLaly
(lLaly beLrayed Cermany for Le Allles)
c CarlnLla Carlnola 8osnla Perzegovlna ualmaLlan CoasL and lslands Lransferred Lo ?ugoslavla
vlolaLlon of selfdeLermlnaLlon?
d Callcla Lransferred Lo oland
e 8ukovlna Lransferred Lo 8omanla
8ukovlna as rlc corn lands lnLended Lo ald 8omanla's blrL

2 MlllLary
a Army
AusLrlan arm reduced Lo 30000 soldlers
only 1 armamenLproduclng facLory
became easler Lo aLLack (PlLler was able Lo Lake AusLrla wlLouL reLallaLlon)
b navy
muc of navy wenL Lo allles
AusLrla only allowed 4 paLrol boaLs
dlsallows lnLernal securlLy

3 ollLlcal
a War CullL clause
legal [usLlflcaLlon for reparaLlons
b Memberslp lnLo League of naLlons
sub[ecL Lo AusLrla's good beavlor

4 Lconomlcal
a 8eparaLlons
amounL was unspeclfled
by Le Llme Le amounL was declded AusLrla's economy ad collapsed and Le reparaLlons were wrlLLen off
Lls was noL an englneered collapse as suspecLed of Cermany
Le collapse was caused by Le reallocaLlon of er producLlve lands
lsLory 2138

9

3 CuLcomes and repercusslons

a roducLlve land
crlLlcal loss of lndusLrlal land of 8oemlaMoravla
loss of food producLlon from agrlculLure of 8ukovlna and Callcla
vlenna's own agrlculLure was lnsufflclenL Lo feed populaLlon of 2 mllllon
b 1rade
l lreeLrade lmpeded
vlenna was Le cenLer of Lrade ln AusLrla
afLer breakup vlenna broken lnLo dlfferenL sLaLes
LradlLlonal markeLs no longer upeld newer sLaLes pursued proLecLlonlsLlc pollcles lnsLead of free Lrade by
lmposlng Larlffs
vlenna could noL be kepL LogeLer due Lo Le breakup of AusLrlaPungary
ll Lconomlcal collapse (1920s)
LoLal bankrupLcy and producLlon sLall
due Lo besL land was glven away
could noL afford Lo pay reparaLlons (wlc were never seLLled upon and Lus dropped ere)
replled on food rellef from 8rlLaln and uSA
c ollLlcs
unsLable and unpopular governmenL
seen as unable Lo dellver growL
defenseless Lo lnvaslon
forbldden Lo unlLe wlL Cermany
vlolaLlon of selfdeLermlnaLlon due Lo separaLlon of Cermanspeaklng peoples
AusLrla cannoL boosL lLs economy wlL Cerman elp
d Soclal
vlolaLlon of selfdeLermlnaLlon (no Anscluss)
AusLrlan crlLlclsm for lack of Lrade lanes Lo supporL crlppled economy
MlnorlLy problems as naLlonallLles overlooked

lsLory 2138

10

lll Le 1reaLy of 1rlanon
(4
L
!une 1920 slgned wlL Pungary)
1erms
1 1errlLorlal (66 losL)
a Slovakla 8uLenla CarpaLlan 8ldge Lransferred Lo Czecoslovakla
b CroaLla Slovenla Lransferred Lo ?ugoslavla
c 8anaL 1ransylvanla Lransferred Lo 8omanla
d smaller pleces of land Lransferred Lo oland lLaly and AusLrla

2 MlllLary
army llmlLed Lo 33000 men
only used for malnLalnlng order and fronLler paLrol and lnLernal peacekeeplng

3 Lconomlc
unspeclfled amounL of reparaLlons

4 CuLcomes and repercusslons
a Lconomlc
rlcesL corn lands glven Lo 8omanla
producLlon raLes decrease
new borders and LerrlLorlal fragmenLaLlon led Lo loss of 60 of rallways and supply markeLs
led Lo sLralned economy
unemploymenL raLes lncrease
resource and lndusLry sLralned
b 8efugee problem
400000 refugees fled back Lo Pungary
resources could noL supporL all
c ollLlcal
Pungary assumed a osLlle sLance wlL blLLerness
confronLaLlonal forelgn pollcles for sLaLes wlc galned aL er expense
populaLlon of Pungary reduced from 21 mllllon Lo 73 mllllon
blLLerness
demanded revlslon of LreaLy due Lo Le lack of selfdeLermlnaLlon upeld


lsLory 2138

11

2 1e League of naLlons
a Alms of Le League
b CrganlzaLlon of Le League
c Successes
d eacekeeplng
e lallure

ln18CuuC1lCn
Summary of evenLs
10
L
!anuary 1920 creaLlon of Le League
Le Cermans lnadverLenLly caused Le exlsLence of Le League of naLlons
a sorL of councll was needed Lo seLLle lnLernaLlonal dlspuLed before Ley goL ouL of and Lo avold war
made Lo replace Le Conference of Ambassadors
lL eld eadquarLers ln Ceneva
afLer LeeLlng Lroubles Le League seemed Lo be successful LrougouL Le 1920s
mlnor lnLernaLlonal problems and acleved valuable economlc and soclal work
alded refugees and former prlsoners of war Lo reLurn ome
ln 1930 Le League's fuLure was brlgL
owever ln Le 1930s Le League was callenged mulLlple Llmes
lLs orders was lgnored
ln boL cases Le League falled Lo wlLold aggresslve acLlons
due Lo Le League's sysLems lL was lmposslble Lo force compllance for a varleLy of reasons
afLer 1933 respecL for Le League decllned due Lo lLs belng undermlned
durlng Cermany's dlspuLes wlL Czecoslovakla and oland up unLll World War ll was lnlLlaLed Le League
was noL even consulLed and lL could noL exerL Le leasL lnfluence
afLer uecember 1939 lL dld noL meeL agaln
lL was dlssolved ln 1946 a compleLe fallure ln prevenLlng war

lsLory 2138

12

a Alms of Le League
1 1e league ad 2 maln alms
Lo malnLaln peace Lroug collaboraLlve securlLy were lf one sLaLe aLLacked anoLer Le member sLaLes of
Le League would acL LogeLer (le collecLlvely) Lo resLraln Le aggressor elLer by economlc or mlllLary
sancLlons
Lo encourage lnLernaLlonal cooperaLlon Lo solve economlcal and soclal problems
2 1e CovenanL
was Le League's seL lf rules by wlc Le League operaLed along wlL ls framework and sLrucLure
'sLrucLure' refers Lo Le brances or parLs of Le League some of wlc were menLloned ln Le CovenanL
1Le Ceneral Assembly
2Le Councll
3Le SecreLarlaL
4Le CourL of lnLernaLlonal !usLlce
3Commlsslons and commlLLees
l Le MandaLes Commlsslon
ll Le ulsarmamenL Commlsslon
(Lese organlsaLlonal brances are dlscussed ln secLlon b CrganlzaLlon of Le League)

summary of Le CovenanL's ArLlcles
1 Memberslp orlglnally Le Allles wo slgned Le arls eace 1reaLles and LlrLeen sLaLes neuLral ln WWl
(new admlsslons Lo be approved by LwoLlrds of Le Assembly)
noLe uSA dld noL [oln Le League
26 8aslc maclnery
a Le Assembly wlL all member sLaLes wlL one voLe eac
b Le Councll composed permanenLly of 8rlLaln lrance lLaly and !apan wlL 4 addlLlonal members
elecLed by Le Assembly Lo serve Lerms
c Le unanlmous agreemenL of all members perLalnlng Lo maklng declslons unless oLerwlse agreed
d Le SecreLarlaL led by Le SecreLaryCeneral and flnanced by Le League's members
7 PeadquarLers ln Ceneva
89 1e ulsarmamenL Commlsslon would advlse Le League and lLs members on reducLlon of arms
1012 Members would underLake Lo preserve peace and avold any aggresslon were lf aggresslon sould
arrlve refer lL Lo Le League and refraln from reLallaLlve/aggresslve acLlon for a 3monL perlod afLer a
declslon
1313 1e agreemenL Lo submlL all dlspuLes Lo arblLraLlon and Lereby accepLlng any and all arblLraLlve acLlon
Laken lncludlng and Lroug Le permanenL CourL of lnLernaLlonal !usLlce
16 AcLlon would be Laken agalnsL any member resorLlng Lo war and/or breaklng Le CovenanL Lroug
economlc sancLlons (le boycoLLlng) wlL mlllLary acLlon Laken sould Le aggressor noL cease and expulslon
of Le offendlng member pendlng Le League's pleasure
17 nonmembers are lnvlLed Lo comply Lo Le CovenanL
1821 All LreaLles sould be made publlc and conslsLenL wlL Le League's prlnclples
22 1e colonles of a defeaLed counLry would be mandaLed under Le League wereby Le wellbelng and
developmenL of Le people ls enLrusLed Lo Le selecLed powers ln a voLe of confldence unLll Le colony ls
ereby deemed ready for lndependence by a MandaLes Commlsslon
2323 Members would cooperaLe for a common good concernlng soclal welfare (le condlLlons of labour
colonlal sub[ecLs drug Lrafflcklng and dlsease conLrol) and Lo brlng exlsLlng organlsaLlons relaLlve Lo Lese
slLuaLlons under LeagueconLrol and also promoLlng Le 8ed Cross
26 1e CovenanL could be amended
lsLory 2138

13

b CrganlzaLlon of Le League
Lere were 42 members ln !une 1920 and 33 by 1926 wen Cermany was admlLLed
lL ad 3 maln organs

1Le Ceneral Assembly
meL annually
conLalned represenLaLlves of all member sLaLes eac of wlc ad 1 voLe
cooses some of lLs members Lo serve a Lerm ln Le Councll
funcLlon was Lo declde general pollcles (eg propose revlslon of peace LreaLles) and andled Le League's
flnances buL ad no lawmaklng powers
any declslon passed ad Lo be unanlmous
2 Le Councll
meL more ofLen abouL 3 Llmes a year
4 permanenL members 8rlLaln lLaly lrance !apan (uSA was Lo be a permanenL member buL absconded
memberslp)
4 oLer members elecLed by Le Assembly Lo serve 3year Lerms
number of nonpermanenL members lncreased Lo 0 ln 1926
role was Lo deal wlL speclflc pollLlcal dlspuLes as Ley arose
any declslon passed ad Lo be unanlmous
3 Le SecreLarlaL
carrled ouL all admlnlsLraLlve work
Lended Lo all paperwork preparlng agendas and wrlLlng resoluLlons and reporLs for declslons Lo carry ouL
covered all aspecLs of League work (flnance drugs ealL dlsarmamenL communlcaLlons uman Lrafflcklng)
SecreLaryCeneral Lo ensure falrness and neuLrallLy of Le League
flrsL SecreLaryCeneral Slr Lrlc urummond bullL up a rellable body of clvll servanLs loyal Lo Le League and
noL lndlvldual sLaLes
4Le CourL of lnLernaLlonal !usLlce
based aL Le Pague ln Polland
conslsLed 13 [udges of dlfferenL naLlonallLles
dealL wlL legal lssues beLween sLaLes lnsLead of pollLlcs
nonmembers could use lL
submlsslon of dlspuLes was volunLary
member could re[ecL courL rullng
underconsulLed by members
3Commlsslons and commlLLees
varlous (le ulsarmamenL and MandaLes) founded Lo deal wlL speclflc problems
maln commlsslons andled mandaLes mlnorlLy groups mlllLary affalrs and dlsarmamenL
oLer commlLLees andled lnLernaLlonal labour ealL economlc and flnanclal organlzaLlon clld welfare
drug problems and women's rlgLs
(some of Lese commlLLees are dlscussed ln secLlon c Successes)

lsLory 2138

14

c Successes
many of Le commlLLees and commlsslons acleved resulLs
lnLernaLlonal cooperaLlon was fosLered
1 lnLernaLlonal Labour CrganlzaLlon
(under lrenc SoclallsL dlrecLor AlberL 1omas)
Lo lmprove lnLernaLlonal labour condlLlons by persuadlng governmenLs Lo
l flx a maxlmum worklng day and week
ll speclfy adequaLe mlnlmum wages
lll lnLroduce slckness and unemploymenL beneflLs
lv lnLroduce old age penslons
2 1e 8efugee CrganlzaLlon
(under norweglan lrldL[of nansen)
solved Le problem of Lousands of former prlsoners of war marooned ln 8ussla aL Le end of WWl
alf a mllllon reLurned ome
afLer 1933 elp was glven Lo people fleelng from nazl Cermany
3 1e PealL CrganlzaLlon
lnvesLlgaLed cause of epldemlcs
successful ln combaLlng Lypus ln 8ussla
4 1e MandaLes Commlsslon
supervlsed Le governmenL of Le LerrlLorles Laken from Cermany and 1urkey (and anoLer for Saar)
admlnlsLraLlon of Le Saar efflclenL and concluded by organlzlng Le 1933 pleblsclLe ln wlc many voLed for
reLurn Lo Cermany
3 1e ulsarmamenL Commlsslon (excepLlon fallure)
made no progress ln Le nearlmposslble Lask of persuadlng member sLaLes Lo reduce armamenLs
member sLaLes ad owever promlsed Lo reduce upon lnducLlon Lo League

lsLory 2138

13

d eacekeeplng
1 Aaland lslands 1920
lnvolved llnland and Sweden
ueLalls Aaland lslanders wanLed Lo be parL of Sweden due Lo culLural Lles
League acLlon
seL up commlsslon Lo lnvesLlgaLe
recommended LaL Aaland lslands remaln parL of llnland
proposed for mlnorlLy rlgLs' proLecLlon
LvaluaLlon
successful resoluLlon of a LerrlLorlal dlspuLe Lroug peaceful means
seLLlemenL accepLed by boL parLles and proved Lo be a lasLlng soluLlon
2 vllna 192023
lnvolved LlLuanla and oland
ueLalls dlspuLe over ownerslp of vllna Le caplLal of LlLuanla of wlc ma[orlLy of Le people were olls
League acLlon
negoLlaLed an armlsLlce buL was broken wen olls army selzed vllna
commlsslon seL up Lo recommend new border only Lo face re[ecLlon
Conference of Ambassadors Look conLrol and proposed vllna belong Lo oland
LvaluaLlon
League could noL prevenL force
dld noLlng wen armlsLlce was broken
League oversadowed by Conference
3 upper Sllesla 1921
lnvolved Cermany and oland
ueLalls ownerslp of upper Sllesla dlspuLed upon
League acLlon
seL up lnvesLlgaLlve commlsslon
pleblsclLe eld Lo allow voLlve declslon (ma[orlLy wanLed Lo reLurn Lo Cermany)
Sllesla parLlLloned larger area Lo Cermany buL smaller rlcer lndusLrlal land Lo oland
LvaluaLlon
momenLarlly successful confllcL avolded and Lrue selfdeLermlnaLlon sown
owever Cermany waged war ouL of blLLerness
argued for 17 years
Cerman lnvaslon ln 1939
4 Mosul 1924
lnvolved 1urkey and lraq
ueLalls dlspuLe over ownerslp of ollflelds
League acLlon
peaceful arblLraLlon and recommendaLlon LaL Mosul sould be lraq's
LvaluaLlon
successful because of peaceful seLLlemenL wlLouL resorLlng Lo war


lsLory 2138

16

3 Corfu 1923
lnvolved Creece Albanla lLaly
ueLalls
sLalemaLe over demarcaLlon of fronLlers by Conference
escalaLlon of confllcL wen lLallan member of Conference murdered
Mussollnl dlcLaLed ulLlmaLum Lo Creece for an apology and punlsmenL of culprlLs as well as a compensaLlon
of 30 mllllon
Creek re[ecLlon led Lo lLallan bomblng and occupaLlon of Corfu
a leadlng member ad broken Le CovenanL and used force
League acLlon
proposed paymenL of compensaLlon pendlng lnvesLlgaLlon
lLaly was noL appeased and callenged League's lnLerference
LreaLened Lo leave League lf lnLerference conLlnued
League backed off and Conference drew ouL new peace Lerms
LvaluaLlon
fallure (Loug resolved) force was noL avolded and Le League dld noL commlL
League falled Lo ceck lLallan aggresslon because se feared offendlng er and rlsklng war
blg naLlon goL away wlL use of force
no sancLlons lrance wanLed lLaly as an ally agalnsL Cermany wlle 8rlLaln felL Ley were azardous Lo
operaLe
6 Creek8ulgarlan 8order ulspuLe 192836
lnvolved Creece and 8ulgarla
ueLalls border clases (8ulgarla appealed for elp wen Creece advanced)
League acLlon
neuLral offlcer senL Lo lnvesLlgaLe
use of economlc sancLlons as a LreaL backed by naval demonsLraLlon Lo pressure Creece
LvaluaLlon
successful seLLlemenL wlL economlc sancLlon LreaL
Creece backed away as economlc lnLeresLs would ave been crlppled
acLed flrmly ln dlcLaLlng peace Lerms Lo small sLaLes
7 norLern Caco 192836
lnvolved araguay and 8ollvla
ueLalls mlnor border sklrmlses culmlnaLed lnLo fullscale war
League acLlon
commlsslon worked on peace Lerms
used arms embargo supporLed by uS
LvaluaLlon
League dld noL acL flrmly Lo sLop use of force
uS proved Lo be vlLal
8 LeLlcla 193234
lnvolved eru and Columbla
ueLalls eru selzed LeLlcla wlc was a vlLal ouLleL Lo lmporLanL waLerways resulLed ln arms clas
League acLlon
3man delegaLlon Lo medlaLe recommendaLlon of reLurn of LeLlcla
LeLlcla puL under League admlnlsLraLlon unLll boL sldes came Lo a consensus ln 1934
LvaluaLlon
aLLesLed Lo skllls of League offlclals' medlaLlon prevenLlng furLer warfare
lsLory 2138

17

9 Mancurlan Crlsls 1931
lnvolved !apan and Clna
ueLalls !apanese lnvaslon of Clna
League acLlon
LyLLon commlsslon condemned !apanese lnvaslon
denled recognlLlon Lo Mancukuo governmenL
ordered wlLdrawal of Lroops
LvaluaLlon
!apan refused Lo comply
securlLy councll member defled League
!apan wlLdrew from League
League dlscredlLed because lL dld noLlng
League members faced wlL CreaL uepresslon
8rlLaln and lrance dld noL wanL Lo lnconvenlence Lemselves and flgL ln lar LasL
8rlLaln and lrance feared Lrade loss ln lar LasL lf sancLlons were lmposed
League members ad menLallLy LaL lL was away from Lurope so lL dld noL concern Lem
10 lLallan lnvaslon of Abysslnla 193336
lnvolved lLaly and Abysslnla
ueLalls lLaly embarked on an expanslonlsL pollcy Lo secure new markeLs resources and lncrease reglme
popularlLy
League acLlon
condemnaLlon
sancLlons lmposed wlc forbade Le exporL of war maLerlals and lLallan goods Lo prevenL arms flow and
flnanclal elp
LffecLs
lneffecLlve sancLlons due Lo unresLrlcLlng of oll sLeel lron and coal wlc were vlLal for arms manufacLure
some counLrles dld noL lmpose because Ley were noL members
Mussollnl LreaLened war lf resources were cuL off
8rlLaln and lrance dld noL wanL Lo lose and ally Lus lmposed alfearLed sancLlons
lLaly was sLlll annoyed Lus drew closer Lo Cermany
Poare (8rlLaln) and Laval (lrance) plan
8rlLls and lrenc forelgn mlnlsLers would publlcly condemn lLallan aggresslon buL ln prlvaLe condoned lL
and were wllllng Lo cede large porLlons of Abysslnla Lo lLaly for confllcL resoluLlon
LvaluaLlon
League was noL prepared Lo deal wlL blg powers
falled Lo conLaln lLallan aggresslon from flouLlng Le CovenanL agaln
small naLlons losL falL ln League
due Lo domesLlc problems 8rlLaln and lrance were unwllllng Lo flgL
fallure Lo deal wlL lLaly gave PlLler lmpeLus Lo overLrow 1reaLy of versallles





lsLory 2138

18

11 Cerman reoccupaLlon of 8lneland
lnvolved Cermany and 8lneland
League acLlon
no acLlon Laken
LvaluaLlon
League dld noLlng Lo prevenL ouLrage of LreaLy
League losL slgnlflcance subsequenLly
lrance only offered words of ouLrage buL Look no acLlon due Lo dlvlslon of oplnlon
8rlLaln accepLed reoccupaLlon on grounds of Laklng back own land
League would remaln weak as long as members pursued selflnLeresLs
PlLler Look a gamble e was lucky and managed Lo scare Le League
e anLlclpaLed Le League would noL acL wen e was acLually noL aL all ready Lo flgL
lf lndeed Le powers ad reLallaLed e would ave faced umlllaLlon

lsLory 2138

19

e lallure

1 CrganlzaLlonal weaknesses
l lack of worldwlde memberslp
uSA was noL a member
deprlved of essenLlal Amerlcan pollLlcal and flnanclal lnfluence and backlng
8rlLaln and lrance were unwllllng Lo engage ln war wlLouL uS supporL
nonmembers could lgnore or refuse compllance wlL Le League's CovenanL (eg nonmembers Lraded wlL
lLaly even durlng Le Abysslnlaperlod sancLlons
efforLs of Le League Lo malnLaln peace or deal wlL aggresslon was undermlned as Ley were ofLen defled
Cermany wlLdrew from Le League ln 1934 ln order Lo vlolaLe Le 1reaLy (eg Le reoccupaLlon of 8lneland)
Cermany was no longer bound by Le CovenanL Lus pursued aggresslon and undermlned Le League
ll no armed forces
fallure of collecLlve securlLy
Le Ceneva roLocol only dlcLaLed volunLary amasslng of Lroops and arms
mosL powers were Loo focus on personal economy and Lrade
Le League could noL deal wlL aggressors and was undermlned and dlscredlLed
lll prlnclple of Le unanlmous voLe
any declslons passed/peacekeeplng movemenLs would ave Lo ave Le consenL of all members
unreallsLlc ldeallsm and unaclevable
dlfferenL counLrles ad Lelr own agendas
declslons were noL passed lf even 1 sLaLe's lnLeresLs were LreaLened
Lls meanL LaL a slngle sLaLe could veLo larger nelgbours' declslons a slngle voLe could ruln Le ma[orlLy
lv domlnaLlon of Le League by 8rlLaln and lrance
League depended on 8rlLaln and lrance for flrm supporL ln Llmes of crlsls
owever nelLer powers were wllllng Lo abandon selflnLeresLs Lo supporL league
eg 8rlLaln and lrance were noL wllllng Lo commlL Lroops Lo League's armed forces
v lack of supranaLlonal powers over sLaLes
sLaLes remalned pollLlcally powerful ln lndependence because Le League could noL exerL any auLorlLy over
Lem
Ley malnLaln lndlvldual soverelgnLy
Le League could noL compel or pressure sLaLes Lo comply wlL lLs rules
aggressors could lgnore lLs prlnclples

2 1oo closely llnked Lo Le 1reaLy of versallles
Le League seemed llke an organlzaLlon creaLed speclflcally for Le upkeep of Le 1reaLy of versallles
Le 1reaLy of versallles was lmperfecL
wlL Le League defendlng lL Le League seemed Lo funcLlon only for ma[or powers' lnLeresLs



lsLory 2138

20

3 1e Conference of Ambassadors
Lls gaLerlng of leadlng ambassadors would only funcLlon unLll Le League was esLabllsed
owever lL llngered and on several occaslons Look precedence over Le League by solvlng problems lL could
noL
eg vllna and Corfu lncldenLs (see secLlon d eacekeeplng 2 3)
4 1e CreaL uepresslon (World Lconomlc Crlsls) ln 1929
slLuaLlon wenL ouL of conLrol
brougL unemploymenL and falllng llvlng sLandards
caused exLreme rlgLwlng governmenLs Lo come Lo power ln !apan and Cermany LogeLer wlL Mussollnl
defled Le League's CovenanL openly and exLremely wlL vlolenL campalgns
3 lallure of Le World ulsarmamenL Conference (19323)
meL under ausplces of Le League
Cermans asked for dlsarmamenL equallLy wlL lrance
lrance demanded posLponemenL for aL leasL 8 years
PlLler used lrenc aLLlLude as excuse Lo wlLdraw from conference and laLer from Le League
6 8lse of exLremlsL governmenLs/world leaders
wo belleved ln world domlnaLlon
wo used aggresslon as a feaslble forelgn pollcy Lo acleve alms
le PlLler Mussollnl and Le !apanese Lmplre

lsLory 2138

21

3 1e 8lse of ulcLaLors

a Mussollnl and lasclsm
l 8lse Lo power
ll ConsolldaLlon of ower
b PlLler and Le nazl arLy
l 8lse Lo power
ll ConsolldaLlon of power
ln18CuuC1lCn
osLWorld War l Lurope saw many revoluLlonary pollLlcal parLles mosL of wlc were ldeallsL or only
promlsed beneflL for Lemselves
MA8xlS1S were elLer SoclallsL or communlsLs Marx Leorlzed LaL revoluLlons globally would sprlng up
resulLlng ln Le usurplng of respecLlve governmenLs and an anLlmaLerlallsL sLaLe would be resulLanL wlL all
possesslons owned communally
SCClALlSM ls Le bellef LaL wealL sould be owned by Le sLaLe or Le communlLy lnsLead of by an lndlvldual
SoclallsLs are malnly Le vlolenL and peaceful one SoclallsLs oppose caplLallsLs
CAl1ALlSM ls were land Lrade and lndusLry are prlvaLely owned
CCMMunlSM ls noL dlsslmllar Lo Soclallsm owever communlsLs are more radlcal Ley belleve cange can
only be acleved Lroug vlolenL revoluLlon
LLl1WlnC and 8lCP1WlnC pollLlcs are Lerms colned referrlng Lo Le parllamenL's dlvlslon 1ose on Le lefL
wanLed cange and reform wlle Lose on Le rlgL supporLed Llngs as Ley were 8y exLenslon lefLwlngers
are usually communlsLs or SoclallsLs
lASClSM refers Lo exLreme naLlonallsm were empasls ls placed on brlnglng a sLaLe Lo paramounL glory and
superlorlLy above all else A LoLallLarlan sysLem of governance would be lmplemenLed wereby every faceL of
Le peoples' llves would be conLrolled sLrlcLly 1e sLaLe's lnLeresLs were of lger lmporLance Slmllarly all
opposlLlon would be eradlcaLed
nAZlSM can be consldered a speclal klnd of lasclsm Speclflc Lo Cermany nazlsm promoLes Le concepL of Le
Cerman Aryan race wereby lL ls 'proven' blologlcally LaL Le Cermans are superlor nazlsm also follows a
reglme of world domlnaLlon

lsLory 2138

22

a Mussollnl and lasclsm

l 8lse Lo power
ll ConsolldaLlon of ower
8ACkC8Cunu
1e lasclsL parLy was founded ln 1919 by 8enlLo Mussollnl Crlglnally Le lascl dl CombaLLlmenLo lL was
formallsed as a pollLlcal parLy ln Le 1921 elecLlons were 33 seaLs were won WlL flve successlve
governmenLs LaL ad come and gone wlLouL Le capablllLy of Laklng declslve acLlon as Le slLuaLlon
demanded Le lasclsL parLy would prove Lo be Le 'savlour' of lLaly aLLempLlng Lo llberaLe er from Le blLLer
dlsappolnLmenL of Le versallles SeLLlemenL and rellevlng er of er economlcal sLraln from WWl
1e lasclsL parLy under Mussollnl proved Lo be an opporLunlsLlc body ldeals and resoluLlons were sulLably
modlfled Lo adapL Lo concurrenL slLuaLlons Lereby securlng power and supporL for Le parLy
ln an aLmospere of lefLwlng danger Le lasclsL parLy openly opposlng Le lefL would sLage Le 'Marc on
8ome' ulLlmaLely resulLlng ln Le formaLlon of a governmenL eaded by Mussollnl Pe selzed dlcLaLorlal power
and aLLempLed Lo rule by an auLorlLarlan reglme wlc lnlLlally seemed Lo beneflL lLaly and even won
popularlLy wlL ls advenLurous and successful forelgn pollcles
1e man of aggresslon made Le faLal mlsLake of enLerlng WWll and sldlng Cermany lL was a war se was noL
prepared for and could noL afford LvenLually Le Axls ower would be defeaLed and Mussollnl's lasL bouL of
power was as a puppeL ruler ln norLern lLaly Wen Ley were evenLually overrun Mussollnl was soL dead
and sLrung up by ls feeL ln a publlc square
lsLory 2138

23

l 8lse Lo power (1919 1922)

1 Appeal of Le lasclsL alms and acLlvlLles
early alms and bellefs were noL sLaLlc buL fluld dependlng on pollLlcal opporLune and slLuaLlon

l klll and dle for lLaly
lasclsL oaL Lo proLecL naLlon wlLln and wlLouL
ll AnLlclerlcal/anLlCurc
Le Curc ad power over rellglous fanaLlcs aL beesL of ope
lll AnLlmonarcy/prorepubllcan
Le ead of Le governmenL musL be elecLed and noL royalLy
l v AnLlcaplLallsL
supporLed SoclallsL reforms for Le workers and peasanLs
canged lnlLlal bellefs Lo galn supporL of key secLors ln counLry
l roCurc
73 of lLallans were 8omanCaLollcs
earned back supporL by Lem by maklng conclllaLory speeces and supporLlng Le Curc and Le ope
ll romonarc
wanLed Le supporL of Le klng
e commanded Le army Le prlme mlnlsLer and could call for an emergency rule by decree
lll rocaplLallsL
dropped SoclallsL alms and supporLed CaplLallsm
wen facLory occupaLlons falled galned supporL of upper class by promlslng proLecLlon of buslnesses and
properLy
promlsed law and order from communlsLs and SoclallsLs
Lroug vlolence by blackslrLs galned supporL of masses and caplLallsL classes

2 lallure of governmenL Lo solve posLwar economlc and pollLlcal problems
posLwar economlc problems
war debLs
depreclaLed llra
unemploymenL
yperlnflaLlon
posLwar pollLlcal problems
l ulssaLlsfacLlon wlL peace LreaLles
dld noL geL LerrlLorles promlsed (Adalla Algean lsland ualmaLla Albanla and llume Loug lL was noL
promlsed)
u'Annunzlo occupled llume wlL moblllzed supporL buL e was removed and LerrlLory was removed
governmenL dld noL supporL Le clalmlng of LerrlLory
submlsslve reLurned land
seen as weak and lncompeLenL

lsLory 2138

24

ll LosL falL ln parllamenLary democracy due Lo lnsLablllLy
coallLlon was formed due Lo unobvlous 2/3 ma[orlLy
coallLlons led Lo lnsLablllLy because lnflgLlng meanL Le collapse of Le coallLlon
effecLs of consLanL governmenLal canges 1) lack of conslsLenL pollcy maklng 2) loss of falL ln governmenL
and parllamenLary democracy
lll lallure of governmenL Lo malnLaln law and order
evenLs of 1919 and 1920 (amounLlng Lo 316 sLrlkes and Le selzure of prlvaLe properLy of landowners)
May 1919 occupaLlon of facLorles
people feared communlsL revoluLlon
normalcy wanLed noL pollLlcal unresL
effecLs on governmenL
governmenL was lnefflclenL and people LougL lL was useless
democracy assoclaLed wlL weakness
losL falL ln lL and looked Lowards lasclsLs wo could promlse a sLrong sLaLe and solve problems
lv lallure of anLllasclsLs Lo acL agalnsL lasclsLs
dlsunlLy beLween pollLlcal groups meanL no effecLlve opposlLlon and reslsLance
communlsLs dld noL cooperaLe wlL SoclallsLs due Lo pollLlcal dlfferences
M ClollLLl granLed lasclsLs enLry lnLo parllamenL ln 1921 due Lo dlsllke for soclallsLs
v lasclsLs caplLallzed on Le Ceneral SLrlke by SoclallsLs (AugusL 1922)
lasclsLs enLrenced conLrol over Le cenLral and norLern parLs of lLaly
effecLlvely suppressed Le SoclallsL sLrlkes
lasclsLs were seen favourably popularlLy soared
Mussollnl LreaLened governmenL LaL Le lasclsL arLy wlll ellmlnaLe Le SoclallsLs lf Le governmenL
would noL
Mussollnl posed as savlour of lLaly from fasclsm

vl 1e Marc on 8ome
Alms
Lo overLrow Le governmenL (a coup)
pressurlse and lnLlmldaLe governmenL for Mussollnl Lo be esLabllsed as lasclsL leader
lf Ley dldn'L glve ln Mussollnl would call for war
Mussollnl anxlous Lo caplLallze on lncreased lasclsL supporL (wlL fallure of Ceneral SLrlkes)
CcLober 1922
Mussollnl confldenL Lo LreaLen governmenL by paradlng Lo 8ome (ad four commanders norL of 8ome)
because lasclsL arLy and Mussollnl ad appeared as Le savlours of lLaly from Soclallsm governmenL seen
as weak and lncompeLenL
lasclsLs ad overrun local sLaLe governmenLs by cruslng Lem wlL force
galned supporL of caplLallsLs by punlslng SoclallsLs (LorLure properLy selzure vlolence eLc) and promlslng
law and order (also dropped anLlCurc and pro8epubllcan bellefs)
klng vlcLor Lmmanuel lll declared a sLaLe of emergency (CcLober 28
L
)
resclnded resulLlng ln confuslon
e supporLed lasclsLs because of Le drop of Le republlcan reglme
Le army was rumoured Lo sympaLlse wlL Le lasclsLs Lmmanuel lll feared defecLlon was mlslnformed
abouL sLrengL as well
afrald LaL Le lasclsLs would abdlcaLe lm and supporL ls cousln a duke
lsLory 2138

23

fasclsLs appeared Lo be effecLlve ln quelllng unresL
Le governmenL ad losL Le confldence of Le people and fasclsm posed a beLLer alLernaLlve conL
Mussollnl Look advanLage of Le slLuaLlon
spread rumours and lles abouL Le governmenL (eg Le mlllLary wlll [oln lasclsm)
eld blackslrL parades
cuL communlcaLlon (Lelepone and Lelegrap) llnes
alLed Lralns and posL
effecLlvely paralysed Le governmenL lnLo lnacLlon
re[ecLed a small role ln Le governmenL (28
L
CcLober 1922)
wroLe a provocaLlve arLlcle Lo conLlnue pressure (29
L
CcLober 1922)
vll Mussollnl was lnvlLed Lo rlme MlnlsLerslp and Lo form a governmenL (29
L
CcLober 1922)
wy?
1 lack of confldence ln Lulgl lacLa
2 fear LaL Le army would defecL Lo Le lasclsL camp
3 feared a long clvll war
4 fear of klng LaL e would ave Lo abdlcaLe ln favour of profasclsL cousln
lsLory 2138

26

ll ConsolldaLlon of ower

1 ollLlcal ollcles
Lo secure power and ellmlnaLe opposlLlon
l llrsL arllamenL
coallLlon ad less Lan 13 members
moderaLed and formed a governmenL wlL 4 lasclsLs ouL of 12 mlnlsLers
flrsL speec LreaLened Lo dlsband parllamenL lf members were uncooperaLlve
asked for a year of dlcLaLorlal power Lo make declslons wlLouL consulLaLlon
ma[orlLy consenLed LougL lLaly needed a flrm sLrong rule for sLablllLy and growL
lnlLlal sLeps Lo securlng LoLal power
ll lasclsL Crand Councll
became rullng body of Le lasclsL arLy conLrolled and appolnLed by Mussollnl
became more lmporLanL Lan Le CablneL of MlnlsLers
parllamenL became lnacLlve as all declslons were made by Le lCC (conLrolled by Mussollnl)
Mussollnl Lroug Le lCC monopollzes declslon maklng
lll LffecLlve suppresslon of opposlLlon Lroug Le moblllzaLlon of Le pollce Le MvSn and Le Cv8A
creaLlon of new organs
1 Le MvSn a new mlllLla creaLed from Le squadrl (blackslrLs Mussollnl's prlvaLe army) Lo deal wlL
opponenLs
2 Le Cv8A secreL pollce used Lo unL down pollLlcal opponenLs
opposlLlon Lo Le lasclsL arLy was arresLed [alled aggressed agalnsL murdered and exlled (Lo concenLraLlon
camps on lslands off Le lLallan coasL)
no pollLlcal obsLacles or callenge Lo power
lv Le Acerbo Law (november 1923)
gave auLomaLlc 2/3s ma[orlLy ln parllamenL Lo any parLy LaL goL 23 of voLes
almed Lo ensure Le lasclsLs ad 2/3s of seaLs ln parllamenL even lf Ley dld noL secure ma[orlLy of voLes
1924 elecLlons secured 2/3 ma[orlLy (le 23 of voLes) by rlgglng
gave Le lasclsL arLy power
v Le MaLLeoLLl Affalr
leader of Le SoclallsL arLy wo opposed Le rlgged elecLlons (MaLLeoLLl) was sllenced
lasclsL arLy was dlvlded some supporLed Le assasslnaLlon some were socked by lL
pollLlcal crlsls occurred publlc ouLcry LreaLened Mussollnl's leglLlmacy Lo rule as ls supporL waned
ellmlnaLlon of key pollLlcal opponenL (?)
vl Assumlng dlcLaLorlal powers (!anuary 1923)
Mussollnl accepLed responslblllLy for Le murder of MaLLeoLLl
e announced e was assumlng dlcLaLorslp
creaLed a new LlLle called Le 'uuce' (ead of governmenL) LaL allowed lm Lo make declslons/laws wlLouL
consulLlng Le parllamenL (rule by decree)

lsLory 2138

27

vll CnearLy SLaLe
all pollLlcal parLles excepL Le lasclsL arLy were banned
opposlLlon members expelled parllamenL (1926)
members of parllamenL could noL be appolnLed by Le klng wlLouL Mussollnl's consenL as uuce
legally removed opposlLlon esLabllsmenL as sole power
vlll AbollsmenL of Local CovernmenL
democraLlcally elecLed Lown councll and mayors abollsed and replaced by lasclsL governmenL offlclals
aLLempL aL conLrolllng local governmenLs
lx Canges Lo voLlng SysLem
abollsmenL of free democraLlc elecLlons
people could only voLe for a llsL of 400 candldaLes drawn up by lCC
Lose wo voLed agalnsL Le governmenL would be ldenLlfled and purged
sLrlpplng free wlll LoLallLarlan conLrol of counLry
x 8eorganlzlng Le lasclsL arLy
rlgldly cenLrallzed under Mussollnl's conLrol and lerarcy eaded by Mussollnl
reorganlzed arLy Lo remove any pockeLs of opposlLlon among members
recalclLranL members dlsmlssed and replaced (purglng)
all members and mlllLary men ad Lo swear oaL of alleglance Lo Le uuce
ellmlnaLe lnLernal LreaL of arLy

2 Lconomlc ollcles
almed Lo modernlze and lmprove lLaly's growL raLes
l Le CorporaLe SLaLe (1923)
an aLLempL Lo conLrol mode of producLlon and economlc relaLlons ln socleLy
Lo exLend pollLlcal conLrol over Le socleLy Lroug conLrol of economlc pollcles and labour relaLlons
abollLlon of free Lrade unlons workers' rlgLs Lo sLrlke ouLlawed (exLenslon of conLrol over workers)
corporaLlons domlnaLed by fasclsLs and general assembly became a rubbersLamp Lo Mussollnl's declslon
lasclsL conLrol of Le economy
ll SouLern roblem
almed Lo ellmlnaLe poverLy ln SouLern lLaly ralse llvlng sLandards and brlng abouL lndusLrlallzaLlon and
modernlzaLlon
bullL Mussollnla a selfsufflclenL vlllage wlL ealL educaLlonal and lndusLrlal faclllLles
lnLroduced new Lecnology ln agrlculLural secLor
modernlzed and developed rural areas
fallure desplLe propaganda noLlng was done plan was noL lmplemenLed funds no allocaLed and SouL
lLaly remalned lmpoverlsed
lll 8aLLle for WeaL
almed Lo esLablls auLarky (selfsufflclency)
lncreased amounL of land for weaL producLlon
lnLroduced new Lecnology /maclnery
rewards and lncenLlves for Le lgesL producers
llmlLed success producLlon doubled ln 1939 buL aL expense of dalry and arable farmlng and lucraLlve
exporL crop (ollves frulLs) producLlon fell resulLlng ln peasanLs' lncome remalnlng or falllng leavlng Lem sLlll
Le pooresL class
lsLory 2138

28

lv 8aLLle for Llra
resLore Le value of Le llra wlc was undervalued
sLrengLen Le currency
llra was pegged agalnsL Le 8rlLls pound
overvalued by Mussollnl resulLlng ln more expenslve exporLs resulLlng ln decllne ln sales (eg coLLon
lndusLry suffered and workers' wages cuL by 20)
v 8aLLle for Land
almed Lo lncrease farmlng land Lo boosL agrlculLural producLlon
reclalmed land dralnlng of swamps clearlng of lllsldes and woodlands (eg onLlne Marses)
fallure excepL for onLlne Marses

3 Soclal ollcles
l 8aLLle for 8lrL
almed Lo lncrease blrL raLes and populaLlon slze Lo 60 mllllon by 1930 so as Lo lncrease soldler volume
maLernlLy beneflLs moneLary rewards Lax rellefs propaganda for blrLlng and even dlslncenLlves for
unmarrled lndlvlduals
Lemporary boosLs ln Le sorL Lerm buL saw a decllne by Le 30s
ll ubllc Works rogramme
almed Lo lmprove Le lnfrasLrucLure and LransporL sysLem of lLaly
bulldlng of moLorways brldges rallway sLaLlons elecLrlc Lralns flaLs sporLlng sLadlums and scools
ma[or pro[ecL generaLed employmenL lLaly ad Le flrsL moLorways Lo be bullL ln Lurope and Lralns ran on
Llme efflclenL LransporL sysLem
lll Soclal Servlces
almed Lo ralse llvlng sLandards
penslons for reLlrees
afLerwork organlsaLlon (dopolavoro Cpera nazlonale uopolavoro Cnu Le naLlonal 8ecreaLlon Club)
largely a fallure (superflclal canges) no governmenL ealL lnsurance unLll 1943 decllne ln nuLrlLlonal
values ln lower class lncrease ln clld labour
lv LducaLlon
almed Lo lndocLrlnaLe populaLlon wlL fasclsL ldeals and lmbue loyalLy and supporL for Le uuce and Le
reglme
educaLlon was closely supervlsed
currlculum rewrlLLen Lo glorlfy governmenL
creaLlon of lasclsL youL organlsaLlons Lo lnsLll values
Leacers sLrlcLly monlLored
youLs underwenL soclal lndocLrlnaLlon and bralnwaslng
v AnLlSemlLlsm
almed for Le removal of economlc domlnance by Le !ewls people
assumed pollcy of dlscrlmlnaLlon and persecuLlon
dlvlded socleLy

lsLory 2138

29

vl LaLeran 1reaLy (also appllcable under ollLlcal ollcles)
almed Lo reconclle wlL Le apacy
almed Lo galn Curc's supporL for Le sLaLe and remove Le Curc as a poLenLlal pollLlcal opponenL
Lo galn Le supporL of Le 73 of 8omanCaLollcs ln lLaly
conclllaLory speeces made
vaLlcan ClLy ad lLs soverelgnLy recognlsed
CaLollclsm made sLaLe rellglon
rellglous educaLlon expanded
Curc glven money ln form of sLaLe bond
Curc and dlvorce laws became sLaLe laws
earned supporL of Curc
lsLory 2138

30

b PlLler and Le nazl arLy

l 8lse Lo power
ll ConsolldaLlon of power
8ACkC8Cunu
1e Welmar 8epubllc was creaLed ln Cermany afLer Le kalser was forced Lo abdlcaLe ln favour of democracy
1e armlsLlce Len acLed upon by Le Allles ended WWl (11/11/1918) lL was overseen by Le presldenL
elecLed dlrecLly by Le people Lo serve a seven year Lerm Pe ad dlrecL conLrol over Le cancellor and Le
mlnlsLers was commanderlnclef of Le armed forces could selze emergency power over Le sLaLe suspend
Le parllamenL and rule by decree 1e parllamenL conslsLed of Le 8elcsraL Le upper ouse wlL 66 seaLs
represenLlng Le sLaLes and Le 8elcsLag Le lower ouse 1e cancellor formed governmenL ln Le
8elcsLag wlc ad 421 depuLles roporLlonal represenLaLlon was pracLlced were eac parLy was allocaLed
seaLs ln proporLlon Lo Lelr LoLal voLes
1e concepL of proporLlonal represenLaLlon meanL LaL no parLy could galn Le absoluLe ma[orlLy Lven Le
smallesL of spllnLer parLles could galn seaLs creaLlng lnsLablllLy ln Le parllamenL because of a dlsrupLlve
coallLlon
PlLler would manlpulaLe Le governmenL upon ls cancellorslp and evenLually selze LoLal power as lurer

















lsLory 2138

31


1e nazl arLy
Alms and prlnclples
1 CreaLlon of Le 1lrd 8elc unlon of all Cermans ln Lurope
2 Selze LerrlLory ln LasLern Lurope Lo seLLle populaLlon
3 Abolls Le 1reaLy of versallles
4 AnLlWelmar
3 AnLlSemlLlc Cermans are raclally superlor
6 CreaLlon of a sLronger governmenL denunclaLlon of democracy and advocaLe vlolence as a leglLlmaLe Lool
7 SoclallsL reforms naLlonallze lmporLanL lndusLry and oldage penslons
1lmellne of Le nazl arLy
19141918 PlLler was a corporal ln Le army developed pollLlcal ldeas llke Le unnecessary dlkLaL Le
repudlaLlon of Le 1reaLy of versallles and Le Leory of Le governmenL's beLrayal
1919 PlLler [olned Le Cerman Workers' arLy
1920 Le CW merged wlL anoLer parLy and was named Le nazl arLy under PlLler
1921 Le SA (SLurmabLellung 'SLorm 1roopers') was formed Lo desLroy opposlLlon parLles and opponenLs
1923 Munlc uLsc
1924 SLresemann era nazl growL sLunLed
1929 CreaL uepresslon nazls popular agaln
1930 8elcsLag elecLlons Cancellor 8runlng eaded an unsLable coallLlon PlLler was lnvlLed buL decllned
from sarlng power
1932 (Marc) resldenLlal elecLlons PlLler was a candldaLe buL dld noL wln
1932 (!uly) von apen as Cancellor coallLlon reelecLed PlLler decllned place ln coallLlon agaln
1932 (november) coallLlon lncreaslngly unsLable von Sclelcer as cancellor 8elcsLag unworkable
1933 (!anuary) PlLler lnvlLed Lo power by Plndenburg von apen and von Sclelcer and army because e
was a LreaL Pe seLLled for noLlng less Lan cancellorslp
1933 (lebruary) 8elcsLag flre
1933 (Marc 3
L
) 8elcsLag elecLlons nazl arLy falled Lo aLLaln ma[orlLy
1933 (Marc 23
rd
) PlLler enforced Le Lnabllng Law PlLler essenLlally dlcLaLor
1934 (!une) 1e nlgL of Long knlves
1934 (AugusL) Plndenburg dles PlLler creaLes posL of lurer ClelscalLung pollcy acLlvaLed


lsLory 2138

32

l 8lse Lo power (from 1919 Lo !anuary 1933)
8efore PlLler became Cancellor e ad aLLempLed power by sLaglng Le Munlc uLsc (1923)
Alm Lo sLarL a naLlonal revoluLlon and overLrown Le Welmar 8epubllc
Wy 1923 Lere was a general mood of blLLerness
1 lrenc lnvaslon of 8ur saw Le governmenL's lnablllLy aL selfdefence
2 1e economlc crlsls and yperlnflaLlon saw dlsconLenL and ouLrage
3 1e SA was aglLaLed
4 PlLler belleved e ad Le supporL of Le rlgLwlng 8avarlan governmenL
1lmellne of Le uLsc
8
L
november
meL wlL CusLav von kar (ead of 8avarlan governmenL) Lo dlscuss vlrLues of dlcLaLorslp
SA sLormed ln wlL PlLler proclalmlng a provlslonal governmenL and LaL a revoluLlon ad Loppled Le 8elc
demanded kar Lossow (8avarlan army commander) and Ludendorff
kar and Lossow escaped and condemned PlLler wen e Look Lo Le sLreeLs Lo sLop flgLlng beLween army
and SA
9
L
november
encouraged by Ludendorff PlLler marced wlL men on Munlc oplng for passlveness of army and pollce
clases occurred 16 dled
lallure of Le uLsc
PlLler LougL governmenL busy wlL 8ur crlsls Lerefore good Llme Lo sLage puLsc
LougL e ad Le elemenL of surprlse
mlscalculaLlon LaL people were dlssaLlsfled and slnce Ley losL [obs would wanL Lo rlse agalnsL governmenL
pollce were sLlll aL large
PlLler unknown ouLslde 8avarla
PlLler dld noL ave falL and supporL of 8avarlan leaders
CuLcomes of Le uLsc
falled puLsc saw PlLler Lrown ln [all
owever PlLler made lmself known Lroug courL Lrlals
nazl parLy's alms made known
appealed Lo people
speeces were famous
became lnLernaLlonally renowned
PlLler reallsed LaL lf e were Lo galn power lL would ave Lo be Lroug legal parllamenLary means
PlLler ln [all
nazl arLy ln dlsarray
Coebbels used Lo spread ldeas
Meln kampf wrlLLen Lo espouse 4 maln nazl ldeas
1 uesLrucLlon of versallles SeLLlemenL
2 Caln llvlng space ln LasLern Lurope
3 unlLe all Cermans under 1lrd 8elc
4 CreaLe a raclally pure Cerman sLaLe
upon release nazl arLy sLreamllned and reorganlsed wlL local unlLs creaLed Lo propagaLe fasLer
ran meeLlngs and propaganda campalgns Lo spread anLlWelmar/SemlLlc ldeas and galn supporL
lsLory 2138

33

1e SLresemann Lra (19241929)
lor a perlod of Llme under Le leaderslp of prlme mlnlsLer and cancellor CusLav SLresemann Cermany
flourlsed agaln reLurnlng Lo a semblance of er former glory Adversely supporL for Le nazl arLy decllned
as conLenLmenL seL ln and Lere was no need for radlcal cange
Lconomlc 8econsLrucLlon
uawes lan (1924)
SLresemann successfully seLLled reparaLlons lssue lrance lefL 8ur and Cermany secured a uS$40mll loan
from Le uS
Le economy and buslnesses grew
unemploymenL was greaLly reduced and Lere was lncreased confldence ln buslness lnvesLmenLs
Le 8eLenmark was creaLed
Cerman currency sLablllsed
?oung lan (1929)
lasL lnLernaLlonal success ln managlng reparaLlons reducLlons Lroug dlplomacy
Welmar 8epubllc regalned supporL
lnLeresL was losL ln Le nazl arLy
buL Lere was overrellance on Le uS lf Le uS economy sould fall Cermany would be gravely affecLed
lorelgn ollcles
almed Lo reconclle wlL oLer Luropean powers Lo galn lnLernaLlonal sLaLus and respecL
1reaLy of Locarno (1923)
Cermany agreed Lo accepL wesLern borders wlL lrance 8elglum lLaly and 8rlLaln buL avolded any
guaranLees over Le easLern fronLlers
kellogg acL (1928)
Cermany would renounce Le use of force as an lnsLrumenL of forelgn pollcy
League of naLlons memberslp (1926)
Cermany recognlsed as a permanenL member
marked er reLurn as a greaL power
LffecL on Le nazl arLy
Marc 1924 nazls as 32 seaLs
uecember 1924 nazls as 14 seaLs
uecember 1928 nazls ad 12 seaLs
lmproved prosperlLy led Lo decllne ln nazl supporL
conLlnued propaganda
PlLler conLlnued bulldup of organlsaLlon
lncreased fundlng
SA expanded
SS (ScuLzsLaffel) creaLed
founded youL organlsaLlons

lsLory 2138

34

1e CreaL uepresslon
LffecLs
1e uS economy collapsed
uS loans ended and were called up
repaymenL demanded for
confldence ln currency fell and currency collapsed
banks closed
unemploymenL soared Lo 6mll ln 1932 from 14mll ln 1928
lndusLrlal producLlon fell by 42 world agrlculLure prlces fell exporLs fell
facLorles closed
Welmar 8epubllc's acLlon
deflaLlonary pollcles
lncreased Laxes and paycuLs
ouLcomes of pollcles
supporL decreased (dlsconLenLmenL)
soclal revoluLlonarles lefL coallLlon
Welmar governmenL collapsed
1e Collapse of Le Welmar 8epubllc
weaknesses of Le governmenL and Le consLlLuLlon exposed
collapse due Lo deparLure of soclal democraLs
lefL because of unfavourable economlc pollcles
Plndenburg suspended coallLlon and ruled by decree
flve successlve unsLable governmenLs came and wenL
CrowL of nazlsm
LlecLoraLe voLlng 1rend
uecember 1928 12 seaLs
SepLember 1930 107 seaLs
!uly 1932 230 seaLs
november 1932 219 seaLs
populaLlon favours exLremlsL pollLlcal parLles only wen Ley are dlsconLenLed wlL concurrenL llvlng
condlLlons and long for cange Lese exLremlsL parLles can promlse cange
nazls caplLallzed on CreaL uepresslon
1 SeL up lnLeresL groups Lo sow people LaL Ley undersLood and sympaLlzed and were wllllng Lo elp
2 layed up communlsL LreaL (revoluLlon and sLrlfe) and promlsed Lo resLore law and order especlally slnce
Ley ad seer mlllLary force
3 rovlded employmenL ln Le form of SS servlce
4 Appealed Lo naLlonallsm by promlslng Lo lead Cermany ouL of Le CreaL uepresslon and lnLo belng a greaL
naLlon
3 LffecLlve use of Coebbels's propaganda
mounLed expenslve elecLlon campalgns Lo galn supporL
PlLleroverCermany campalgn planes fly over Cermany and announce PlLler's arrlval for rallles and
speeces
mass propaganda llke posLers and radlo broadcasLs and monsLer rallles

owever ln 1932 wen Le economy began recovery Le nazl arLy began loslng seaLs because ln reallLy no
one really supporLed dlcLaLorslps
lsLory 2138

33

PlLler's lnvlLaLlon Lo power
Plndenburg von apen von Sclelcer and Le army generals wanLed PlLler Lo be parL of coallLlon Lo
1 MonlLor lm slnce Le nazl arLy was mounLlng ln power
2 use Le nazl arLy Lo reLurn Cermany Lo prewar and preWelmar monarcy
3 ConLrol PlLler beLLer lf e was ln Le governmenL
4 CooperaLe wlL Le nazls agalnsL Le communlsLs
e would seLLle for noLlng less Lan cancellorslp and aLLalned Le poslLlon on 30
L
!anuary 1933




lsLory 2138

36

PlLler Lo power Summary
PlLler's rlse Lo pollLlcal power was alded by varlous facLors pollLlcs ln Le Welmar governmenL pollLlcs among
parLles posLwar economy and exLernal facLors Powever success musL be duly aLLrlbuLed Lo PlLler's pollLlcal
srewdness as well as Le efforLs of Le nazl parLy

1 ollLlcs ln Cermany

Le Welmar 8epubllc was blamed for Le defeaL aL WWl
Le 'sLab ln Le back Leory'
some belleved LaL Le governmenL surrendered before Cermany was acLually defeaLed ln Le war and
accepLed Le dlkLaL
lL was acLually Le Ceneral Ludendorff wo ad surrendered and noL Le 'november crlmlnals' because Le
army was no longer able Lo defend Cermany

Le Welmar 8epubllc was consLlLuLlonally weak
Le presldenL ad Loo muc power over Le counLry
Le sLaLe was noL exacLly democraLlc
proporLlonal represenLaLlon meanL unsLable coallLlons

Le governmenL was unable Lo enforce law and order
Lere were prevalllng vlolenL demonsLraLlons puLsces pollLlcal assasslnaLlons eLc
eg
a 1e SparLaclsL uprlslng a communlsL uprlslng puL down by Le lrelkorps
b 1e kapp uLsc a rlgL wlng uprlslng wen Le lrelkorps faced dlsbandmenL 1e army remalned
sympaLeLlc Lo Le rlgLwlngers' alms 1e lrelkorps only dlsbanded wlL Le workers' sLrlke
c ollLlcal assasslnaLlons of governmenL offlclals by exlrelkorps members
d SLreeL vlolence beLween prlvaLe armles of pollLlcal parLles

governmenL could noL solve Le CreaL uepresslon
(see secLlon 2 osLwar economy)
Le Welmar 8epubllc losL Le supporL of Le Cerman peoples wo Lus sougL a parLy wo could promlse a
beLLer llfe for Lem Le nazl arLy

2 osLwar economy
Le governmenL was close Lo bankrupLcy due Lo Le cosLs of war and Le lmposed reparaLlons
Le lnablllLy Lo pay a Llmber conslgnmenL resulLed ln Le lrenc8elglum occupaLlon of 8ur
Le governmenL sougL Lo solve problems by prlnLlng more money
creaLed a yperlnflaLlon ln Cermany
Le worklng class ad Lelr wages decreased wlle Laxes lncreased
Le mlddle class losL all Lelr savlngs and buslness
owever caplLallsLs' money were frozen ln properLy land and forelgn currency
Le Cerman Mark decreased ln value agalnsL Le pound and money became worLless
Le CreaL uepresslon was made worse for Cermany
Le people of Cermany LougL Le Welmar 8epubllc was lncompeLenL and losL falL ln lL
lsLory 2138

37


3 PlLler's pollLlcal acumen
e was an effecLlve leader
ls organlsaLlonal skllls allowed efflclency ln nazl movemenLs
Le SS and SA were aL ls beck and call and lmposed a formldable presence
ls naLural LalenL for speec allowed lm Lo wln over Le masses
ls carlsma earned lm many loyal followers
people were wllllng Lo Lravel Lo ear lm speak
exLenslve supporL by people

4 1e nazl arLy's lnLense reglme
effecLlve nazl propaganda
PlLleroverCermany
monsLer rallles
recorded speeces
nazl propaganda mlnlsLer (Coebbels)

won supporL by propaganda

appealed Lo peoples' naLlonallsm
overLrow Le 1reaLy of versallles
esLablls Le 1lrd 8elc
world domlnaLlon
conquer land

won supporL by appeallng Lo paLrloLlclsm of Cermans

3 LxLernal facLors (caplLallsed upon by Le nazls)
Le CreaL uepresslon
exposed Le weaknesses of Le Welmar 8epubllc
promlsed Lo solve Le problem
seL up lnLeresL groups and provldlng full employmenL
won elecLoral supporL
Le communlsL LreaL
Le nazl arLy dramaLlzed Lls
purporLed LaL Communlsm Lralled revenge war revoluLlon and sLrlfe
wrecked communlsL rallles and beaL up speakers
presenLed Lemselves as savlours of Le naLlon from Communlsm

lsLory 2138

38

ll ConsolldaLlon of power
LvenLs leadlng Lo PlLler's full power
1 1e 8elcsLag llre
2 1e 8elcsLag LlecLlons
3 1e Lnabllng Law
4 1e nlgL of Long knlves
3 1e ueaL of resldenL Plndenburg
6 1e ClelcscalLung ollcy

1 1e 8elcsLag llre 27
L
lebruary 1933
Le flre was sLarLed by uuLc anarclsL van der Lubbe
nazls knew abouL plans buL dldn'L acL on lL
communlsLs were blamed
PlLler convlnced Plndenburg Lo declare a sLaLe of emergency
clvll rlgLs suspended suspecLs could be lmprlsoned wlLouL Lrlal
all communlsLs were dlscredlLed and arresLed ln masses
poLenLlal communlsL opposlLlon Lo nazl arLy ellmlnaLed

2 1e 8elcsLag LlecLlons
used Le press and medla Lo wlp up a ma[orlLy
Le nazl arLy organlsed a vlolenL elecLoral campalgn Lo garner mass supporL
senlor pollce offlcers were replaced wlL nazls
30000 auxlllary pollcemen lnsLrucLed Lo be osLlle Lowards Le nazls' opposlLlon only and sow Le enemles
of Le sLaLe no mercy
rallles were wrecked and speakers were beaLen up wlle pollce lgnored
CuLcome
nazl arLy won only 44 of seaLs
falled Lo geL a ma[orlLy
depended on smaller parLles Lo form coallLlon
slgn LaL nazl arLy dld noL relgn supreme
caLalysL for Lnabllng Law (see secLlon 3 Lnabllng Law)

3 1e Lnabllng Law 23
rd
Marc 1933
forclble passlng of Le law
kroll Cpera Pouse (LenLaLlve parllamenLary meeLlng place) surrounded by SS and SA
81 communlsL members of parllamenL (M) decllned enLry
SA llned walls lnslde Le Cpera Pouse
LreaLened Ms Lo pass lL (441 by 94 soclal democraLs)


lsLory 2138

39

effecLs of Le law
governmenL could lnLroduce laws wlLouL approval of 8elcsLag for 4 years
could lgnore consLlLuLlon
could slgn forelgn agreemenLs wlL counLrles
all laws drafLed by cancellor (PlLler) and lmmedlaLely passed
PlLler essenLlally dlcLaLor (could exLend dlcLaLorlal power lndeflnlLely)
Welmar consLlLuLlon abandoned
Le CnearLy sLaLe
abollsed all opposlLlon (14
L
!uly 1933 lllegallLy of all pollLlcal parLles excepL Le nazls
esLabllsed compleLe nazl rule
consolldaLlon of nazl power over sLaLe governmenL
no need Lo consulL Welmar consLlLuLlon
nazls relgned supreme
eac sLaLe's own local governmenL removed (1934)
cenLrallzaLlon of power ln 8erlln
abollsmenL of Le 8elcsraL (lederal arllamenL) (1934)
slgnlflcance of Le Lnabllng Law
abollsed democracy ln favour of auLocracy and LoLallLarlan dlcLaLorslp
PlLler ad uncallenged dlcLaLorlal power for 4 years wlc e could (and dld) exLend lndeflnlLely
LoLal nazl conLrol over Cermany

4 1e nlgL of Long knlves 30
L
!une 1934
Alm Lo ellmlnaLe all pollLlcal opponenLs 8m Le SA and varlous crlLlcs (eg von apen)
8m
almed Lo merge SA wlL 8elcswer
wanLed Lo be made a general
PlLler feared ls amblLlons
PlLler kllled lm and Le SA off because a) e could rld lmself of a poLenLlal LreaL b) e could please and
earn Le supporL of Le army generals and c) e was embarrassed by 8m's sexuallLy
Slgnlflcance of evenL
SA reduced ln lmporLance
PlLler ad army's supporL wlc e needed for war
crlLlcs removed
PlLler and nazls compleLely unopposed

3 1e ueaL of resldenL Plndenburg 2
nd
AugusL 1934
PlLler became Le lurer
eld pleblsclLe Lo conflrm mandaLe Lo prevenL fuLure opposlLlon
merged offlces of cancellor and presldenL
no oLer poslLlon wlL enoug power Lo callenge lm
commanderlnclef of army
monopollsed key power poslLlons
lsLory 2138

40

6 1e ClelcscalLung ollcy
Alm Lo Lurn Cermany LoLallLarlan conLrolllng all aspecLs of llfe wlL pollce and CesLapo
lL was dangerous Lo oppose Le governmenL
Lere were no elecLlons
nazl commlssloners Look over parllamenL
ollce sLaLe
mosL affalrs closely waLced anyone could be a spy
prevenLlng opposlLlon
no falr Lrlals
clldren encouraged Lo beLray parenLs Lo CesLapo
concenLraLlon camps seL up (labour or genoclde)
ConLrol of 1rade unlons
Lrade unlons conslsLed of SoclallsLs and communlsLs
may sLarL sLrlkes leadlng Lo revoluLlon
1rade unlons were abollsed
leaders arresLed
replaced wlL Cerman Labour lronL
sLrlkes made lllegal
clvll servlce purged
ConLrol of educaLlon
lndocLrlnaLlon wlL nazl ldeas
Le flrsL Llng Ley learnL was Lo obey
clldren were wllllng Lo dle ln wars for PlLler and nazlsm
LexLbooks rewrlLLen
lsLory from a proforce perspecLlve
blology replaced wlL nazl race Leory
clldren encouraged Lo beLray anLlnazl Leacers
clldren grew up bellevlng ln nazlsm because parenLs afrald Lo speak up
ConLrol of mass medla
eavy censorslp
no free press or publlslng
anLlnazl producLlons burnL
wrlLers arassed
ConLrol of economy
closely organlsed
conLrol of producLlon labour food prlces renL and forelgn excange
arLlflclal subsLlLuLes Lo replace lmporLs
ConLrol of rellglon
under sLrlcL conLrol
proLesLers purged
AnLlSemlLlc ollcles
would conducL raclal purglng
ad rldlculous measures and meLods of deLermlnlng wo was !ewls
would send Le 'raclally lmpure' Lo concenLraLlon camps were Ley would labour or be kllled off
lsLory 2138

41

8lse and ConsolldaLlon of ower PlLler
Summary Llmellne
28
L
!une 1919 Le 1reaLy of versallles Cermans ad Lo pay reparaLlons of WWl garnerlng dlsconLenL
14
L
SepLember 1919 PlLler [olned Le nazl arLy and became lLs leader ln 1920
1921 Le soldlerLugs SA was formed Lo aLLack rlval parLles
1923 yperlnflaLlon people were rulned and nazls grew
89 november 1923 Le 8eer Pall uLsc ln Munlc (Le Munlc uLsc) sLaged and falled and PlLler
lmprlsoned
1924 PlLler wroLe Meln kampf explalnlng ls ldeas and lncreaslng ls popularlLy
1927 PlLler ?ouL founded youLs dld sporLs ln Lelr free Llme buL also sLudled nazl ldeas and were LaugL Lo
obey PlLler
1928 nazl propaganda eaded by !osef Coebbels radlo newspaper and mass rallles used Lo geL ldeas across
19291932 1e CreaL uepresslon severe unemploymenL sLarvaLlon and poverLy nazl supporL grew
30
L
!anuary 1933 PlLler becomes cancellor Plndenburg under lmpresslon e could beLLer conLrol PlLler
27
L
lebruary 1933 Le 8elcsLag llre communlsLs blamed
3
L
Marc 1933 Le 8elcsLag LlecLlons nazls falled Lo galn ma[orlLy
23
rd
Marc 1933 Le Lnabllng Law allowed PlLler dlcLaLorlal powers
26
L
Aprll 1933 Le CesLapo formed and nazls ln carge of local governmenL and pollce
2
nd
May 1933 1rade unlons abollsed
14
L
!uly 1933 opposlLlon parLles banned CnearLy sLaLe formed
30
L
!une 1934 Le nlgL of Long knlves purged all crlLlcs as well as 8m and Le SA
19
L
AugusL 1934 Plndenburg dles and PlLler declares lmself lurer presldenL cancellor and commander
lnclef of Le army

lsLory 2138

42

4 1e 8oad Lo World War ll

l AppeasemenL
ll 1e Causes of World War ll

ln18CuuC1lCn

A llsL of Le evenLs leadlng Lo WWll

1 1e CreaL uepresslon (1929 Lo Le early 1930s)
2 1e MukdenMancurla lncldenL (1931)
3 PlLler becomes Cancellor (!anuary 1933)
4 Cerman leaves Le Ceneva Conference and Le League (1934)
3 1e nonaggresslon pacL wlL oland (1934)
6 1e ALLempLed Anscluss (!uly 1934)
7 1e Cerman 8earmamenL rocess (!anuary 1933)
8 1e SLresa lronL (May 1933)
9 1e AngloCerman naval AgreemenL (!une 1933)
10 Abysslnla and lLaly (CcLober 19331936)
11 8lneland (Marc 1936)
12 1e Spanls Clvll War (!uly 19361939)
13 1e Axls acLs (CcLober 1936 1937)
14 1e AnLlComlnLern acL (1936 1937)
13 1e Second Slno!apanese ConfllcL (!uly 1937)
16 1e 1938 Anscluss (Marc)
17 Czecoslovakla's demlse (SepLember 1938)
18 1e 8eclalmlng of Memel (Marc 1939)
19 lLaly onLo Albanla (Aprll 1939)
20 1e acL of SLeel (May 1939)
21 1e nazlSovleL acL (AugusL 1939)
22 1e lnvaslon of oland (SepLember 1939)


lsLory 2138

43

l AppeasemenL
8ackground
8rlLaln slgned a naval agreemenL wlL Cermany ln 1933 lollowlng LaL 8rlLaln followed a pollcy of glvlng
PlLler waL e wanLed a pollcy knows as appeasemenL 1e goal was Lo sLall or even averL war
AppeasemenL would buy Le CreaL owers Llme Lo prepare for war or peraps even forge an alllance wlL Le
Axls owers agalnsL Le uSS8 and Communlsm AppeasemenL also gave PlLler Le mlndseL LaL aggresslon
would noL be counLermanded

1 Wy pursue AppeasemenL?
l PlLler sLood up Lo Communlsm
Communlsm spreadlng from Le uSS8 (unlon of SovleL SoclallsL 8epubllcs or SovleL 8ussla) was an up and
comlng LreaL Lo world peace especlally wlL SLalln aL lLs ead
Le CreaL owers preferred Le Cermans as allles agalnsL Le communlsLs Lerefore were wllllng Lo make
concesslons Lo keep relaLlons frlendly
ll 8rlLaln's ALLlLude
lL was noL cerLaln LaL Le enLlre 8rlLls Lmplre and CommonwealL sLaLes (eg Canada) would sLand up
agalnsL nazl Cermany or supporL a war agalnsL lL
lnsLead of rlsklng an undersupporLed war Le CreaL owers cose Lo play lL safe by malnLalnlng peace
lll 1e Porrors of WWl musL noL be repeaLed
Le CreaL owers dld noL wanL a recurslon of Le pollLlcal economlc and clvlllan devasLaLlon experlenced
durlng WWl
wanLed Lo avold a war aL any cosL
lv 8rlLaln was noL ready for war
Le 8rlLls governmenL belleved LaL er forces were ouLdaLed and unprepared for war agalnsL PlLler
appeasemenL would allow Lem Llme Lo rearm
v Lconomlc problems
8rlLaln and lrance were sufferlng from Le effecLs of Le CreaL uepresslon
Lere were large debLs and severe unemploymenL
appeasemenL would allow for recovery
vl 1e 1reaLy of versallles was unfalr
many felL LaL Le LreaLy was Loo ars
Ley assumed LaL upon maklng amends Cermany would reverL Lo peace
Lerefore Ley would make concesslons and pursue appeasemenL ln order Lo reLaln peace
vll 1e uSA pursued lsolaLlon
Amerlcan leaders were deLermlned noL Lo be dragged lnLo anoLer war
8rlLaln and lrance were uncerLaln of oldlng agalnsL Cermany wlLouL uS supporL
Le CreaL owers dld noL wanL flgL aggresslon wlLouL uS backlng

lsLory 2138

44

2 WaL was wrong wlL AppeasemenL?
lL seemed as lf Le only opLlon was Lo please PlLler buL Lere were obvlous rlsks Lo Lls
l lL encouraged PlLler's aggresslon
every gamble PlLler Look was successful
ls aggresslon agalnsL oLer counLrles was noL kepL ln ceck
gave lm confldence Lo sLarL a ma[or war
appeasemenL allowed PlLler Lo fosLer Le mlndseL LaL e could aggress unpunlsed
ll lL allowed Cermany Lo grow Loo sLrong
Cermany ad broken Le 1reaLy of versallles and ad openly rearmed and reclalmed LerrlLorles
resources were recovered
army rebullL
laxlLy of Le CreaL owers because of appeasemenL pollcles allowed Cermany Lo amass forces more
powerful Lan 8rlLaln or lrance
lll lL scared Le uSS8
PlLler made no secreL of ls plans Lo expand easLwards
appeasemenL senL 8ussla Le message LaL 8rlLaln and lrance would noL sLand ln Cermany's way
8ussla posslbly felL beLrayed by 8rlLaln and lrance leadlng er Lo slgn Le nazlSovleL acL
lv lL puL Loo muc LrusL ln PlLler's promlses
PlLler ofLen wenL back on ls promlses
owever due Lo appeasemenL many naLlons belleved LaL PlLler was LrusLworLy
creaLed a sense of false securlLy



lsLory 2138

43

ll 1e Causes of World War ll
Le followlng evenLs arguably led Lo Le ouLbreak of WWll
Lese evenLs porLray LaL Cermany was noL Le only power Lo blame for WWll

1 1e CreaL uepresslon (1929 Lo Le early 1930s)

CuLllne
Lere was a general decreased ln lndusLry and agrlculLure
Lere was a collapse of lnLernaLlonal Lrade
unemploymenL and poverLy raLes wenL up
democraLlc governmenLs collapsed because of lnablllLy Lo solve problems (eg Welmar 8epubllc)
people Len supporLed exLremlsL parLles (eg nazl arLy)
Slgnlflcance
naLlons are all preoccupled wlL solvlng lndlvldual economlc and pollLlcal problems
sLaLes were less concerned wlL rearmlng
appeasemenL was pursued concesslons were made Lo averL war
exLremlsL governmenLs LreaLened Le survlval of world peace (eg Cermany propagaLed world domlnaLlon)
osLlle forelgn pollcles and aggresslon pursued (eg lLaly under Mussollnl)
counLrles resorLed Lo war and lnvaslon Lo clalm LerrlLory and resources
nazls' confldence Lo break Le 1reaLy of versallles grew (Lebensraum rearmamenL eLc)
war was made more llkely by elgLened occurrences of aggresslon and decreased acLlon agalnsL lL

2 1e MukdenMancurla lncldenL (1931)
CuLllne
!apan lnvaded Mancurla (ln Clna) Lo solve lLs economlc problems Lroug expanslon and resource clalmlng
se wanLed Lo galn access Lo raw maLerlals for lndusLrlallsaLlon
Slgnlflcance
Lenslon was creaLed beLween Clna and !apan
Le CreaL owers were unwllllng Lo face war wlL !apan due Lo CreaL uepresslon
Le CreaL owers ad Le menLallLy LaL Le occurrences were ln Le lar LasL Lus dld noL concern Lem
Le League's auLorlLy was damaged dld noL engage aggresslon dld noL lmpose sancLlons woleearLedly
lnacLlon lnsplred oLer aggresslve leaders Lo follow Le example
war was made more llkely because oLer exLremlsL leaders felL LaL Ley would be unopposed


lsLory 2138

46

3 PlLler becomes Cancellor (!anuary 1933)
CuLllne
PlLler esLabllses lmself as wllful compeLlLlon
Le nazl arLy galns lmmense power
Ley pursued aggresslve forelgn pollcles and alms world domlnaLlon Lebensraum and Le unlLy of all
Cermanspeaklng peoples under Le 1lrd 8elc breaklng Le 1reaLy of versallles
Lelr ldeals suggesLed Cerman supremacy
Slgnlflcance
preaced Cerman expanslonlsLlc and aggresslve alms
war made more llkely because all of Cermany's pollcles lnadverLenLly led Lo aggresslon and vlolence

4 Cerman leaves Le Ceneva Conference and Le League (1934)
CuLllne
PlLler demanded parlLy ln arms
demanded for elLer global dlsarmamenL or for Cermany Lo rearm agaln
lrance refused Lls
PlLler wlLdrew from Le ulsarmamenL Conference and from Le League
Slgnlflcance
PlLler openly re[ecLed Le dlsarmamenL clause
wlL wlLdrawal from Le League Cermany was now unbound and was free Lo pursue aggresslon
re[ecLlon of dlsarmamenL clause meanL Cermany would rearm (rapldly)
lncreased Le posslblllLy LaL Cermany would uLlllse force as a forelgn pollcy Lool
war made more llkely due Lo Le fallure of Le conference Lo appease Cermany's aggresslon and alL er
rearmamenL

3 1e nonaggresslon pacL wlL oland (1934)
CuLllne
an agreemenL Lo seLLle dlfferences peacefully and noL resorL Lo war
oland pledged neuLrallLy lf aLLacked by AusLrla or Czecoslovakla
Slgnlflcance
PlLler's bluff assured 8rlLaln and lrance LaL Cermany was noL Lo be feared
olls lnacLlon galned lf Cermany aggressed
oland removed as opposlLlon
Cermany could easlly clalm Le gaLeway lnLo LasLern Lurope
war made more llkely because PlLler faces one less opponenL and Le lncenLlves were lger


lsLory 2138

47

6 1e ALLempLed Anscluss (!uly 1934)
CuLllne
almed Lo unlLe all Cermanspeaklng peoples
AusLrlan rlme MlnlsLer uollfuss opposed ldea and banned Le nazl arLy ln AusLrla
e was assasslnaLed
Scuscnlgg appolnLed as M and appealed Lo lLaly
Mussollnl senL four mlllLary dlvlslons Lo Le AusLrlan border (8renner ass)
Mussollnl feared a sLrong CermanAusLrla border upon lL
PlLler called off ls plan and refuLed any amblLlons Lo Lake over
Slgnlflcance
eace was malnLalned by Le LreaL of force and also due Lo Cermany's underpowered army
PlLler's expanslonlsLlc ldeas exposed

7 1e Cerman 8earmamenL rocess (!anuary 1933)
CuLllne
afLer Laklng Saar (!anuary 1933 Lroug pleblsclLe)
Saar was rlc wlL mlneral resources and coal necessary for deploymenL of arms lndusLry
PlLler confldenL Lo announce Cerman rearmamenL
relnLroducLlon of conscrlpLlon
seL up 36 peaceLlme dlvlslons
alr force and navy underwenL rapld expanslon
Slgnlflcance
successful breac of LreaLy
vlLal sLep Lowards preparaLlon for war and world domlnaLlon
war made more llkely because Cermany now ad mlllLary and combaLlve power Lo sLarL a war

8 1e SLresa lronL (May 1933)
CuLllne
unlLed fronL beLween 8rlLaln lrance and lLaly Lo condemn Cerman rearmamenL and Lo reslsL Cerman
aggresslon as well as a revlslon of Le 1reaLy of versallles
Le powers pledged Lo work LogeLer Lo preserve peace ln Lurope
Slgnlflcance
unsuccessful because 8rlLaln evenLually condoned Cerman rearmamenL
lLaly also aggressed on Abysslnla lnsLead and was osLraclzed
essenLlally led Lo Le 8ome8erlln Axls
war made more llkely as Lenslon was creaLed from Le 'beLrayal' of Lwo of Le powers


lsLory 2138

48

9 1e AngloCerman naval AgreemenL (!une 1933)
CuLllne
allowed Cermany Lo bulld as many submarlnes up Lo 33 of Le number of 8rlLls warslps
because 8rlLaln was afrald of anoLer arms race wlL Cermany
Lo appease Cermany
Slgnlflcance
dlplomaLlc Lrlump for PlLler because 8rlLaln recognlsed Cermany's rlgL Lo rearm
breac of 1reaLy of versallles
sowed ollowness of SLresa lronL
Cermany's rearmamenL slgnlflcanLly sped up because se could rearm ln Le open
Cermany reallsed 8rlLaln's fear and selflsness se was only concerned abouL er welfare
war made more llkely because wlL Le rapldness of Cerman rearmamenL Cermany's mlllLary sLrengL
grew rapldly

10 Abysslnla and lLaly (CcLober 19331936)
CuLllne
Lo dlverL Le aLLenLlons of Le lLallan populaLlon from er lnLernal problems
unlLe Le people wlL Mussollnl belnd an lLallan vlcLory
Slgnlflcance
League was lneffecLlve ln sLopplng Lls
naLlons defled er sancLlons
SLresa fronL was weakened
lLaly drew closer Lo Cermany because se openly sold arms Lo er
PlLler was assured agaln LaL ls use of force would noL go punlsed
made war more llkely because Lere was elgLened confldence ln aggresslng and Lwo vlolenL powers
were now unlLed

11 8lneland (Marc 1936)
CuLllne
PlLler used Le Abysslnla dlsLracLlon
sLaged a mlllLary gamble e was underpowered
gave Lroops orders Lo reLreaL lf reslsLed
Slgnlflcance
successful remlllLarlsaLlon and reoccupaLlon due Lo appeasemenL pollcles
sowed weakness of 8rlLaln and lrance
breac of LreaLy buL CreaL owers saw lL as movlng back lnLo er personal space
PlLler's confldence ln uslng force boosLed
war was made more llkely because confldence ln expanslon was boosLed

lsLory 2138

49

12 1e Spanls Clvll War (!uly 19361939)
CuLllne
Cermany and lLaly elped Le Spanls fasclsL leader Ceneral lranco flgL Le 'communlsL' governmenL
(wlc was really [usL 8epubllcan)
Slgnlflcance
valuable pracLlce for Lroops and alr force (eg Cerman LufLwaffe alr ralds ln Madrld and Cuernlca)
a masslve arms demonsLraLlon orrlfled Le owers
Cermany ad a devasLaLlng power ln Le alr force
CreaL owers even more deLermlned noL Lo lnLervene especlally slnce Spaln was 'remoLe'
due Lo Le appeasemenL pollcles PlLler was convlnced LaL 8rlLaln and lrance won'L acL agalnsL aggressors
Cermany and lLaly grew closer
war was made more llkely because Le aggressors were even more convlnced of lnacLlon

13 1e Axls acLs (CcLober 1936 1937)
1 Le 8ome8erlln Axls (1936) formallzed Le frlendslp and cooperaLlon beLween lLaly and Cermany
2 Le 8ome8erlln1okyo Axls (1937) exLended Lo lnclude !apan
Slgnlflcance
allled Lree ma[or exLremlsLs LogeLer
sowed Le sallowness of PlLler's Aryan ldeals e [olned wlL !apan desplLe Lelr belng 'lmpure'
war was made more llkely because mlllLary aggresslon and alllances were formed

14 1e AnLlComlnLern acL (1936 1937)
CuLllne
a unlLed ldeologlcal fronL agalnsL Communlsm
november 1936 Cermany and !apan enLered Le pacL
november 1937 lLaly enLers Le pacL
Slgnlflcance
unlLy of Lree anLlcommunlsLs Lo sLand up agalnsL lL
lnLed aggresslon agalnsL 8ussla
war was made more llkely because now Lere was open Lenslon agalnsL 8ussla


lsLory 2138

30

13 1e Second Slno!apanese ConfllcL (!uly 1937)
CuLllne
orlglnally a flgL over a mlsslng soldler
!apan's expanslon lnLo Le norLeasLer cenLral and souLern parLs of Clna
Slgnlflcance
proved !apan's lnLenLlons Lo expand
CreaL owers agaln dld noL lnLervene
aggresslon wenL uncecked agaln
war was made more llkely because agaln Le exLremlsL aggressors are boosLed ln confldence of geLLlng
away wlL uslng force

16 1e 1938 Anscluss (Marc)
8ackground
ln 1936 Cermany recognlsed AusLrla's soverelgnLy
AusLrla promlsed Lo pursue Cermanbased forelgn pollcy
AusLrla promlsed Lo glve AusLrlan nazls some pollLlcal responslblllLy
orlglnally Lls agreemenL was lnLended Lo keep Cermany away
Serles of evenLs
Cermany used sald agreemenL as a preLexL for lnLervenLlon and demands for greaLer conLrol over AusLrla
Ley accused Scuscnlgg of breaklng agreemenL
on Marc 12
L
PlLler forced Scuscnlgg lnLo slgnlng an agreemenL wlc brougL Le nazls lnLo Le AusLrlan
cablneL
Lls allowed Le nazls compleLe freedom and Cermany ad conLrol over AusLrla's forelgn pollcles
AusLrla was 'asked' Lo prepare for a unlon
Scuscnlgg called for a referendum Lo ask voLers Lo supporL a 'free and lndependenL AusLrla'
e knew full well ma[orlLy of Le AusLrlan peoples dld noL wanL Le Anscluss Lo appen
PlLler Lus provoked ad Le pleblsclLe cancelled
Scuscnlgg was forced Lo reslgn
nazls domlnaLed Le AusLrlan governmenL wlL SeysslnquarL seL up as ead
12
L
Marc PlLler and ls Lroops drove Lroug vlenna as 'eroes'
Slgnlflcance
AusLrla was removed as opposlLlon
broken versallles
Cerman domlnaLlon of CenLral Lurope posslble
PlLler's aggresslon wenL uncecked agaln
ln 1937 Le 8rlLls forelgn mlnlsLer lndlcaLed Le 8rlLls were unllkely Lo lnLervene
lrance dld noL acL because se faced lnLernal pollLlcal problems
PlLler's flrsL sLep Lo Le 1lrd 8elc was successful
war was made more llkely because appeasemenL lncreased Le llkellood of fuLure confllcL


lsLory 2138

31

17 Czecoslovakla's demlse (SepLember 1938 1939)
1lmellne
33 mllllon SudeLenCermans demanded lndependence PlLler supporLed lL camplonlng Le mlnorlLy's
cause
13
L
SepLember aL 8ercLesgaden PlLler demanded Le conLrol of SudeLenland and laLer Lo were Le
populaLlon conslsLed of aL leasL 30 of Cermans
22
nd
SepLember aL Codesberg PlLler demanded for Le lmmedlaLe occupaLlon of SudeLenland
29
L
SepLember aL Le Munlc Conference Le CreaL owers convened and due Lo appeasemenL pollcles
forced Czecoslovakla Lo cede LerrlLory Lo Cermany
Marc 1939 Le AusLrlan presldenL was pressured lnLo lnvlLlng Cerman Lroops Lo elp puL down Le
Slovaklan reslsLance
Slgnlflcance
ulLerlor moLlves Lo ellmlnaLe Czecoslovakla because of raclsm and because se was a democraLlc success
and Lo clalm er resources
Le unwllllngness of Le CreaL owers Lo acL agaln sown
Ley were unprepared for war and afrald Lo flgL
Le rellnqulsed a naLlon's lndependence for Lelr own personal proLecLlon
war was made more llkely because PlLler's expanslonlsm faced only appeasemenL

18 1e 8eclalmlng of Memel (Marc 1939)
PlLler Look over a largely Cerman populaLed LlLuanlan porL losL under Le 1reaL of versallles
PlLler was deLermlned Lo resLore all LerrlLory losL under Le LreaLy
war was made more llkely due Lo Le lnLenLlon Lo break Le 1reaLy wolly

19 lLaly onLo Albanla (Aprll 1939)
CuLllne
an aLLempL Lo demonsLraLe Le sLrengL of Le lLallan army
parL of Le lLallan dream Lo bulld a MedlLerranean emplre
Slgnlflcance
revealed lLaly's amblLlon for an emplre and power
made war more llkely because lLaly was aggresslng


lsLory 2138

32

20 1e acL of SLeel (May 1939)
CuLllne
Mussollnl pledged Lo asslsL PlLler ln any war weLer defenslve or offenslve
Mussollnl dld noL boLer wlL deLalls
Slgnlflcance
lLaly was compleLely bound Lo Cermany
Le mlllLary cooperaLlon and alllance was formallsed
Mussollnl sowed ls deslre noL Lo lose ouL on Le LerrlLorlal galns
war was made lmmlnenL because Lwo of Le mosL aggresslve naLlons ln Lurope were unlLed

21 1e nazlSovleL acL (AugusL 1939)
CuLllne
Cermany and Le uSS8 agreed noL Lo flgL eac oLer ln war
8ussla would noL sLop Cermany from lnvadlng oland
Le 8usslans would asslsL Cermany ln Le lnvaslon of oland from Le easL as Ley were promlsed easLern
oland LaLvla and LsLonla
Slgnlflcance
Cermany would noL ave Lo flgL a war on Lwo fronLs and could dlrecL all er forces Lowards 8rlLaln and
lrance
Cermany could backsLab 8ussla wlLouL er expecLlng lL
Le lnvaslon of oland was lmmlnenL
war was made more llkely because Cermany faced less opposlLlon

23 1e lnvaslon of oland (SepLember 1939)
CuLllne
PlLler wanLed Lo reclalm losL land and people from oland from 1reaLy of versallles
29
L
AugusL PlLler made demands for Le surrender of uanzlg
oland refused
Cermany made plans Lo lnvade
1
sL
SepLember Cermany aLLacked oland under Le preLence LaL Cerman soldlers were aLLacked olls
prlsoners were dressed up ln Cerman soldler unlform and soL
Le 8rlLls lnLended Lo make good on Lelr promlse Lo proLecL oland
3
rd
SepLember CreaL owers declared war on Cermany
World War ll beglns

lsLory 2138

33

3 1e Cold War
a recedlng lssues and LvenLs
b osLwar developmenL
l Causes of Le Cold War
ll varlous LvenLs
lll 1e Cerman lssue
c 1aw
l 8easons for 1aw
ll 8eLurn of 1enslon

ln18CuuC1lCn
ueflnlLlon
1e Cold War refers Lo Le Lense relaLlons beLween Le caplLallsL WesL and Le communlsL LasL beLween 1943
and 1991 unllke an open war Le Cold War was a war of words and ldeals Le uSA and Le uSS8 aLLacked
eac oLer wlL propaganda and economlc sancLlons words susplclon LreaL osLlllLy generally non
cooperaLlon beLween counLrles falllng sorL of pyslcal aLLack
8ackground
1941 onwards Le Allles unlLed ln a common alm Lo defeaL Le Cerman and lLallan fasclsL forces ln Lurope
greaLly dependlng on eac oLer's elp Powever beneaL Le surface of frlendslp and cooperaLlon
dlsagreemenLs and resenLmenL surfaced over ow Lo wln Le war and ow Lo malnLaln peace afLer lL
1enslons were noL eased ln anyway by Le consLanL clas beLween communlsm and caplLallsm

lsLory 2138

34

a recedlng lssues and LvenLs
1oward Le end of World War ll from 19441943
1 1e LendLease Sceme
1941 onwards uSA supplled uSS8 wlL vasL amounLs of ald
by 1943 uSS8 parLly dependanL on supplles of arms Lools and raw maLerlals
May 1943 uS sLopped lendlease slpmenLs
alLoug declslon qulckly reversed uSA reduced amounL of supplles senL
le !anuary 1943 uS refused uSS8 requesL of $6bllllon loan
uSS8 resenLful
2 1e ALomlc 8omb
1ruman ad wlLeld lnformaLlon of Le aLomlc bomb from SLalln unLll 11 days before lLs use
uSS8 felL Lls was conLrary Lo warLlme agreemenLs SLalln lnfurlaLed
uSS8 felL uSA could use Le aLomlc bomb as a Lrump card
SovleL sclenLlsLs ordered Lo develop SovleL verslon of Le bomb WesLern Allles alarmed
3 ?alLa Conference
lebruary 1943 wlL SLalln (uSS8) 8oosevelL (uSA) Curclll (CreaL 8rlLaln)
oland
Allles sympaLlsed wlL SLalln wanLlng Lo secure Le WesLern border
oland conLenLlous
!uly 1944 uSS8 seL up Lublln CommlLLee domlnaLed by communlsLs even Loug olls governmenLlnexlle
exlsLed ln London
SLalln lnLended Lo see an ad[usLmenL Lo oland's borders flxed aL Cdernelsse 8lvers
owever Cermany would lose more land
LasLern Lurope
recognlLlon of uSS8's lnLeresLs ln LasLern Lurope
Allles recognlsed uSS8's lmporLance ln Le war
1944 concluslon of 8alkan 8argaln wlL uSS8 arrangemenLs made for 8umanla Creece and ?ugoslavla
LaclL accepLance of uSS8'S speclal spere of lnfluence ln LasLern Lurope
CLer AgreemenLs
8ussla Lo enLer war agalnsL !apan Lree monLs afLer defeaL of Cermany
Cermany and 8erlln Lo be dlvlded lnLo four zones for eac Allled power

lsLory 2138

33

4 oLsdam Conference
!uly 1943 wlL SLalln (uSS8) 1ruman (uSA) ALLlee (CreaL 8rlLaln)
oland
plagued wlL dlsagreemenLs
Marc 1943 SLalln lnvlLed noncommunlsL olls leaders Lo Moscow and lmprlsoned Lem
communlsLs now eld key poslLlons ln olls governmenL
oLsdam agreemenL allowed some embers of Le olls governmenLlnexlle Lo [oln Lublln CommlLLee
uSS8 promlsed free elecLlons ln oland aL end of war
conLlnued susplclons as uSS8 ad made agreemenL wlL olls governmenL Lo flx border aL Cdernelsse llne
Cermans from LaL area expelled
Cermany
ad Lo be dealL wlL severely
declslons lmposed on Cermany reparaLlons (bulk Lo uSS8)
uSS8 clalmed $10bllllon Allles accepLed prlnclple buL noL amounL
uSS8 Lo Lake reparaLlons from own zones of occupaLlons
recelved 23 of all maclnery and lndusLrlal planL LaL was unnecessary for Cerman peaceLlme economy
uSS8 would send Lo Le value of 60 of waL se recelved food coal and raw maLerlals Lo Le WesL
lsLory 2138

36

b osLwar developmenL
l Causes of Le Cold War
1 ldeologlcal dlfferences beLween Le LasL (uSS8) and Le WesL (uSA and Allles)
a) uSS8 and Communlsm
ollLlcs
CneparLy governmenL sLaLe ls supreme lnLeresLs of lndlvlduals subordlnaLe
no personal freedom exLenslve censorslp and LoLal conLrol
communlsm assoclaLed wlL vlolenL revoluLlonary cange (1917 8olsevlks enLered power Lroug
revoluLlon)
Lconomy
CovernmenL conLrols all economlc acLlvlLy lndusLry resources and lnfrasLrucLure owned by sLaLe
no prlvaLe buslnesses ellmlnaLlon of compeLlLlon so LaL everyone works for Le good of eac oLer
(unreallsLlc ldeallsm)
all workers ln Leory pald Le same wage
SocleLy
classless socleLy everyone ls equal wlL no one superlor class
posslble ellmlnaLlon of moLlvaLlon Lo work
b) 1e WesL and CaplLallsm
ollLlcs
uemocracy everyone as voLlve represenLaLlon and say ln governmenL
pollLlcal cange carrled ouL peacefully Lroug elecLlons
new laws and canges Lroug leglslaLlon
Lconomy
encourages prlvaLe ownerslp prlvaLe Lrade prlvaLe proflL and free and open economlc compeLlLlon
governmenL lnvolved ln economy buL does noL LoLally regulaLe
SocleLy
people ave rlgLs and freedoms
lndlvlduals declde Lelr own llfesLyles compleLely (ln con[uncLlon wlL law)
c) ConfllcL ln ldeologles
eac slde felL LreaLened by Le oLer
dlfference ln bellefs and ldeas led Lo susplclons mlsLrusL and mlslnLerpreLaLlons of eac oLer
WesL saw spread of SovleL lnfluence as LreaL Lo Lelr way of llfe
SovleLs saw WesL as osLlle Lo communlsm Lus wanLed Lo desLroy lL
2 uSS8's aggresslveness and expanslonlsL pollcles especlally ln LasLern Lurope
a) Susplclon and MlsLrusL
caplLallsL governmenLs vlew communlsm wlL dlsLrusL and susplclon
afrald lL would spread Lo Lelr counLrles and cause Le end of prlvaLe ownerslp of wealL and caplLallsm
cause loss of wealL and pollLlcal power of Le wealLy
WesLern powers senL forces Lo ald anLlcommunlsL forces ln 8ussla (WlLes) ln 1918 (durlng 8usslan
8evoluLlon)
SLalln feared anoLer aLLack and Cerman lnvaslon of 8ussla ln 1941 proved lm rlgL
even Loug allles agalnsL Cermany ln war lnerenL resenLmenL exlsLed
defeaL of Cermany eralded greaL lncrease ln Lenslon

lsLory 2138

37

b) SecurlLy
8ussla suffered enormous losses ln war Lus was weak
loglcal for SLalln Lo ensure nonosLlllLy of nelgbourlng sLaLes
creaLlon of saLelllLe sLaLes Lo buffer due Lo lack of naLural barrlers
expand SovleL lnfluence ln LasLern Lurope Lo ensure prevenLlon of anoLer war
c) Communlsm's Lxpanslonlsm
sougL Lo exLend lnfluence Lo expand lnLo oLer areas
defenslve alms of SLalln vlewed as aggresslve expanslonlsm

lsLory 2138

38

ll varlous LvenLs
lmmedlaLely afLer Le end of WWll
1 lran
8ackground
SepLember 1941 uSA and uSS8 occupy eac own speres of lnfluence
!anuary 1942 uSS8 and 8rlLaln slgned LreaLy Lo remove Lroops wlLln slx monLs of end of war
8rlLaln seL up [olnL Anglolranlan Cll Company wlL lran
slmllar sovleL agreemenL denled by lranlan governmenL wlL WesLern pressure
uSS8 gave supporL Lo 1eude arLy wo were opposlng lranlan monarcy kurdls and Azerbal[an
separaLlsLs
osLwar
slx monLs pasL war accordlng Lo LreaLy 8rlLaln removed Lroops owever uSS8 dld noL
8epubllc of Azerbal[an seL up wlL backlng from 8ed Army and lg posLs occupled by communlsLs
WesLern Allles angered
!anuary 1946 lran complalns Lo un of uSS8 acLlons
uSS8 complles wlL mlllLary wlLdrawal buL conLlnues aldlng Azerbal[an
lran moblllsed Lo crus Azerbal[an separaLlsLs buL SovleL forces amass on border
8rlLaln relnforces lran and sows supporL as well as lnLenL Lo counLer SovleLs
uSS8 sLood down
2 1e uardanelles
8ackground
uardanelles essenLlal Lo uSS8 for moblllsaLlon of slps from 8lack Sea lnLo MedlLerranean
1eeran Conference 1943 Curclll promlses beLLer access Lo maln sea rouLes Lo uSS8
SLalln Look lL as LaclL agreemenL LaL 8rlLaln would agree Lo consLrucLlon of SovleL naval base ln 1urkls
uardanelles sLralLs
osLwar
Marc 1943 uSS8 demanded revlslon of LreaLy governlng use of SLralLs
!une lnslsLed permanenL base and reLurn of old LsarlsL provlnces kars Ardaan and ArLvln from 1urkey
SovleL pressure on 1urkey malnLalned Lroug Lo 1946
8rlLls supporL for 1urkey
AugusL uSA [olned confllcL developlng ln reglon wlL counLer LreaLs Lo SovleLs
aLLack on 1urkey would [usLlfy un lnLervenLlon
3 LsLabllsmenL of SovleL conLrol over LasLern Lurope 1944 1949

ueflnlLlon of a SaLelllLe
a counLry wlc ad very llLLle lndependence or power of lLs own
domlnaLed by uSS8
governmenL declded by uSS8 recelved orders from Moscow
lnLroduced 8usslansLyle economlc pollcles le Lmpasls on eavy lndusLry and neglecL of consumer lndusLry
agrlculLure collecLlvlzed
economlc plannlng done by governmenL
suppresslon of rellglon
overall sovleLlsaLlon

lsLory 2138

39

3 sLeps Lo esLabllsmenL of conLrol over LasLern Lurope
A) 1e 8ed Army moves lnLo LasLern Lurope 194443
openlng of second fronL ln !une 1944 released some pressure off uSS8
8ed Army was Lus able Lo drlve Cerman forces ouL of LasLern Lurope
by 1943 8ed Army conLrolled many LasLern Luropean counLrles
easler for uSS8 Lo domlnaLe especlally wlL geograplcal convenlence
8) 1e 8ole of Le communlsL arLles
durlng war small buL acLlve communlsL parLles Look lead ln reslsLlng Cermans
seen as paLrloLlc
communlsL parLy welcomed 8ed Army
uSS8 gave Lese parLles sLrong supporL and allowed greaLer lnfluence over posLwar pollLlcs
proCerman groups/lndlvlduals purged
communlsLs faced no opposlLlon
C) 1e Lmergence of communlsL Leaders wo Look orders from Moscow 1944 43
durlng war agenLs were senL Lo ald reslsLance by communlsLs loyal Lo uSS8
ence esLabllsed loyalLy ln communlsLs Lo uSS8
agenLs became leaders ln posLwar governmenLs (le Anna auker ln 8omanla 8elruL ln oland 8akosl
Cero and nagy ln Pungary CoLLwald ln Czecoslovakla)
esLabllsmenL of Le Lublln CommlLLee ln oland wen lnlLlal governmenL ln exlle
u) LsLabllsmenLs of CoallLlon CovernmenLs
SLalln encouraged communlsL parLles Lo form coallLlons wlL noncommunlsLs due Lo Lelr weak sLances
eg olls Lublln CommlLLee communlsLs were [olned by governmenLlnexlle Lo form coallLlon
eg Czecoslovakla 1946 communlsLs parL of naLlonal lronL CoallLlon
promlses of free elecLlons were noL kepL elecLlons were rlgged Lo ensure communlsL domlnaLlon ln
coallLlons
dlvlslons among noncommunlsLs gave domlnaLlng communlsL arLles advanLage
L) communlsLs force noncommunlsLs ouL and esLablls oneparLy communlsL SLaLe 194647
noncommunlsLs ln governmenLs were forced ouL by lmprlsonmenL compleLe desLrucLlon or even [usL
lnLlmldaLlon
opposlLlon was oppressed and rendered powerless
lnLroducLlon of SovleLsLyle pollcles and lnsLlLuLlons
overall sovleLlsaLlon
eg olls agrlculLure was collecLlvlzed oland commlLLed Lo fasL lndusLrlallsaLlon wlL empasls on eavy
lndusLrles neglecL Lo consumer lndusLry reorganlsaLlon Lo be of mosL beneflL Lo uSS8 quoLas seL Lo be senL
Lo uSS8 1933 forced labour pollcy 1932 new consLlLuLlon modelled on SovleLs leaders expecLed Lo reporL Lo
Moscow purglng carrled ouL occaslonally
eg Pungary slmllarly adopLed SovleL economlc model and followed Moscow's lnsLrucLlons reparaLlons
pald Lo uSS8 bougL Pungarlan good ceaply buL sold 8usslan goods aL lg prlces
eg Soclal sovleLlsaLlon also carrled ouL delegaLes senL Lo sLudy 8usslan way of llfe arL and culLural
exlblLlons also senL from uSS8 governmenLs encouraged Lo sow graLlLude ln dlfferenL ways
esLabllsmenL of lnsLlLuLlons Lo elp malnLaln conLrol 1) 1947 Comlnform (communlsL lnformaLlon 8ureau)
wlc coordlnaLed communlsL pollLlcal parLles malnLalnlng pollLlcal conLrol 2) 1949 Comecon Lo malnLaln
economlc conLrol 3) 1933 Warsaw acL Lo malnLaln mlllLary conLrol

lsLory 2138

60

4 1e lron CurLaln Speec (Marc 1946)
8ackground
lron CurLaln Lerm colned by Curclll ln 1946
people could see clear dlvlslon beLween democraLlc WesL and communlsL LasL
uSS8 ad by now asserLed conLrol over saLelllLe sLaLes
Lenslon beLween 8rlLaln and uSA and uSS8 conLlnued escalaLlng becomlng fully vlslble ln 1949
SLalln made a speec clalmlng caplLallsm was a LreaL Lo world peace
uSS8 would be defended by Le developmenL of modern weaponry
Amerlcan response was Lo adopL pollcy of flrmness and vlgllance regardlng Le conLalnmenL of SovleL
expanslon
Speec
Marc 1946 Curclll speaks aL lulLon Mlssourl
descrlbed an 'lron curLaln' LaL ad descended across Lurope
clalmed 8usslans were benL on 'lndeflnlLe expanslon of Lelr power and docLrlnes'
quoLed LaL CenLral and LasLern Luropean sLaLes were sub[ugaLed Lo SovleL lnfluence and conLrol from
Moscow
called on WesLern Allles Lo sLand flrm agalnsL LreaL of Communlsm
8eacLlons
WesL was dlvlded some felL Curclll was accuraLe oLers felL lL was provocaLlve
SLalln aLLacked Curclll and Allles comparlng Lem Lo PlLler
accused Allles of propagaLlng raclal Leory Lngllsspeaklng people sould rule Le world
uSS8 launced serles of pollcles re[ecLed memberslp ln World 8ank and lnLernaLlonal MoneLary lund
launc of plan Lo make 8ussla selfsufflclenL ln evenL of war
launced lnLense propaganda campalgn agalnsL WesL

lsLory 2138

61

1he 'Iron Curta|n' Speech
A sboJow bos folleo opoo tbe sceoes so lotely llqbteoeJ by tbe AllleJ vlctoty NoboJy koows wbot 5ovlet
kosslo ooJ lts commoolst lotetootloool otqoolsotloo loteoJs to Jo lo tbe lmmeJlote fotote ot wbot ote tbe
llmlts lf ooy to tbelt expooslve ooJ ptoselytlsloq (def persuaslve propagandlsL) teoJeocles l bove o sttooq
oJmltotloo ooJ teqotJ fot tbe volloot kossloo people ooJ fot my wottlme comtoJe Motsbol 5tollo 1bete ls
sympotby ooJ qooJwlll lo 8tltolo ooJ l Joobt oot bete olso towotJs tbe people of oll tbe kosslos ooJ o
tesolve to petsevete tbtooqb mooy Jlffeteoces ooJ teboffs lo estobllsbloq lostloq ftleoJsblps we ooJetstooJ
tbe kossloo oeeJ to be secote oo bet westeto ftootlets ftom oll of Cetmoo oqqtessloo we welcome bet tlqbtfol
ploce omooq tbe leoJloq ootloos of tbe wotlJ Above oll we welcome coostoot ftepoeot ooJ qtowloq cootocts
betweeo tbe kossloo people ooJ oot owo people oo botb slJes of tbe Atlootlc lt ls my Joty bowevet to ploce
befote yoo cettolo focts oboot tbe pteseot posltloo lo otope
ltom 5tettlo lo tbe 8oltlc to 1tleste lo tbe AJtlotlc oo ltoo cottolo bos JesceoJeJ octoss tbe cootloeot
8ebloJ tot lloe lles oll tbe copltols of tbe oocleot 5totes of ceottol ooJ osteto otope wotsow 8etllo ltoqoe
vleooo 8oJopest 8elqtoJe 8ocbotest ooJ 5oflo All tbese fomoos cltlesote sobjecteJ lo ooe fotm ot oootbet
oot ooly to 5ovlet lofloeoce bot to o vety blqb ooJ locteosloq meosote of coottol ftom Moscow Atbeos olooe
wltb lts lmmottol qlotles ls ftee to JeclJe lts fotote ot oo electloo ooJet 8tltlsb Ametlcoo ooJ lteocb
obsetvotloo 1be lollsb Covetomeot boJ beeo eocootoqeJ to moke eootmoos ooJ wtooqfol lotooJs opoo
Cetmooy ooJ moss expolsloos of mlllloos of Cetmoos oo o scole qtlevoos ooJ ooJteomeJ of ote oow tokloq
ploce 1be commoolst lottles wblcb wete vety smoll lo oll tbese osteto 5totes of otope bove beeo tolseJ to
pteemloeoce ooJ powet fot beyooJ tbelt oombets ooJ ote seekloq evetywbete to obtolo totolltotloo coottol
lollce qovetomeots ote ptevollloq lo oeotly evety cose ooJ so fot except lo czecboslovoklo tbete ls oo ttoe
Jemoctocy 1otkey ooJ letslo ote botb ptofoooJly olotmeJ ooJ JlstotbeJ ot tbe clolms wblcb ote moJe opoo
tbem ooJ tbe ptessote beloq exetteJ by tbe Moscow Covetomeot Ao ottempt ls beloq moJe by tbe kossloos lo
8etllo to bollJ op o pooslcommoolst potty lo tbelt zooe of occopotloo by sbowloq speclol fovoots to qtoops of
leftwloq Cetmoo leoJets
wbotevet cooclosloos moy be Jtowo ftom tbese focts ooJ focts tbey ote tbls ls cettololy oot tbe
llbetoteJ otope we fooqbt to bollJ op Not ls lt ooe wblcb cootolos tbe esseotlols of petmooeot peoce
WlnsLon Curclll speec made aL lulLon Mlssourl Marc 3
L
1946

Sta||n's kesponse
nltlet beqoo bls wotk of ooleosbloq wot by ptoclolmloq o toce tbeoty Jeclotloq tbot ooly Cetmoospeokloq
people coostltoteJ o sopetlot ootloo Mt cbotcblll sets oot to ooleosb wot wltb o toce tbeoty ossettloq tbot
ooly oqllsbspeokloq ootloos ote to JeclJe tbe Jestloles of tbe eotlte wotlJ (AoJ oo oltlmotom Accept oot
tole voloototlly ooJ tbeo oll wlll be well otbetwlse wot ls loevltoble)
1bete coo be oo Joobt tbot Mt cbotcbllls posltloo ls o coll fot o wot oo tbe u55k
lt ls obsotJ to speok of excloslve coottol by tbe u55k lo vleooo ooJ 8etllo wbete tbete ote ollleJ coottol
coooclls moJe op of tbe tepteseototlves of foot stotes ooJ wbete tbe u55k bos ooly ooepoottet of tbe votes
1be 5ovlet uoloos loss of llfe lo tbe wot bos beeo sevetol tlmes qteotet tboo tbot of 8tltolo ooJ tbe u5A pot
toqetbet losslbly lo some poottets oo locllootloo ls felt to fotqet oboot tbese colossol soctlflces of tbe 5ovlet
people wblcb secoteJ tbe llbetotloo of otope ftom tbe nltletlte yoke 8ot tbe 5ovlet uoloo coooot fotqet oboo
tbem AoJ so wbot coo tbete be sotptlsloq oboot tbe foct tbot tbe 5ovlet uoloo ooxloos fot lts fotote sofety ls
ttyloq to see to lt tbot tbe qovetomeots loyol lo tbelt ottltoJe to tbe 5ovlet uoloo sboolJ exlst lo tbese cooottles?
lnLervlew glven by SLalln Marc 13
L
1946

lsLory 2138

62

3 1e 1ruman uocLrlne (Marc 1947)
uSA sLaLed lL would supporL free people wo are reslsLlng sub[ugaLlon by armed mlnorlLles or ouLslde
pressures"
naLlons ad Lo coose beLween alLernaLlves ways of llfe 1) based on wlll of ma[orlLy caracLerlsed by free
lnsLlLuLlons represenLaLlve governmenLs and general freedom of colce or 2) wlll of mlnorlLy foced upon
ma[orlLy rellanL on Lerror and oppresslon and suppressed freedom
uSA ad duLy Lo proLecL counLrles from second alLernaLlve
Lo ensure freedom of elecLlons speec rellglon and from pollLlcal persecuLlon
ensured Lroug economlc and flnanclal ald
sowed uS ad no lnLenLlon of reLurnlng Lo pollcy of lsolaLlon
deLermlned Lo keep Communlsm conLalned were Ley were
became basls of Amerlcan forelgn pollcy for 20 years
convlnced Amerlcans Ley ad a duLy Lo elp ln sLruggle agalnsL Communlsm
6 1e Marsall Ald or Le Luropean8ecovery rogramme (L8) (!une 1947)
economlc exLenslon of 1ruman uocLrlne
flnanclal and economlc ald needed Lo prevenL rlse of Communlsm alongslde mlllLary ald
offered ald werever needed
alms 1) Communlsm less llkely Lo Lake rooL ln prosperlLy 2) promoLe economlc recovery of Lurope and spur
Amerlcan exporLs
17 sLaLes recelved ald ln form of goods loans and glfLs Lo value of uS$13bllllon and was successful
uSS8 accused uS of dollar lmperlallsm" Lrylng Lo domlnaLe Lurope economlcally
prevenLed LasL Luropean naLlons from obLalnlng ald (alLoug Czecoslovakla and oland were lnLeresLed)
uSS8 reacLed wlL counLerparL MoloLov lan
by !uly 1947 uSS8 drew LasLern Luropean counLrles closer Lo lL
by AugusL bllaLeral Lrade agreemenLs slgned wlL 8ulgarla Czecoslovakla Pungary ?ugoslavla oland and
8umanla
Marsall lan and SovleL reacLlon resulLed ln permanenL dlvlslon of Lurope
7 Comlnform (SepLember 1947)
pollLlcal conLrol
communlsL lnformaLlon 8ureau
organlsaLlon Lo draw LogeLer varlous Luropean communlsL parLles
all saLelllLe sLaLes were members lrenc and lLallan communlsL parLles represenLed
enforced 8usslansLyle Communlsm
sLaLes encouraged Lo Lrade prlmarlly wlL Comlnform members dlscouraged communlcaLlon wlL non
communlsLs
8 MoloLov lan (!uly 1947)
sLep Lowards economlcally unlLed LasLern bloc sponsored by 8ussla
response Lo Marsall Ald
Lrade agreemenLs beLween uSS8 and saLelllLes
9 Comecon (Councll for MuLual Lconomlc AsslsLance) (!anuary 1949)
economlc conLrol
Lo coordlnaLe economlc pollcles of saLelllLes wlL uSS8
lncluded all LasLern Luropean sLaLes excludlng ?ugoslavla
ln 1970s expanded Lo lnclude CuLer Mongolla Clna Cuba (1972) and vleLnam (1978)
8aslc lan (!962) by kruscev Lo lnLegraLe member sLaLes' economles wlL eac speclallslng ln one aspecL
Lo force saLelllLes Lo produce waL uSS8 needed and Lo sell aL arLlflclally low prlces
lsLory 2138

63

10 norL ALlanLlc 1reaLy CrganlsaLlon (nA1C) (4
L
Aprll 1949)
8ackground
Marc 1947 8rlLaln and lrance slgned 1reaLy of uunklrk almed agalnsL Cermany
Marc 1948 uunklrk powers [olned by 8elglum Polland and Luxembourg (Le 8enelux counLrles) ln 1reaLy
of 8russels agalnsL Cermany and 8ussla
Aprll 1949 8russels powers allled wlL Canada uSA norway lceland uenmark lLaly and orLugal ln nA1C
(laLer [olned by Creece ln 1932 and WesL Cermany ln 1933)
uSA provldes LreefourLs of Le mlllLary power and compleLely conLrols nuclear weapons
nA1C
LreaLles producL of cold war and blockade of 8erlln buL organlsaLlon bullL up as lnLegraLed mlllLary force
under laLer Lenslons lmposed by korean war
Lo ave a subsLanLlal mlllLary force Lo ald Lurope slnce lL was lncapable of defendlng lLself
lf any nA1C member found lLself under aLLack mlllLarlly oLer members would offer lL all posslble ald
revoluLlonary sLep forward for uSA commlLmenL Lo safeguard Luropean securlLy
ouLbreak of korean War led Lo Lwo lmporLanL developmenLs 1) Amerlcans pressed for lnLegraLlon of nA1C
forces under cenLrallsed command (1930 Ceneral Llsenower appolnLed as supreme Allled Commander of all
nA1C forces reglonal commands esLabllsed for Lurope and Lese exlblLed cooperaLlon) 2) lncluslon of
Cerman unlLs and ence Cerman rearmamenL (lrance appreenslve buL under uS and 8rlLls assurances and
malnLalnlng forces on Cermany agreed)
by 1937 nA1C defence of Lurope lncreased fourfold effecLlve ln flre power plannlng and sLandardlsaLlon
owever dld fall sorL of expecLaLlons and faced dlfflculLles
orlglnal alm Lo provlde 96 dlvlslons Lo combaL SovleLs never acleved
afLer relaxaLlon of Lenslons afLer SLalln's deaL (1933) coeslon deLerloraLed
member sLaLes varlously engaged ouLslde Lurope (uSA ln korea 8rlLaln ln Mlddle LasL lrance ln Algerla and
lndoClna)
ln Llmes of crlsls eg Suez crlsls (1936) members ln open dlsagreemenL
11 Warsaw acL (1933)
afLer 1934 wen Cermany became a member of nA1C and was allowed Lo rearm
SovleLs ob[ecLed and warned of Cermany's resurfaclng as a powerful mlllLary sLaLe
1933 SovleLs reacLed wlL creaLlon of Warsaw acL
lncluded all LasLern Luropean sLaLes excepL ?ugoslavla
armed forces of counLrles placed under 8usslan supreme commander
8usslan Lroops sLaLlon ln LasL Cermany oland Pungary and 8omanla
mlrror lmage of nA1C
cenLral organlsaLlon replaced earller mlllLary alllances eadquarLers ln Moscow
Lurope now separaLed lnLo Lwo armed camps
nA1C conslsLed of wlllng counLrles Warsaw pacL conslsLed of counLrles forced by SovleL conLrol
Warsaw forces sLronger Lan nA1C forces lf nuclear weapons dlscounLed

lsLory 2138

64

lll 1e Cerman lssue
8ackground
Allles occupled Cermany afLer surrender ln 1943
Allled ConLrol Commlsslon ln carge of general affalrs
alms Lo dlsarm demlllLarlse and denazlfy Cermany and Lo asslsL ln reconsLrucLlon lncludlng democraLlzaLlon
spllL Cermany lnLo four zones one for eac power same for 8erlln
oped LaL Cermany could be reunlLed lnLo a safe democraLlc counLry
1948 WesLern allles merged zones (Lo form 8lzonla)
1 ulsagreemenL over LreaLmenL of Cermany
uSS8 felL Cermany musL be kepL weak Lo prevenL lL from becomlng a LreaL agaln
uSS8 wanLed Lo also punls er severely for damages caused ln WWll
began LreaLlng lL as a saLelllLe dralnlng resources
WesL felL Cermany ad Lo be aL earL of any Luropean recovery
reconsLrucLlon and reform lmporLanL Lo Cermany Lo be reesLabllsed and ence prosper
Lus requlred WesL Lo supporL lL agalnsL expanslonlsm of Communlsm
2 8eparaLlons
1946 8ussla wanLed paymenL for deaLs of 20mllllon and wldespread desLrucLlon caused
SLalln demanded uS$10bllllon
Allles agreed Lo prlnclple buL noL Lo amounL
aL oLsdam Allles allowed 8ussla 23 of lndusLrlal goods unnecessary for Cermany ln reLurn uSS8 would
send from er zone 60 of waL se recelved from WesL
8ussla also allowed Lo sLrlp facLorles ln SovleL zone and send maclnes Lo uSS8
8ussla Look more Lan allowed ln Lerms of goods and maclnery
8ussla also sealed zone from Lrade so LaL WesL ad Lo lmporL vasL amounLs of necesslLles Lo malnLaln zones
3 ollsCerman 8order
aL ?alLa ln 1943 SLalln volced lnLenLlon Lo see ad[usLmenL Lo oland's borders
wanLed lL flxed aL Cdernelsse 8lvers meanlng loss of land for Cermany
by oLsdam WesLern Allles unappy because SLalln wenL aead and made agreemenL wlL oland and flxed
border
resulLed ln expulslon of Cermans
4 8erlln
uSS8 dlssaLlsfled wlL WesLern presence ln 8erlln
belleved Lelr presence ln SovleL zone LreaLened SovleL conLrol and securlLy
weapons and Lroops could be sLaLloned ln WesL 8erlln
owever Allles wanLed Lo malnLaln presence Lere Lo prevenL uSS8 from conLrolllng caplLal
also wanLed Lo monlLor SovleL acLlvlLy lnslde lron CurLaln
ln WesL 8erlln communlsLs were unable Lo galn pollLlcal conLrol owever ln LasL 8erlln elecLlons were
rlgged so LaL communlsLs won ma[orlLy
ence uSS8 seL up communlsL governmenL ln LasL 8erlln
by 1948 WesLern owers ad comblned Lelr zones Lo form WesL 8erlln
communlsLs were never able Lo wln elecLlons and Lake over 8erlln

lsLory 2138

63

3 Lconomlc 8eforms and Le Currency lssue
no agreemenL reaced beLween WesL and uSS8
WesL lnLroduced new currency wesLmark ln !une 1948 Lo ald economy ln WesL zone buL noL ln 8erlln Lo
avold annoylng uSS8
also lnLroduced oLer economlc canges le ulsmanLllng prlce conLrols and endlng raLlons barLerlng and Le
black markeL
economy ln WesL revlvlng
uSS8 crlLlcal of canges because of empasls on caplLallsm
refused Lo allow new currency lnLo zone unless Ley could prlnL as muc as Ley llked (wlc would lead Lo
devaluaLlon and lnflaLlon)
WesL re[ecLed Lls
uSS8 lnLroduced easLmark on 23
rd
!une 1948 lnLendlng Lo legallse currency LrougouL Cermany
WesL reLallaLed by lnLroduclng wesLmark ln 8erlln
boL currencles clrculaLed ln 8erlln and value of easLmark fell Lo a fracLlon of wesLmark
6 lnLerference wlL 1rade and 1rafflc MovemenLs
uSS8 lnLerfered wlL Lrafflc beLween 8erlln and WesLern zones
Lrafflc on auLobans from WesL alLed and delayed pracLlce beglnnlng ln Marc 1948
Lrafflc eld up for prolonged lnspecLlons
24
L
!une afLer lnLroducLlon of wesLmark Lo 8erlln SovleLs sLopped all road rall and waLer Lrafflc
WesL 8erlln appeared Lo be cuL off from WesLern zones of Cermany and Lus WesLern Lurope
surrounded by SovleL armles wlL SovleLs clalmlng WesL ad no rlgLs ln 8erlln
SovleL commander asserLed Lroops conLrolled land and alr rouLes Lo 8erlln
beglnnlng of 8erlln 8lockade
7 1e 8erlln 8lockade and Le 8erlln AlrllfL
1e SlLuaLlon
WesL 8erlln was sLranded 100 mlles deep ln SovleL LerrlLory
relled on WesL for food and oLer necesslLles
WesLern allles faced wlL Lree opLlons 1) Lo aLLempL runnlng Le blockade by sendlng mlllLary convoys
down auLobans lnLo WesL 8erlln 2) Lo surrender and brlng forces ouL of WesL 8erlln and release lL Lo 8usslan
admlnlsLraLlon 3) Lo surmounL Le blockade
flrsL opLlon consldered buL dlscarded due Lo rlsk of war and weakness ln convenLlonal warfare as compared
Lo uSS8
second opLlon was never consldered as surrenderlng would ave damaged presLlge of uS and er allles
anLlcommunlsLs would ence be unable Lo rely upon WesLern powers for supporL
Llrd opLlon declded upon surmounLlng Le blockade done by supplylng 8erlln by alr
1e AlrllfL
Amerlcan and 8rlLls forces recalled alrcrafL from around Le world Lo be senL Lo 8erlln
flew ln 6000 Lons of supplles dally lnLo WesL 8erlln dellverlng 13000 on a record day
aL sLarL alrplanes flew around Le clock
preclslon plannlng requlred
radar Lracklng plane ln alr corrldors and radar Lo gulde Le plane Lo safe landlng allowed dellvery even ln
azardous weaLer
plloLs also Lralned lnLenslvely
by Le end of Le blockade ln May 1949 2300000 Lons of supplles ad been flown ln over a serles of
273000 fllgLs resulLlng ln Le deaLs of a LoLal of 79 Allled crewmembers
durlng Le blockade SLalln Look palns Lo deny Lere was a crlsls
lsLory 2138

66

8usslan auLorlLles descrlbed 8lockade as only Lecnlcal dlfflculLles" of a Lemporary naLure"
8usslans Look palns Lo avold vlolenL confllcL wlL WesLern Lroops
careful Lo ensure LaL none of Le alrllfL planes were brougL down by SovleL lnLerference
1e CounLerblockade
summer of 1948 Allles lmposed a counLer blockade on goods comlng and golng from WesLern Lo LasLer
zones
more armful Lo LasL Lan Lo WesL
LasLern economy nearly aL sLandsLlll by 1949
12 May 1949 uSS8 reopened land rouLes removlng blockade
Slgnlflcance
sowed reslllence of Cermans
warnlng Lo SLalln LaL survlval of WesL Cermany llnked Lo defence of WesLern Lurope and could noL be
ouLcasLed
desLroyed any llluslons WesL ad wlL formlng agreemenLs wlL 8ussla over Cermany
flrsL Llme nuclear weapons serlously consldered as lasL resorL
reversed posLwar Lrend of decllnlng uS budgeLs
sowed LaL sLaLus quo could only be alLered by ouLrlgL war wlc nelLer slde was wllllng Lo cede Lo
asLened Le process by wlc Lwo separaLe Cerman sLaLes appeared


lsLory 2138

67

c 1aw
sllgL relaxaLlon of Lenslon Loug lmpermanenL ln cold war seelng some lrregular splkes ln Lenslon
l 8easons for 1aw
1 Canges ln Leaderslp (1933)
uS Ceneral uwlgL Llsenower was elecLed presldenL !on losLer uulles appolnLed SecreLary of SLaLe
uSS8 SLalln dled ln Marc power lefL ln ands of group of senlor communlsLs nlklLa kruscev emerged
mosL powerful and became leader of uSS8 ln 1938
SLalln's deaL led Le collecLlve leaderslp Lo declde on lmprovlng relaLlons wlL uS
2 uS ollcy of 8rlnkmanslp and Masslve 8eLallaLlon
uulles and 8rlnkmanslp
uulles was sLrongly anLlcommunlsL
belleved LaL uS's nuclear weapon LreaL would deLer uSS8 from aggresslon
belleved ln LreaLlng uSS8 wlL uLmosL flrmness
ln crlsls LaL develop wlL Le SovleL unlon Le unlLed SLaLes as Lo be prepared Lo go Le Le verge of war
lf necessary 1ls ls Le klnd of flrmness and deLermlnaLlon Le SovleL rulers undersLand 8y sowlng we are
ready Lo go Lo Le edge of war we acLually ave a beLLer cance of avoldlng war"
aLLlLude became known as brlnkmanslp
forclng uSS8 back lnLo Lurope
flrm pollcles would evenLually force rellnqulsmenL of conLrol over LasLern Luropean sLaLes
seemed Lo be pollcy of aggresslon and nuclear blackmall
Masslve 8eLallaLlon (1933)
8adford lan Le uSA sould base lLs and lLs allles' defence upon Le commlLmenL of use of nuclear
weapons
budgeL cuLs on convenLlonal forces
uSA no longer able Lo malnLaln effecLlve nuclear sLrlke force as well as a convenLlonal mlllLary
all fuLure lnsurgencles excepL small local engagemenLs would be LreaLed as nuclear wars
pollcy of Masslve 8eLallaLlon were aggresslon would Lus be meL wlL lnsLanL uS nuclear reLallaLlon
depended on uS nuclear superlorlLy
3 Lqually 8alanced nuclear CapaclLles
nelLer ad advanLage
lf nuclear war broke ouL muLually assured desLrucLlon
cosLs for nuclear expendlLure Loo lg
4 kruscev's eaceful CoexlsLence Speec (1936)
cange ln dlrecLlon of pollcy
revlsed Lenln's bellef LaL confllcL beLween communlsm and caplLallsm was lnevlLable
relLeraLed communlsm's bellef ln lLs superlorlLy buL sLaLed LaL caplLallsm would collapse on lLs own
Lus boL ldeologles could coexlsL ln peace


lsLory 2138

68

ll 8eLurn of 1enslon
1 Warsaw acL (1933)
mlrror lmage of nA1C
conslsLed of all communlsL sLaLes excepL ?ugoslavla
under one supreme 8usslan commander
SovleL Lroops sLaLloned ln four counLrles (LasL Cermany oland Pungary 8omanla)
offlclally spllL Lurope lnLo LasL and WesL
owever nA1C conslsLed of wolly wllllng counLrles wlle Warsaw acL counLrles were llnked by communlsm
and under SovleL conLrol
forces of Warsaw acL muc sLronger Lan nA1C's
2 nuclear Arms 8ace
1943 uS ad Le advanLage wlL Le aLomlc bomb
1949 uSS8 LesLed an aLomlc bomb
1932 uS LesLs a ydrogen bomb (Pbomb) ln Le aclflc
1933 uSS8 LesLs a Pbomb ln Slberla
1937 SovleL saLelllLe SpuLnlk 1 ln orblL puLLlng uSS8 aead ln rockeL developmenL wlc could be flLLed
wlL nuclear wareads and flred from long dlsLances lnLerconLlnenLal balllsLlc mlsslles (lC8Ms)
193861 uSS8 developed large number of lC8Ms uS developed only medlum range balllsLlc mlsslles (M88Ms)
Lo lL uSS8 from bases sLaLloned near uSS8 llke ln 1urkey and lLaly
1961 uSS8 LesLs a Pbomb 3000 Llmes more powerful Lan Le aLomlc bomb dropped ln Plroslma and
nagasakl
!96163 resldenL kennedy orders lncrease ln lC8M consLrucLlon speed and LesLlng of Pbombs Lo dlsplay uS
power
3 1rylng Lo SeLLle Le Cerman lssue
3a 1e 8erlln Crlsls (1938)
1938 kruscev was offlclally SLalln's successor
declded Lo acL Lo remove WesL from 8erlln
sLablllLy of LasL 8erlln LreaLened by consLanL mlgraLlon of people from people Lo WesL
194961 2600000 LasL Cermans escaped from a populaLlon of 17300000
many wo escaped were quallfled wose loss LreaLened economlc vlablllLy of LasL 8erlln
kruscev aLLempLed Lo force WesL Lo and over Lelr 8erlln Lo LasL
Lenslons mounLed owever Llsenower and kruscev avolded crlses by agreelng Lo a summlL ln Ceneva
May 1960
3b 1e 8erlln Wall and Le vlenna SummlL (1961)
kennedy and kruscev meL !une 1961
agreemenL Lo sLop confllcL on Laos only
kruscev demanded 8erlln soluLlon on SovleL Lerms wlLln 6 monLs
LreaLened because of WesL Cermany's growlng sLrengL and sLrong Lles Lo WesL Loll on LasL and SovleL
fears of WesL Cermany's sLrong poslLlon
23
L
!uly kennedy announced a subsLanLlal sLrengLenlng of uS forces
13
L
AugusL LasL Cerman pollce placed 30km barbed wlre llne dlvldlng Lwo 8erllns
concreLe wall bullL by mornlng of 14
L
AugusL
uS responded by sLrengLenlng 8erlln garrlson
moves Lroops lnLo WesL 8erlln Lo demonsLraLe Lelr rlgL of access

lsLory 2138

69

4 1e u2 lncldenL and Le Ceneva SummlL (1960)
uS ad operaLed overfllgLs of 8ussla slnce 1936 uslng lgflylng u2 spy planes
11 days before Ceneva summlL u2 spy plane soL down 1900 km lnslde SovleL LerrlLory
Llsenower denled lL Lo be a spy mlsslon buL kruscev revealed Le plloL ad been capLured allve forclng
Llsenower lnLo admlsslon
undermlned goodwlll esLabllsed by kruscev's vlslL Lo uS and Le Ceneva SummlL broke
3 Cuban Mlsslle Crlsls
!anuary 1939 CasLro overLrows Len Cuban leader (corrupL dlcLaLor 8aLlsLa backed by uS)
uSowned esLaLe and facLorles naLlonallsed
relaLlons wlL uS worsened wlL uSS8 lmproved
!anuary 1961 uSA breaks dlplomaLlc relaLlons wlL Cuba and 8ussla lncreases economlc ald
8ay of lgs lnvaslon (Aprll 1961)
8aLlsLa supporLers planned an lnvaslon approved by kennedy
badly organlsed and falled
CasLro laLer announces Cuba ls soclallsL uSS8 supporLs
1962 kruscev decldes Lo lnsLall 8usslan anLlalrcrafL baLLerles and ground Lo alr mlsslles ln Cuba
SepLember 8usslan lnLermedlaLe range balllsLlc mlsslles and nuclear bombers moved Lo Cuba
14
L
CcLober spy plane poLograps assembly of mlsslles and lgnlLes worsL crlsls ln cold war
22
nd
CcLober kennedy announced naval blockade on Cuba and demanded wlLdrawal of mlsslles
Amerlcan and 8usslan forces worldwlde on lg alerL
nuclear excange seemlngly lnevlLable as 8usslan slp loaded wlL more weapons approaced blockade zone
masslve Amerlcan Laskforce sLaLloned Lo oppose
24
L
CcLober 8usslan slps reLreaLed crlsls averLed
kruscev agreed Lo dlsmanLllng of mlsslles wlL uS agreemenL noL Lo lnvade Cuba
boL reallsed marglnal danger sougL Lo ease Lenslons
!une 1963 oLllne esLabllsed beLween uS and uSS8
AugusL 1963 uS 8rlLaln and uSS8 slgned nuclear 1esL 8an 1reaLy
Slgnlflcance
kennedy emerged wlL lmproved repuLaLlon
kruscev's fallure ln Cuba conLrlbuLed Lo ls downfall
6 Suez Crlsls (1936)
uS and uSS8 along wlL Le un acLed LogeLer Lo condemn 8rlLls and lrenc acLlon
sowed lnsLance were uS and uSS8 could agree and work LogeLer
7 Pungarlan uprlslng (1936)
Pungarlans Lrled Lo exerL Lelr lndependence from 8usslan conLrol
8usslan Lroops enLered Pungary Lo crus revolL
Pungarlan governmenL appealed Lo un
8ussla veLoed SecurlLy Councll resoluLlon calllng for wlLdrawal of 8usslan Lroops
same for Ceneral Assembly's resoluLlon
no soluLlon reaced


lsLory 2138

70

61e unlLed naLlons CrganlsaLlon
l SLrucLure and Comparlson

ln18CuuC1lCn
Crlglns
1e ALlanLlc CarLer 1941 by WlnsLon Curclll and lranklln 8oosevelL ouLllned Lelr opes for a beLLer
world afLer Le war were 1) all counLrles would ave democraLlc governmenLs 2) Lrade freely wlL eac
oLer and sare economlc prosperlLy 3) Lere would be an lnLernaLlonal securlLy sysLem Lo malnLaln peace
ln 1942 Le counLrles flgLlng Le Axls owers called Lemselves Le unlLed naLlons
Alms of Le unlLed naLlons
1e unlLed naLlons almed Lo carry ouL any necessary acLlons Lo prevenL fuLure wars lL was Lo malnLaln peace
and securlLy and Lo deal wlL aggresslon accordlng Lo [usLlce and lnLernaLlonal law lL was Lo elp develop
frlendly relaLlons beLween sLaLes on Le basls of equallLy and selfdeLermlnaLlon and Lo acleve lnLernaLlonal
cooperaLlon lL was Lo be Le cenLre of armonlzlng Le acLlons of naLlons Powever lL would noL lnLerfere wlL
lnLernal affalrs Memberslp was opened Lo all and members promlsed Lo seLLle Lelr dlspuLes peacefully
Cffendlng sLaLes were llable Lo ave prevenLlve acLlon enforced agalnsL Lem and could be expelled from Le
un
lsLory 2138

71

l SLrucLure and Comparlson
1 Ceneral Assembly
maln forum of debaLe
all members represenLed eac may ave up Lo 3 delegaLes buL only 1 voLe
meeLs annually buL more frequenLly lf requlred
lmporLanL resoluLlons needed 2/3 ma[orlLy of Lose aLLendlng and voLlng mlnor maLLers declded by slmple
ma[orlLy
declslons nonblndlng
cose sLaLes for nonpermanenL seaLs on SecurlLy Councll members of oLer bodles and admlLLed members
lf Lere was a 2/3 ma[orlLy ln favour
Comparlson Lo Ln
Ln Ceneral Assembly requlred unanlmous voLe Lo pass all declslons ence was lneffecLlve
2 SecurlLy Councll
more lmmedlaLe pracLlcal lmporLance
flve permanenL members Len nonpermanenL members
flve permanenL members eac ad power of veLo buL absence or absLlnence from voLe dld noL counL
llmlLaLlons on veLo power from 'unlLlng for eace' resoluLlon permlLLlng SecurlLy Councll veLo Lo be passed
by Ceneral Assembly voLe wlLln 24 ours Lo avold allowlng ma[orlLy Lo be overLurned by one sLaLe
beLLer equlpped for Laklng qulck acLlon Lan Ceneral Assembly and can be summoned aL sorL noLlce
ad 24/7 permanenL sesslon
also meL regularly
can lmpose sancLlons and auLorlse ceaseflres and enforce Lem
can organlse collecLlve acLlon by reglonal pacLs eg nA1C
Comparlson Lo Ln
ad a slmllar veLo power
owever veLo was abused by sLaLes wose lnLeresLs were LreaLened by declslons
meL a few Llmes a year and could noL effecLlvely solve crlses
3 1e SecreLarlaL
clvll servlce of un
conslsLed of 30000 employees
ead ls SecreLaryCeneral appolnLed for flveyear Lerms by Ceneral Assembly on recommendaLlon of SecurlLy
Councll
4 lnLernaLlonal CourL of !usLlce
flfLeen [udges of flfLeen naLlonallLles elecLed for nlne years
deals only wlL lnLernaLlonal dlspuLes
any counLry may use CourL Lo seLLle dlspuLes
may glve declslon buL as no means of enforclng lL
eg 1946 8rlLaln accused Albanla of laylng mlnes near Corfu and demanded compensaLlons owever Albanla
re[ecLed CourL's rullng of 1mllllon compensaLlon clLlng lL ad no rlgLs Lo [udge
SecurlLy Councll can Lake approprlaLe acLlons buL never as
3 1rusLeeslp Councll
slmllar Lo Ln's MandaLe's Commlsslon
admlnlsLered LerrlLorles wlLouL selfgovernmenL le Colonles
promoLes economlc soclal and educaLlonal advances
Lo prepare LrusL LerrlLorles for selfgovernmenL
by 1980 only Lwo lefL
lsLory 2138

72

6 Lconomy and SocleLy Councll (LCCSCC)
27 members elecLed by Ceneral Assembly
organlsed pro[ecLs concernlng ealL educaLlon and oLer soclal and economlc maLLers
four reglonal commlsslons
coordlnaLes work on uman rlgLs
alds wlL populaLlon and drug problems
7 Speclallsed Agencles
lLC lnLernaLlonal Labour CrganlsaLlon
commlLLed Lo safeguard workers' safeLy and rlgLs
lmprove worklng and llvlng condlLlons
lnLroduced serles of danger warnlngs Lo alerL workers Lo varlous azards eg radlaLlon and corroslon
WPC World PealL CrganlsaLlon
alms Lo brlng Le world Lo a polnL were all people are noL [usL free from dlsease buL on a lg level of
ealL
ma[or pro[ecLs llke aLLacklng malarla Luberculosls smallpox and lmmunlsaLlon for clldren
recelves reporLs of ouLbreaks
lAC lood and AgrlculLure CrganlsaLlon
alms Lo ralse llvlng sLandards by encouraglng lmprovemenLs ln food producLlon and dlsLrlbuLlon
ma[or pro[ecLs llke World lood rogramme (1963) and lreedom from Punger campalgn
runs fleld pro[ecLs eg Lranlng pro[ecLs on soll conservaLlon
unLSCC unlLed naLlons LducaLlonal SclenLlflc and CulLural CrganlsaLlon
encourages spread of llLeracy and fosLers lnLernaLlonal cooperaLlon ln all worklng flelds
seLs up scools and LeacerLralnlng colleges ln developlng counLrles
unlCLl unlLed naLlons Clldren's Lmergency lund
alms Lo elp clldren ln need
un8WA unlLed naLlons 8ellef and Works Agency for alesLlne 8efugees ln Le near LasL
reseLLles refugees dlsplaced by war
lMl lnLernaLlonal MoneLary lund
provldes sorL Lerm loans Lo counLrles ln flnanclal dlfflculLles
8 eacekeeplng
nonbelllgerenL use of mlllLary force Lo elp warrlng parLles reac a seLLlemenL
formed by smaller naLlons/nonSecurlLyCouncll members/nonlnLeresLed parLles
noL Lo be sLaLloned wlLouL counLry's consenL and commander responslble Lo un Lroug SecreLary Ceneral
Lo acL as buffer noL flgLlng force and use force only ln selfdefence and noL Lo affecL pollLlcal ouLcome ln
dlspuLe
Comparlson Lo Ln
Ln dld noL ave any mlllLary peacekeeplng force Lo speak of
9 1e SecreLary Ceneral
ensured neuLrallLy and lndependence of un
ensured nondomlnaLlon by any one sLaLe
aLLends Lo admlnlsLraLlon of un
Comparlson Lo Ln
Le Ln was domlnaLed by 8rlLaln and lrance
lsLory 2138

73

7 1e 8usslan 8evoluLlon of 1917
a 1e 8evoluLlons
l 1e lebruary 8evoluLlon
ll 1e CcLober 8evoluLlon
b 8olsevlk ConsolldaLlon

ln18CuuC1lCn
1e 8usslan 8evoluLlon ls Le collecLlve Lerm for Le serles of revoluLlons ln 8ussla ln 1917 wlc desLroyed
Le 1sarlsL auLocracy and led Lo Le creaLlon of Le SovleL unlon ln Le flrsL revoluLlon of lebruary 1917
(Marc ln Le Cregorlan calendar) Le 1sar was deposed and replaced by a rovlslonal governmenL ln Le
second revoluLlon durlng CcLober Le rovlslonal CovernmenL was removed and replaced wlL
a 8olsevlk (CommunlsL) governmenL

lsLory 2138

74

a 1e 8evoluLlons
Le lebruary 8evoluLlon saw Le end of 1sarlsL rule
Le CcLober 8evoluLlon was Le flrsL ever communlsL revoluLlon saw Le rlse of Le flrsL communlsL sLaLe ln
Le world
l 1e lebruary 8evoluLlon (! 23
rd
lebruary 1917 / C 8
L
12
L
Marc 1917)
8ackground
numerous defeaLs for 8ussla ln WWl
famlne and poverLy due economy war
auLocraLlc rule poor governance and oppresslon
ence osLlllLy Lo 1sar
8reakouL of Le 8evoluLlon
sponLaneous and unplanned
began ln eLrograd were workers demonsLraLed agalnsL food and fuel sorLages caused by war
slLuaLlon worsened as more people [olned Le sLrlke
1sar ordered mlllLary Lo crus rebelllon owever Le dlslllusloned soldlers muLlnled
publlc bulldlngs selzed
pollLlcal prlsoners released
Look over pollce sLaLlons and arsenals
workers and soldlers seL up eLrograd SovleL (sovleL councll of workers' depuLles) LaL Look over Le clLy
1sar's generals persuaded lm Lo abdlcaLe
CuLcome
a provlslonal governmenL was seL up by Le uuma
eaded by rlnce Lvov as rlme MlnlsLer
SovleLs rlvaled provlslonal governmenL's rule and lnslsLed on lLs prerogaLlve Lo run governmenL
ll 1e CcLober 8evoluLlon (! 23
L
CcLober 1917 / C 7
L
november 1917)
lall of Le rovlslonal CovernemenL
a roblems of Le rovlslonal CovernmenL
dual power provlslonal governmenL callenged by eLrograd SovleLs
SovleLs Lrled Lo rule Le clLy and commanded Le soldlers leavlng Le governmenL wlLouL mlllLary backup
Le declslon Lo conLlnue WWl was a dlsasLrous move
kerensky's offenslve only led Lo low morale and derserLlon
provlslonal governmenL delayed elecLlons wlc were promlsed earller leadlng Lo loss of supporL
b Callenges posed by Lenln and Le 8olsevlks
Lenln's reLurn from exlle
ls Aprll Lesls promlslng 'peace bread and land' gave ope agalnsL Le lncreaslng economlc caos
c Loss of supporL due Lo Le !uly uays
ln !uly workers soldlers and sallors sLaged uprlslng wlL supporL of 8olsevlks
demanded Lransference of power Lo SovleLs
governmenL used Lroops and accused 8olsevlks of Lrylng Lo launc and uprlslng asserLed Lenln was a
Cerman spy
decllne ln supporL for 8olsevlks Lenln fled Lo llnland some 8olsevlk leaders capLured
rlnce Lvov reslgned over fallure Lo deal wlL lnsLablllLy
d Lconomlc Caos
lnflaLlon rlslng bread prlces lagglng wages sorLages of raw maLerlals and fuel
8olsevlks puL forward aLLracLlve and reallsLlc pollcy
peace wlL Cermany Lo geL 8ussla ouL of Le war
all land Lo be glven Lo peasanLs
more food aL ceaper prlces
lsLory 2138

73

e 1e kornllov Affalr
Alexander keresnky prlme mlnlsLer ln !uly
kornllov commanderlnclef of army declded Lo move agalnsL sovleLs buL soldlers muLlnled
kerensky ordered kornllov's arresL buL soldlers refused Lo cooperaLe
relled on sovleLs for elp
governmenL seemed Lo be weak
8olsevlks seen favourably and supporL grew
f 1e 8evoluLlon
a plan Lo selze power was drawn ouL largely by 1roLsky
swlfLly carrled ouL by well organlsed and dlsclpllned 8olsevlk 8ed Cuard
selzed key polnLs and arresLed provlslonal governmenL mlnlsLers
aLLacked kerensky aL Le WlnLer alace
blrLed Le flrsL communlsL governmenL


lsLory 2138

76

b 8olsevlk ConsolldaLlon
8ackground
1) ueflnlLlon
alLoug 8olsevlks ad selzed conLrol of governmenL Ley ad Lo malnLaln Lls conLrol and enLrenc
Lemselves ln power
named Lemselves communlsLs once ln power
2) 8easons
Le naLlon was Lrown lnLo a clvll war
came Lo power ln 8ussla wlL popular supporL of large mlnorlLy of populaLlon
ad Lo consolldaLe auLorlLy ln adverse condlLlons
ma[orlLy of peasanLs supporLed SovleL 8epubllc
8olsevlks only ad supporLers ln clLles
ConsolldaLlon
1) MlllLary ConsolldaLlon
a 1e 1reaLy of 8resLLlLovsk (Marc 1918)
8ussla losL oland LsLonla LaLvla LlLuanla ukralne Ceorgla llnland
peace was acleved Lroug er sacrlflce
necessary acLlon Lo galn Llme Lo recover
Lenln expecLed 8ussla Lo geL Le land back anyways once revoluLlon began spreadlng
b 1e Clvll War
8easons
dlsconLenL wlL food procuremenL pollcles
resenLed lganded manner of LreaLmenL
LougL LaL sovleLs would run affalrs and local lndusLry owever commlssars appolnLed by governmenL
Mensevlks and soclal revoluLlonarles Lrown ouL
8olsevlk dlcLaLorslp
Le WlLes
Le 8olsevlks' maln opposlLlon
conslsLed of soclal revoluLlonarles exLsarlsLs Mensevlks and oLer anLl8ed pollLlcal parLles
almed Lo overLrow Le 8olsevlk rule and resLore power Lo Le sovleLs almlng Lo seL up a Lruly democraLlc
governmenL along WesLernllnes
CuLbreak
WlLe governmenL seL up ln Slberla by kolcak
lnLenL on desLroylng Le new 8olsevlk governmenL
uSA !apan lrance and 8rlLaln senL Lroops Lo elp WlLes oppose 8eds (1919)
wanLed Lo ave a 8ussla LaL would flgL agalnsL Cermany
wanLed Lo prevenL spread of Communlsm
uncoordlnaLed WlLe offenslves allowed 8eds Lo deal wlL Lem lndlvldually and swlfLly
c 8easons Le 8eds won Le Clvll War
Le WlLes were noL cenLrally organlsed and were also dlvlslve ln Lerms of pollLlcal ldeals
mlllLarlly leaders kolcak and uenlkln falled Lo communlcaLe
pollLlcally Le varlous parLles rlvalled eac oLers' ldeologles

lsLory 2138

77

Le WlLes losL Le supporL of Le populaLlon
LreaLed peasanLs bruLally
Ley were made ouL Lo be unpaLrloLlc because Ley recelved forelgn elp
Ley evenLually losL Le lnLeresL of Le forelgn parLles due Lo Lelr lnablllLy Lo acleve success
Le 8eds ad Le leaderslp of Lenln
e used Le Ceka Lo lnLlmldaLe Lroops and weed ouL opposlLlon and Le unenLuslasLlc
enforced war communlsm pragmaLlcally Lo prevenL Le collapse of Le economy as well as moblllze
resources for Le clvll war and seL up Le basls of a communlsL economy feaLured land naLlonallsaLlon
collecLlvlzaLlon of agrlculLure forced graln requlslLlon labour conscrlpLlon and conLrol over workers vla raLlons
punlsmenL and lack of rlgLs
Le 8eds were moLlvaLed Lo be unlLed coeslve and bonded because of Lelr commlLmenL Lo communlsm
use of sLrong propaganda
lncluslon of mlnorlLles by promlslng equallLy and auLonomy
Le 8eds ad Le leaderslp of 1roLsky
e bullL a sLrong dlsclpllned army vla conscrlpLlon
used exLsarlsL offlcers for Lelr experlence
e malnLalned conLrol of modern lndusLry beLLer arms supplles
Le 8eds ad a purely geograplcal advanLage
Ley were cenLred aL Moscow
ad conLrol over sorLer communlcaLlon llnes and rallways
Lerefore were more efflclenL
2) Lconomlc ConsolldaLlon
a CuLcomes of War Communlsm
depopulaLlon of clLles due Lo searc for food
famlnes resulLed ln 7000000 dead by 1921
lndusLrlal producLlon fell everyLlng cannelled Lo war
sorLages and producLlon fall led Lo facLorles suLLlng down
peasanLs were dlssaLlsfled refused Lo produce food uprlslngs
sallor muLlnles
urban sLrlkes and rloLs
loss of popularlLy of communlsL governmenL
leglLlmacy Lo rule losL
b 1e new Lconomlc ollcy
alms Lo sLop peasanL rebelllon recLlfy problems caused by war communlsm and regaln supporL
feaLured
parL communlsm parL caplLallsL
peasanL conLrol of land
prlvaLlzaLlon of small facLorles
relnLroducLlon of prlvaLe Lrade
no graln requlslLlon
confllcLed communlsL ldeologles
caused debaLe beLween radlcals and conservaLlonlsLs ln 8olsevlks parLy
radlcals dld noL wanL concesslons Lo be made Lo caplLallsm
ouLcome
galned supporL for 8olsevlks
elped consolldaLe pollLlcal and economlc power
revlved economy
lsLory 2138

78

spllL Le communlsL parLy ln Lwo
ended uprlslngs agalnsL Le sLaLe
removed Le unpopular war communlsm
3) ollLlcal ConsolldaLlon
reasons
needed more supporL due Lo revoluLlonlsL naLure of power
needed Lo remove opposlLlon
CneparLy SLaLe
suppressed pollLlcal parLles
closed press conferences
Ceka ellmlnaLed opponenLs durlng Clvll War
lnfllLraLed sovleLs wlL communlsL commlssars
removed free elecLlons
8roadenlng of Mass SupporL
land naLlonallsaLlon 1918 appeased peasanLs
began peace negoLlaLlons wlL Cermany ln 1917
granLed workers conLrol of enLerprlse
new Lconomlc ollcy
gave peasanLs conLrol of land
SLrucLurlng Le 8olsevlk reglme
creaLlon of lerarcy of organs wlLln Le communlsL governmenL
cenLral commlLLee made declslons of sLaLe and governmenL
dlvlded lnLo pollLburo pollcy maklng dealL wlL urgenL maLLers LaL could noL walL for nexL CC meeLlng
ad enormous auLorlLy ln dayLoday operaLlons of parLy orgburo dlrecLlon of organlsaLlonal work of parLy
and responslble for maklng Le mosL lmporLanL admlnlsLraLlve and personnel declslons ln parLy secreLarlaL
lmplemenLed declslons
pollLburo orgburo overlapped ln Lerms of duLles
greaL poLenLlal power lay beLween organs
SLalln member of boL Lus could Lake advanLage of lL
Cn arLy unlLy
lllegallsed facLlonallsm
expulsed facLlon members wlLln governmenL
1918 ConsLlLuLlon
sancLloned supremacy of parLy over governmenL
provlded legal framework for communlsL sLaLe
sLaLed communlsL ldeals
lllegallsed secreL LreaLles
only peasanLs and workers can flgL ln army
1924 ConsLlLuLlon
exLended cenLral commlLLee over resL of counLry
communlsL governmenL conLrolled ma[or areas llke economy defence Lrade and forelgn affalrs
Le undermlnlng of rellglon
because rellglon ad poLenLlal Lo rlval auLorlLy of Le governmenL
1918 consLlLuLlon weakened curc
separaLed from sLaLe
curc could noL exerclse pollLlcal power
conflscaLlon of curc properLy
no rellglous educaLlons ln scool
only clvll (legal) marrlages none could be offlclallsed by curc