1

PRAGATI
Proceedings of All India Biennial Civil Engineering
Conference on Advances in Civil Engineering
April 1-3, 2011

Editors
Dr. B. Kumar Dr. P. R. Maiti

Organised by




Civil Engineering Society
Department of Civil Engineering
Institute of Technology
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi - 221 005





2

Mahamana Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya Ji
150
th
Anniversary
(25.12.186112.11.1946)
Founder of Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

3
A Brief History of Mahamana jis Life

adan Mohan Malaviya ji was a great Indian nationalist and a
true propounder of Hindu culture. He joined the Indian National
Congress during its Second session in 1886. He had been
associated with the Congress party and twice elected as its
president. Later he became the president of the Hindu Mahasabha. He
played an important role in bringing about the Congress - League accord. He
was the founder of Banaras Hindu University. Pandit Madan Mohan
Malaviya, a staunch supporter of Hindu Culture and Civilization was born
on 25 December 1861 in a poor family. He was a brilliant student. He
completed his graduation in 1891 and later on joined law. But the call of
Mother India to free her from the oppressive British rule inspired him to
plunge into the freedom struggle. Malaviya ji was an able parliamentarian.
He was elected to the provincial and central Legislatures several times. He
was also the editor of "The Hindustan", "The Indian Union" and the
Abhyudaya. He was very popular among the Indian masses as well as
among the British officers. He was called Mahamana and very much loved
by all. Due to the love of his supporters and his long association with the
Congress he was elected twice as the president of the Congress. The credit of
bringing about the Congress and the Muslim League into one platform and
the signing of the Congress - league accord goes to him. Malaviya ji was a
great admirer of Swadeshi goods. He promoted the use of indigenous
manufactures and helped to organise the Indian Industrial Conferences and
the Uttar Pradesh Industrial Association at Allahabad in 1907. The
contribution of Madan Mohan Malaviya to Indian education has been
significant and a mile stone in the field of education. He established the
Banaras Hindu University and for several years served as its Vice -
Chancellor. While establishing this University he collected funds from the
rulers. In spite of their disagreement with his views the landlords and
Maharajas generously contributed for this noble cause. His appeal was so
very convincing and impressive that no one dared to deny him. Malaviya ji
was a great exponent of Indian Culture. He became famous for his social,
ethical and educational upliftment. He died in 1946 at the age of 85.

M

4
PREFACE
ivil Engineering Department, IT-BHU feels proud to introduce
Nirmaan11 under the banner of Civil Engineering Society. With
both students and faculty as its members the Civil Engineering
Society, IT-BHU was formed with the primary aim of exposing future civil
engineers to challenges of the profession. The Civil Engineering Society
prides itself in the lively interaction between the students and the faculty
The Civil Engineering Society activities of 2 years culminate in NIRMAAN,
the Civil Engineering festival. The festival acts as a launching platform for
budding civil engineers and brings out their creativity through competitive
events.
This conference gives an opportunity to the young students and scientist in
Civil engineering to expose their geniuses. It is good opportunity for the
budding engineers to include a culture of research, thinking exchanging and
presenting ideas and technologies in a professional manner. It is expected
that the deliberations in the conference through paper presentation and
contributory research papers will focus on the key issues of civil engineering
and thus will help in formulating the future research strategies, useful for
the nation and seed the buds in the young mind of the student.
The technical paper in the conference encompasses a wide spectrum on Civil
Engineering. The conference attempts to highlight the recent Advances in
Civil Engineering and its allied field.
The Civil Engineering Society and organizing committee of NIRMAAN-2011
extend their thanks and sincere appreciation to everyone who made the
conference and proceedings possible, and hope this document is of use to
the reader.
B. Kumar & P. R. Maiti


C

5

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

To give shape to the proceedings and conference in general a large number
of individuals and groups have contributed in many ways and it is our
pleaser to acknowledge their efforts. We are extremely thankful to the
contributory authors for their contribution and co-operation, which has
resulted in the timely publication of these proceedings.
We are thankful to all faculty members of Civil Engineering Department for
their support at different stages of the conference.
We are extremely thankful to our students Aniruddha, Aayush, Shashank
and Hanush for their untiring efforts during the preparation of proceedings
of the technical paper and souvenir.
We wish to acknowledge the help we received from various individuals and
institutions in the preparation of the proceedings.

B. Kumar & P. R. Maiti








6




DISCLAIMER
Neither the editors nor Civil Engineering Society, Department of Civil Engineering, IT-BHU is
responsible for statements and opinions printed in this publication. Editors and publishers
bear no responsibility with regard to accuracy or authenticity of the information contained
in this proceedings and do not accept liability of any kind for any error or omissions towards
this publication.















7
CONTENTS


Page No.


Investigation about the Location of Shear wall in RCC
Medium-Rise Buildings
9-20
Agrawal S., Anshuman, Dipendu Bhunia, R. K. Pandey



A Comparative Study on Effectiveness of Cable Network
of Various Configurations to reduce wind & rain-wind
induced vibrations in cable-stayed bridges
21-45
Parikshit Verma



Reinforced Concrete Design with FRP Bars
46-55
Abhinav Srivastava



Production of Low Cost Concrete from Paper Industrial
Wastes
56-65
M. Nidhin
,
S. Thamizharasan



Seismic Retro fitting of Buildings
66-73
G. Ayiswarya, S.Pradeepa



Stability Analysis of Humayuns Tomb
74-87
Meenakshi Verma, Tabish Mohammad, Uroos Choudhry, Ankur Gautam,
Neha



Earthquake its terminologies, occurrences and Seismic
zones of India: A Review
88-102
K. Theunuo, S.B.Dwivedi



An Overview of Soft Computing Tool ANN:
Interdisciplinary Engineering Perspective
103-116
Mousumi Dhara, K. K. Shukla



Green Buildings
117-126
N. Venkateswarlu



Use of Receptor Modelling in Source Apportionment
Study of Ambient Particulate Matter: Review of the
Existing Models
127-135
Vivek Kumar Singh, Abhishek Jain



Low-cost Housing
136-146
P. Tarun and Ch. Kishan Kumar




8
Bio-filters in sustainable development and management
147-155
Sravani, Shiva Shankar Y and Abhishek Kumar



Integrating Cellular Technology with Civil Engineering
156-165
Ashutosh Chaturvedi, Akshay Dikshit, Devraj Sinha Roy



Application of GIS and GPS for Online Vehicle Tracking
166-186
Ganesh Kumar. B, Swarup. S



Tracking of Stolen Vehicles using an Ultra-High Speed
Microcontroller with GPS and GSM Technology
187-197
L. Mohana Priya, M. Ponmani



Piano-Key weir
198-202
Aniket Kanchan, Aditya Karan



Civil Planning For A Closed-Knit Society: Residential
Planning For A Dynamic, Vibrant And Closed-Knit
Community
203-212
Aseem Kumar



Finite Element Analysis of Large Amplitude of Free
Flexural Vibration of Isotropic Plates
213-221
K. Mishra, M. R. Barik









9
INVESTIGATION ABOUT THE LOCATION OF SHEAR
WALL IN RCC MEDIUM-RISE BUILDING

S.Agrawal
1
, S.Anshuman
2
, Dipendu Bhunia
3
and R. K, Pandey
4

1
Higher Degree Student,
2
Assistant Professor,
3
Assistant Professor,
Civil Engineering Group, BITS Pilani, Rajasthan, India.
4
Professor, Civil Engineering Group, Samhigginbottom Institute of Agriculture Technology
and Science, Allahabad, India

ABSTRACT
Shear wall systems are one of the most commonly used lateral-load resisting
systems in high-rise buildings. Shear walls have very high in-plane stiffness and
strength, which can be used to simultaneously resist large horizontal loads and
support gravity loads, making them quite advantageous in many structural
engineering applications. There are lots of literatures available to design and
analyze the shear wall. However, the decision about the location of shear wall in
multi-storey building is not much discussed in any literatures.
In this paper, therefore, main focus is to determine the solution for shear wall
location in multi-storey building based on its both elastic and elasto-plastic
behaviours. An earthquake load is calculated and applied to a building of fifteen
stories located in zone IV. Elastic and Elasto-plastic analyses were performed using
both STAAD Pro 2004 and SAP V 10.0.5 (2000) software packages. Shear forces,
bending moment and story drift were computed in both the cases and location of
shear wall was established based upon the above computations.
Keywords: linear behaviour of shear wall, seismic analysis, STAAD Pro 2004 and
SAP V 10.0.5 (2000)
1. INTRODUCTION

Reinforced concrete framed buildings are adequate for resisting both the vertical
and the horizontal load acting on them. However, when the buildings are tall, beam

10
and column sizes workout quite heavy, so that there is lot of congestion at these
joint and it is difficult to place and vibrate concrete at these places, which fact,
does not contribute to the safety of buildings. These practical difficulties call for
introduction of shear wall. The term shear wall is rather misleading as such a
walls behave like flexural members. They are usually used in tall buildings and
have been found to be of immense use to avoid total collapse of buildings under
seismic forces. It is always advisable to incorporate them in buildings built in
region likely to experienced earthquake of large intensity or high winds. The design
of these shear wall for wind are design as simple concrete walls. The design of these
walls for seismic forces requires special considerations as they should be safe
under repeated loads. Shear walls may become imperative from the point of view of
economy and control of lateral deflection. There are lots of literatures available
[Cardan, B. (1961), Syngellakis et al. (1991), Wight et al. (1991), Qiusheng et al.
(1994), White et al. (1995) and Rosowsky, D.V. (2002)] to design and analyze the
shear wall. However, any of these literatures did not discuss much about the
location of shear wall in multi-story building.
Hence, this paper has been described to determine the proper location of shear wall
based on its elastic and Elasto-plastic behaviours. A RCC medium rise building of
15 stories subjected to earthquake loading in Zone IV has been considered. In this
regard, both STAAD Pro 2004 and SAP V 10.0.5 (2000) software packages have
been considered as two tools to perform. Shear forces, bending moments and storey
drifts have been calculated to find out the location of shear wall in the building.





Fig. 1: Plan of the Building without Shear Wall

11
2. PROBLEM DEFINITION

The plan of the building without shear wall as shown in Fig. 1 has been considered
to carry out the study. Both STAAD PRO 2004 and SAP V 10.0.5 (2000) software
packages have been considered. The preliminary data as per the Table 1 is taken
up for this study.

Table 1: Preliminary Data



Zone IV



External wall
250mm thick
including Plaster
Ground
storey height
4.0m From
Foundation
Internal wall
150mm thick
including Plaster
Floor to floor
height
3.35m
Grade of Concrete
and steel
M20 and Fe 415
Size of exterior
column
300500 mm
2

Number of
stories
FIFTEEN (G+14)
Size of interior
column
300300 mm
2

Shear wall
thickness
300 mm
Size of beams in
longitudinal
and transverse
direction
300450 mm
2

Depth of slab

150 mm


Ductility design


IS:13920-1993


12
2.1 Loading Consideration

Dead Load (DL) and Live load (LL) have been taken as per IS 875 (Part 1) (1987)
and IS 875 (Part 2) (1987), respectively. Seismic load calculation has been done
based on the IS 1893 (Part 1) (2002)s approach.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

It has been seen from Table 2 that the top deflection (when the seismic load
direction is in the shorter dimension) has been exceeded the permissible deflection,
i.e. 0.004 times the total height of the building [IS 1893 (Part 1) (2002)] in STAAD
PRO 2004. It has been exceeded for the load combinations 1.5(DL+EQ) and
0.9DL+1.5EQ, respectively.

Table 2: Maximum Deflection at the Roof without Shear Wall
Software
Load
Combination
Calculated
Deflection
(mm)
Permissible
Deflection (mm)
[IS 1893 (Part 1)
(2002)]
STAAD PRO
2004
1.2(DL+LL+E
Q)
187.976
203.6
1.5(DL+EQ) 235.725
0.9DL+1.5EQ 235.685
SAP V 10.0.5
(2000)
1.2(DL+LL+E
Q)
158.71
1.5(DL+EQ) 198.4
0.9DL+1.5EQ 198.38

Similarly, bending moment and shear force were maximum at the ground level in
1
st
and 12
th
frames, respectively (Table 3).

13
Table 3: Maximum Bending Moment and Maximum Shear Force at the Ground Level
without Shear Wall
Frame
No.
Software
Load
Combination
Calculated Bending
Moment
(kN-m)
Calculated
Shear Force
(kN)
1
st
and
12
th

STAAD PRO
2004
1.2(DL+LL+E
Q)
238.041 110.49
1.5(DL+EQ) 294.134 136.43
0.9DL+1.5E
Q
288.096 133.26
SAP V 10.0.5
(2000)
1.2(DL+LL+E
Q)
236.98 113.67
1.5(DL+EQ) 296.06 142.04
0.9DL+1.5E
Q
302.65 145.26

Hence, for the above reason shear wall was provided in 1
st
and 12
th
frames,
respectively (Fig. 2).






Fig. 2: Plan of the Building with Shear Wall in 1st and 12th frames


14


It has been observed from Table 4 that the roof deflection was well within the
permissible limit for all cases after providing the shear wall in 1
st
and 12
th
frames,
respectively.

Table 4: Maximum Roof Deflection after Providing Shear Wall in the 1
st
and 12
th

Frame
Software
Load
Combination
Calculated Deflection
(mm)
Permissible
Deflection (mm)
[IS 1893 (Part 1)
(2002)]
Without
Shear Wall
With Shear
Wall
STAAD PRO
2004
1.2(DL+LL+E
Q)
187.976 123.59
203.6
1.5(DL+EQ) 235.725 154.49
0.9DL+1.5EQ 235.685 151.49
SAP V 10.0.5
(2000)
1.2(DL+LL+E
Q)
158.71 91.4
1.5(DL+EQ) 198.4 114.29
0.9DL+1.5EQ 198.38 114.29

It has also seen from Table 5 that both bending moment and shear force were
increased at the ground level in 1
st
and 12
th
frames after providing shear wall in 1
st

and 12
th
frames.



15
Table 5: Maximum Bending moment and Shear Force at the Ground Level after
providing Shear Wall in the 1
st
and 12
th
Frame
Software
Load
Combination
Calculated
Bending
Moment
(kN-m)
Calculated Shear
Force
(kN)
STAAD PRO 2004
1.2(DL+LL+E
Q)
698.24 337.97
1.5(DL+EQ) 861.27 416.28
0.9DL+1.5EQ 854.41 412.29
SAP V 10.0.5 (2000)
1.2(DL+LL+E
Q)
630.90 308.57
1.5(DL+EQ) 778.78 380.24
0.9DL+1.5EQ 779.73 381.03

Further, shear walls have been provided in the interior frames, i.e. 6
th
and 7
th

frames as per the following fig. 3.





Fig. 3: Plan of the Building with Shear Wall in 6th and 7th frames


16
It has been seen from the Table 6 that roof deflection was well within the
permissible deflection for all cases after providing the shear wall in 6
th
and 7
th

frames, respectively.

Table 6: Maximum Roof Deflection after Providing Shear Wall in the 6
th
and 7
th

Frame
Software
Load
Combination
Calculated Deflection
(mm)
Permissible
Deflection (mm)
[IS 1893 (Part
1) (2002)]
Without Shear
Wall
With Shear
Wall
STAAD PRO
2004
1.2(DL+LL+E
Q)
187.976 106.47
203.6
1.5(DL+EQ) 235.725 133.08
0.9DL+1.5EQ 235.685 135.47
SAP V 10.0.5
(2000)
1.2(DL+LL+E
Q)
158.71 84.72
1.5(DL+EQ) 198.4 105.91
0.9DL+1.5EQ 198.38 105.91

It has also seen from Table 7 that both bending moment and shear force were
increased at the ground level in 6
th
and 7
th
frames after providing shear wall in 6
th

and 7
th
frames.





17
Table 7: Maximum Bending Moment and Maximum Shear Force at the Ground
Level after providing Shear Wall in the 6
th
and 7
th
Frame
Software Load Combination
Calculated
Bending
Moment
(kN-m)
Calculated
Shear Force
(kN)
STAAD
PRO
2004
1.2(DL+LL+EQ) 665.76 324.51
1.5(DL+EQ) 809.79 394.28
0.9DL+1.5EQ 803.14 389.25
SAP V
10.0.5
(2000)
1.2(DL+LL+EQ) 574.87 281.61
1.5(DL+EQ) 732.90 360.92
0.9DL+1.5EQ 729.19 358.67

3.1 Elasto-plastic analysis

Mahin and Bertero (1976) employed the wide-column frame analogy to assess the
importance of the strength and stiffness of the coupling beams on the elastic and
nonlinear, static, and dynamic responses of multi-story, coupled shear-wall models
to severe earthquake excitation. In wide column frame analogy shear wall has been
modelled as a wide column having same dimension of shear wall and shear wall is
connected to frame by connecting beam. Here shear walled frame has been
modelled in SAP 2000 vs. 10 in which nonlinear analysis is done by using inbuilt
coefficient given by FEMA 356 (FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY)
provisions. According to FEMA 356 the displacement of maximum displaced
column is restricted by 4% of height. Analysis is done for the design earthquake
which has the probability of occurrence is 100years and obtains the performance
point. Performance point gives the value of maximum displacement of column
which occurs for design earth quake intensity for particular zone i.e. zone IV.
Resultant base shear-displacement curve has been obtained for structure, which
shows behaviour of structure with respect to base shear.

18






Fig. 4: Graph showing Hinge Formation Levels
In analysis hinge formation has been also been observed. Hinge formation levels
are divided as yield level (B), immediate occupancy level (IO), life safety level (LS),
collapse level (CP), full collapse level (E) [Figure 4]. At the immediate occupancy
level structures have no sever damage and structures can be used for further life of
structure. Life safety level indicates there will not be any casualty due to
earthquake but structure cannot be used for further living. At collapse level
member will start to collapse and full collapse member will already collapse.
The elastic analysis has been extended to Elasto-plastic analysis as per the
criterion discussed above. SAP 2000 v10.0.5 software package has been considered
to carry out this analysis. Table 8 is showing the base shear and roof displacement
at the performance point. It has been observed that the performance point for both
the conditions (Shear Wall provided in the 6
th
and 7
th
Frames and Shear Wall
provided in the 1
st
and 12
th
Frames) is lying within the IO level.
Table 8: Base shear vs. Roof displacement at the performance point
Conditions Parameters
Base Shear (kN) Roof
Displacement(m)
Shear Wall provided in the
6
th
and 7
th
Frames
12539.097 0.116
Shear Wall provided in the
1
st
and 12
th
Frames
12208.913 0.110


19
4. CONCLUSIONS

The above study shows the idea about the location for providing the shear wall
which was based on the elastic and inelastic analyses in this paper.
It has been observed that the top deflection was reduced and reached within the
permissible deflection after providing the shear wall in any of the 6
th
& 7
th
frames
and 1
st
and 12
th
frames in the shorter direction.
It has been also observed that the both bending moment and shear force in the 1
st

and 12
th
frame were reduced after providing the shear wall in any of the 6
th
& 7
th

frames and 1
st
and 12
th
frames in the shorter direction.
Hence, it can be said that shear wall can be provided in 6
th
and 7
th
frames or 1
st

and 12
th
frames in the shorter direction.
REFERENCES
[1] Bureau of Indian Standards: IS-875, part 1 (1987), Dead Loads on Buildings
and Structures, New Delhi, India.
[2] Bureau of Indian Standards: IS-875, part 2 (1987), Live Loads on Buildings
and Structures, New Delhi, India.
[3] Bureau of Indian Standards: IS-1893, part 1 (2002), Criteria for Earthquake
Resistant Design of Structures: Part 1 General provisions and Buildings,
New Delhi, India.
[4] Bernhard Cardan, Concrete Shear Walls Combined with Rigid Frames in
Multistory Buildings Subject to Lateral Loads, Journal of American Concrete
Institute, Vol. 58, pp.299-316,September 1961.
[5] Li Qiusheng, Cao hong and Li Guiqing analysis of free vibrations of tall
buildings ASCE.
[6] David V. Rosowsky, Reliability-based seismic design of wood shear walls
Journal of Structural Engineering ASCE, November 2002.
[7] SAP 2000: Advanced 10.0.5 (2006), Static and Dynamic Finite Element
Analysis of Structures, Computers and Structures Inc., Berkeley, CA.

20
[8] Stavros Syngellakis' and Idris A. Akintilo, nonlinear dynamics of coupled
shear walls using transfer matrices ASCE, 1991.
[9] Maurice W. White and J. Daniel Dolan Nonlinear shear wall analysis
Technical Notes, Journal of Structural Engineering ASCE, 1995.
[10] John Bolander Jr. and James K. Wight Finite element modelling of
shearwall- dominant buildings ASCE, 1991.



















21
A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON EFFECTIVENESS OF
CABLE NETWORKS OF VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS
TO REDUCE WIND & RAIN-WIND INDUCED
VIBRATIONS IN CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Parikshit Verma
Undergraduate Student
Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology BHU,
Varanasi - 221005, India
Email: pverma.itbhu@gmail.com


ABSTRACT

Cable stayed bridges are the most advanced, aesthetic and economic types of
bridges at present. One of the major problems with cable stayed bridges is wind
and rain-wind induced vibrations. Present paper is based on the study conducted
Caracoglia & Zuo (2009) to investigate the effectiveness of various cable
configurations having combined system of cross ties and dampers to mitigate the
large amplitude deflections caused by wind.
This study reviews the result of experiments conducted on Fred Hartman
Bridge, Huston, Texas, USA which are helpful in the future design of cable stayed
bridges

Key Words: Cable Stayed Bridges, Cable Networks, Viscous Dampers, Cross-ties,
Numerical method

1. INTRODUCTION
One of the biggest problems in cable stayed bridges is the large amplitude
vibrations of stay cables under excitation from wind and especially during rainfall.
Such problems are a cause of great concern for safety and serviceability of cable
stayed bridges. Although considerable progress have been made in identifying the
nature of vibrations but the phenomenon still eludes fundamental understanding
of the cause of vibrations.

22
Different theories available for the probable cause of the vibrations are given as:-
1. Professor Matsumoto [1] suggested that rain-wind-induced vibration is related to
interaction between along-wind Karman vortices and axial vortices along the
cylinder axis at a frequency that is much lower than the nominal Strouhal
frequency.

Fig. 1 Karman vortices behind a circular cylinder
Courtesy: Cesareo de La Rosa Siqueria

2. MacDonald and Larose [2] indicated that rain-wind induced vibrations can be
related to a type of dry-cable galloping in the critical Reynolds number range.



Fig. 2 Vortices behind cylinder at different Reynolds No.

23


3. A study conducted recently [3], based on full-scale measurement and wind
tunnel tests, and proposed that the prevalent rain-wind-induced vibration is likely
related to a type of dry-cable vibration due to 3-dimensional vortex shedding.



Fig. 3 3D Vortex shedding

Yet the mechanism is still unknown, various techniques to mitigate the vibrations
have been evolved over a period of time based on the available knowledge. One of
the most adopted techniques used is as following:-


Method

Using secondary restrainers (also known as cross-ties) to connect adjacent stays to
form cable networks so that energy in a stay can be distributed to the higher modes
and to the other stays in the network (e.g., [4] ).


Advantages

1. Simple mechanism.
2. Easy to implement.
3. Effective in most of the situations.

24
Disadvantages

1. Aesthetically unpleasant.
2. Due to inherent in plane mechanism it is incapable of controlling out of plane
cable oscillations (i.e. plane orthogonal to primary cable plane).
3. It uses energy redistribution mechanism and does not dissipate energy.
4. Failure of restrainers may occur.


Due to above short comings designers opt for other vibration control strategies like
individual dampers connected to the deck in the proximity of each stay anchorage.

Traditionally, dampers and cross-ties have primarily been used independently. In
consideration of the limitations of the cross-ties stated earlier, it appears natural to
combine the energy dissipation property of dampers and the energy redistribution
capability of cross-ties to form a hybrid system by adding dampers to cable
networks formed using cross-ties [5].

Following discussion would be based on the study conducted on three different
types of cable network one with only one cross tie, second with three cross ties and
third with hybrid configuration of cross ties and dampers. The analytical model for
analyzing the linear in-plane free vibration of cable networks without external
energy dissipation devices was developed in [6].

It was subsequently extended to enable the simulation of hybrid networks with a
limited number of viscous dampers [5].The discussion would mainly be focused on
comparing the techniques and finally arriving at the most feasible and effective
method of mitigating the vibrations.










25
2. LIST OF VARIABLES












26








27



3. METHODS FOR COMPARISON

3.1 Analytical Model
The original model is generalized to include a more comprehensive set of
damper-cross-tie configurations and to simulate the presence of multiple

28
external viscous dampers connected to the stays, either in-line with the restrainers
or not.



Fig.1.Generalized Model of a Cable Network with Multiple Dampeners

As depicted in Fig. 1, in the proposed model, the stays in the network are simulated
by a set of parallel cables, interconnected by means of cross-ties. Each jthcable (j =
1; . . . ; n) in Fig. 1 is divided by restrainers into mj segments of length lj;p. The
cross-ties are modelled by linear spring elements of stiffness Kj;p, with j and p being
the cable and the segment indices.
Each element of the j
th
cable (j = 1; . . . ; n) is simulated as a linear
taut string and the free vibration is represented by the wave equation [7]. As an
example the equation of motion of the p
th
segment (p = 1; . . . ; mj) is


Let


Then eq (1) is reduced to

The dampers are anchored to the deck and are simulated by dashpots. These
dampers are divided into a group consisting of units installed in-line with a
restrainer and another group that is not oriented in-line with the cross-ties.
Normalized damper coefficients [7], irrespective of the group, are defined as

DSj
= c
DSj
(H
1

1
)
0.5
=
DS1

DSj



29
Where
DSj
= c
DSj
/c
DS1

And
DS1
= c
DS1
(H
1

1
)
0.5

If a damper is installed close to the cable anchorage and is not in-line with a
restrainer, one additional S segment of length lSjis added to the j
th
cable at the
deck level (Fig. 1). Expressions similar to Eq. (1) and (2), can be derived for the S
segments in terms of YjS (xjS).
The eigen-frequency in Eq. (2)is complex because of the presence of the
dampers. This frequency can be normalized with respect to the fundamental native
circular frequency of an unrestrained reference stay, 01= / L(H11)
-0.5
[7] to yield
=01, with =+i being a dimensionless complex frequency. The solution to Eq.
(2)can be expressed as



Eq. (3a)is associated with the internal segments of a cable (the non-S segments),
and Eq. (3b)is related to the response of the S segments. The unknown
amplitudes Aj;p; Bj;pand AjS , BjS are complex, and is the j
th
cable
frequency ratio.
Eqs. (3a)and (3b)are solved to obtain the unknown amplitudes by means of a
set of compatibility, continuity and equilibrium equations. Vanishing of
displacements at cable ends (with xj,p=lj,p/Lj and xjS=lSj/Lj), and continuity at the
nodes connecting consecutive segments on the same stay (internal and S
segments) are represented by Eqs. (4), (5a)and (5b), as follows:



Internal continuity along transverse direction in each cross tie is considered by
following equation:

30



(K)
2
accounts for the relative reduction of mass and tension of each cable with
respect to the reference stay.
gp denotes the maximum number of cables interconnected by the p
th
cross-tie.

Relative stiffness accounts for non orthogonal orientation of
stays relative to restrainers.

Accounts for non parallel orientation of stays.

Global force eq at each cross tie account for potential presence of external damper
in-line with the restrainer below the lower stays (Fig 1), as given below:



At last force equilibrium equation simulating the behavior of a damper in the
proximity of a cable anchorage at the deck level and not in line with cross-tie is:


From Eq. (4)-(8), a homogeneous system of 2r = 2m
j
+n equations can be
assembled in matrix form as S=0, in which the complex matrix S consists of a set
of transcendental expressions as a function of , linearly dependent on C
2r
, i.e.,
the vector of unknowns Aj;p, Bj;p and AjS , BjS . This system represents an eigen
value problem, which is numerically solved in this study for the eigen-values, .

3.2 Case Study & Full Scale Measurement Of Data

Bridge Fred Hartman Bridge
Location Houston, Texas, USA
Brief description of bridge The Bridge is a twin-deck cable-stayed type with two
parallel main spans of 381 m in length. The main spans and the four side spans
are supported by 192 stays ranging from 59 m to 198 m in length.



31
3.2.1 Description of prototypes used in study

The first and second prototypes were modelled based on one of the BS-line stay
systems (south tower) on the bridge, which is schematically shown in Fig. 2. These
configurations represent the state of the cable plane between March 1999 and April
2004. Two cable networks were present on these stays: one labelled as BSU







(upper network) consisting of stays BS17 to BS24 interconnected by three
restrainers, and the other labelled BSL (lower network) between stays BS13 to
BS15, which were

Interconnected by one cross-tie. The Restrainers in network BSU are labelled as 1-
BS, 2- BS and 3-BS. Stay BS16 was not mitigated by cross-ties. Undesired
vibration of this stay was controlled by a viscous damper. Locations of the
accelerometers, used to monitor cable vibrations, are also indicated in the figure.


32
The third configuration represents the network consisting of a plane of the AS-line
stays, which originate from the south tower and partially support the east main
span. This network is designated as the AS network in subsequent discussions. In
this large network, stays AS13 to AS24 are connected together by three restrainers
labelled 1-AS, 2-AS and 3-AS. At a later stage viscous dampers D1 to D12 were
installed on each stay from AS13 to AS24 to supplement the existing cross-tie
system (restrainers 1-AS to 3- AS). Fig. 3 represents the configuration of this
network between June 2004 and September 2005.
Properties of the cables and restrainers of the three systems were derived from
design specifications. The main properties of the AS-line and BS-line stays are
summarized in Tables 1 and 2 below:

















The damper properties are summarized in Table 3 below:


33
4. ANALYSIS RESULTS

4.1 Cable Network With Cross Ties Only
Numerical simulations were based on the configurations described earlier. In
particular, observations were also based on the results of previous studies [6]
conducted to analyze the performance of in-plane cable networks by varying the
number and the location of restrainers.















Fig. 4 depicts the mode-frequency evolution chart of the BSU (Fig. 4(a)) and BSL
(Fig. 4(b)) networks in the frequency range between 0.5 Hz and 5.0 Hz. In each
figure, the frequencies of the two networks are compared with the native
frequencies of the stays that are used to form the network, including both
fundamental and higher-mode frequencies. As anticipated, the network frequencies
are in general higher than the native fundamental frequencies of the longest
individual cables, such as 0.560 Hz, which is the fundamental frequency of BS24
in Fig. 4(a). In the same figure, a large plateau composed of many localized modes
above 2.0 Hz is present due to the existence of a large number of cable segments.
For the large AS network with twelve cables and three restrainers, the mode-
frequency evolution is shown in Fig. 5 below:


34



In this case, the first-mode frequency of the network was predicted at about 1 Hz;
while the fundamental native frequencies of the longest stay of the AS line was
estimated to be 0.565 Hz (AS24). The first modal plateau coincides with a frequency
range above 2.0 Hz, which is similar to the modal plateau of BSU, but the number
of modal solutions has increased. Fig. 5 also depicts a second configuration
(circular marker), representing the behaviour of the AS network with locked
dampers.

35




Fig. 6(a) above shows a typical example of a global mode (the first mode, BSU-
NM01, at 0.89 Hz), and Fig. 6(b) depicts a localized mode, i.e., a higher mode in
which only a portion of the network is actively involved. Specifically, in Fig. 6(b),
the mode BSU-NM04 with a frequency of 1.93 Hz is dominated by the vibration of
stay BS21.
The change in the modal frequencies and shapes of the cables when they are
interconnected through the cross-ties results in energy redistribution in the system
when external excitation is applied. The effectiveness of this mechanism is assessed
by interpreting the vibrations of the stays recorded by the full scale measurement
system.

36
























Full-scale data suggest that the cross-ties were generally effective in preventing the
onset of various types of stay cable vibrations. As an example, Fig. 7(a) shows the 1
min. root-mean square (RMS) in-plane and lateral (out-of-plane) displacements of
stay AS1 recorded from October 1997 to September 1998, before the cross-ties
were added, and Fig. 7(b) shows the RMS displacements of the same stay from May
1999 to December 2003, when AS1 was interconnected to a number of adjacent
stays with cross-ties.
The RMS displacements were computed based on the displacement time histories,
which were obtained by numerically integrating the acceleration of the stays
recorded by the accelerometers. In this case, vibration suppression in the lateral
direction is due to the fact that, since wind- and rain wind- induced vibrations are
aero-elastic, a

37













mitigation mechanism in either direction is capable of suppressing vibration
components in both directions, unless the oscillation primarily occurs in the
unmitigated direction.
However, the full-scale data also revealed a number of limitations of cross-
ties as a mitigation strategy for stay cable vibrations. Fig. 8 shows the vibrations of
stay AN24 (which was in a cable network similar to the AS network shown in Fig. 3)
in the in-plane and lateral directions in its native modes between April, 1999 and
December, 2002, when the stay was connected to adjacent stays using cross-ties.
The modal displacements were obtained by decomposing the displacement time
histories using a sixth order Butterworth filter. This figure suggests that while the
cross-ties successfully suppressed vibrations in many of the lower native modes of
the stay, they appeared ineffective in mitigating vibrations in the fourth (2.25 Hz)
and the eighth (4.52 Hz) native modes. Evidence of vibration in native modes other
than numbers 4 and 8 was negligible, although some of these modes were indeed
observed at very low amplitudes. The ineffectiveness of the cross-ties for this
network is due to the fact they were evenly spaced and tied to AN24 at locations
very close to the nodal points of the fourth native mode so that modes 4, 8, 12 etc.
of this stay remain as in-plane native modes of the cable network, i.e., they are
essentially not restrained by the cross-ties and, as a result energy in these modes
cannot be effectively redistributed to the other modes of stay AN24 or the adjacent
stays.
Another limitations of cross ties is that they are essentially a mechanism in
the in- plane direction so their effectiveness is marginal in the lateral direction.

38













Such limitation of the cross-ties in the lateral direction can also be seen in
the statistics of recorded vibrations. As an example, Fig. 9(a) shows the one-minute
RMS displacement of stay AS20 during the time period between March 1999 and
June 2004, while it was in the AS network shown in Fig. 3. Cluster A in the graph
represents quasi-static vibrations of the stay due to deck oscillation [8], and cluster
B represents rain-wind-induced vibrations associated with wind approaching in a
direction very close to the projection of the cable axis in the horizontal plane. Fig.
9(b) shows the vibration locus of stay BS24 (BSU network in Fig. 4) the deck
oscillation was in the vertical direction, it can be seen that the vibration of stay
BS24 was more significant in the lateral direction than in the in-plane direction.

4.2 Cable Networks With Cross Ties and Dampers
4.2.1 Numerical simulation of network mode
A parametric study was conducted to assess the performance of the hybrid
damper-cross-tie system with multiple dampers (DS1 to DS12, Table 3), as shown
in Fig. 3. To limit the number of independent variables associated with the
dampers in the AS network, the normalized damper coefficient of DS1 in Table 3
ds1 was allowed to vary within a suitable interval, while the relative damper
coefficient ratios of other units

were assumed to be equal to the

design values indicated in the table.
In a cable network restrained by a damper-cross-tie system, the
frequencies and Eigen-modes are influenced by the normalized damper coefficients

39
of each unit (i.e., dsj in Table 3). The evolution of the frequency solution in the
complex plane for the AS network, as a function of ds1, is represented in terms of
the dimensionless




















frequency o and damping ratio q(0 sqs 1), computed as q =
|/o

)
2
1 +|/o)
2
]
0.5

The solutions are characterized by two limiting real-frequency cases: ds1 = 0
i.e., undamped solution without dampers and ds1 +, i.e., all dampers are locked
and can be replaced by a rigid link to the deck. For intermediate values of ds1,
complex Eigen-modes are usually under damped with qs 1.Real frequencies
corresponding to undamped and locked damper configuration are shown in Fig. 5.
In particular, Fig. 5 confirms that, as anticipated, locking the dampers to the deck
has an effect exclusively on the global modes of the AS network while no significant
effect



40






in terms of frequency increase is evident for the first group of localized modes since
modal plateau 1 in Fig. 5 is practically coincident in the two cases.

Frequency-damping trajectories associated with the fundamental global modes M1
and M2 of the AS network with twelve dampers are shown in Fig. 10(a). In these
figures, real frequencies associated with the limiting cases are indicated as
undamped (u) and locked dampers (r), along with the direction of increasing
damping (ds1). From Fig. 10(a), it can be concluded that the current design (ds1 =
1.72, node a1) does not correspond to optimal damping for the fundamental
modes, i.e., the local maximum on each (o,q) trajectory. Even though the damping
ratio is significant (about 3.5% for mode M1 and 6.0% for mode M2), higher
damping for these network modes might be achieved if larger dampers were
employed. In contrast, modal behaviour for the higher and localized modes is quite
complicated due to the presence of a large number of dampers. This is especially
evident for modes M6 and M7 in Fig. 10(b).

Since simultaneous optimization of more modes (e.g., modes M1 to M3) is
difficult to achieve in practice because of the large number of dampers in the AS
network system, other solutions were tested starting from the design configuration
with three restrainers and all dampers in Fig. 3. For a given damper configuration
and mode, an (o,q) pair corresponding to the maximum achievable damping level q
was determined as a function of the reference ds1, by subsequently removing the
damper units (one at a time). Table 4 summarizes the results of this investigation
for the fundamental global modes M1 and M2.

4.2.2 Simulation and full-scale record

Table 5 shows the results of the parametric investigation on the performance of the
AS network modes M5 and M7 (above 2 Hz). Case 1 corresponds to the gray

41
circular marker nodes in Fig. 10(b). It is revealed that, since the contribution to the
mode










shapes is primarily associated with the vibration of internal cable segments
(non-S segments), the presence of the dampers has little effect (q< 0.2% in most
cases) and the performance of such modes is mainly linked to effects of the cross-
ties.




42
Two example mode shapes for higher network modes of the localized type, i.e., M5
and M7, are shown in Figs. 11 and 12 below. Real and imaginary parts of the
eigen-function are separately indicated. Each figure shows the mode shape
associated with the Eigen frequency corresponding to the maximum damping
nodes for the damper configuration labelled as case 4 in Table 5. These
correspond to ds1 =16.00 for M5 (Fig. 11) and ds1 = 19.00 for M7 (Fig. 12). Case 4
was also selected since Table 5 suggested that the optimal node for this
configuration could be considered efficient in comparison with other cases in the
same table. In case 4 a relatively large damping value q is achieved for a relatively
low ds1, i.e., for smaller dampers.

It can be seen in above figures that most vibration occurs in the intermediate
portions of the network, away from the cable segments where most dampers are
located. The placement of dampers on every stay in the proximity of the cable end
is not beneficial, except for the location of D5, which is modelled as attached to
AS17 in-line with restrainer 2-AS, also indicated in Figs. 11 and 12. This damper
provides some contribution to the damping, especially for M7; in fact, the complex
part of the mode shape of the AS17 cable segment close to D5 is not negligible in
Fig. 12(b).
Table 5, Figs. 11 and 12 reveal the complexity in the behavior of a hybrid
cable network with multiple dampers attached between a stay and a deck.
However, they also suggest that, if a damper is optimized for the first native mode
of a stay, its performance may become inadequate for the higher modes of a
network, such as M5 to M7 in the AS network. However, even though in the
current practice the optimization of a damper attached to a stay is often based on
the first native mode, vibration at frequencies corresponding to M5 to M7 cannot be
excluded. If frequencies corresponding to modes M5 to M7 were of concern to the
designer, Table 5 confirms that this hybrid system would not be as effective as the
damper-to-stay case, optimally designed for the frequency range of M5 to M7.
The damper-cross-tie system has generally been effective in suppressing the
vibrations, unless the oscillations were primarily in the lateral direction. A
summary of the recorded vibrations of AS22 from June 2004 to September 2005,
when it was

43













mitigated by the damper-cross-tie system is shown in Fig. 13. It can be seen that
during the 15 months, the stay only exhibited a limited number of events of
moderate amplitude vibrations. The vibrations in the first native mode of the stay,
which were considerably two-dimensional, are identified to be due to oscillation of
the bridge deck in its first torsional mode, whose frequency is estimated to be 0.684
Hz [9] and close to the fundamental frequency of stay AS22. The vibrations in the
fourth (2.76 Hz) and the seventh (4.85 Hz) modes are identified to be rain-wind-
induced vibration. As stated earlier, the existence of low-amplitude native modes
were due to the fact that the connections between the cross-ties and the stays were
not perfectly tight. Fig. 13 also suggests that the damper-cross-tie system, which
consists of dampers and cross-ties in the in-plane direction of the stays, was also
ineffective in mitigating vibrations in the lateral direction. According to the full-
scale data it appears that no improved performance could be clearly attributed to
the addition of the dampers as compared to the full-scale response of the AS
network without dampers.

5. FINDINGS & CONCLUSION

1. Cross-ties are inherently an energy redistribution mechanism but not an energy
dissipation mechanism.
2. Cross-ties alone can be effective in mitigating large amplitude oscillations in the
lower (global) modes of cable network. This is primarily due to large increment
in modal mass that results when the stays are linked together.

44
3. Apart from global modes, a cable network exhibits a large number of localized
vibration mode. If these modes are excited they are more difficult to control
since they can occur on individual stays between the anchor points of the cross-
ties.
4. An evenly spaced configuration of cross ties is not a good practice. When
restrainers are sometimes introduced to reduce sag effects in long stays they
can be spaced in an evenly spaced pattern [10].
5. Oscillations of stays cannot be mitigated in the direction orthogonal to the plane
of cross-tie system. This inadequacy can be a cause of concern, since lateral
vibrations may create large stresses at either restrainer-stay or damper-stay
connections which can cause local damage.
6. Adding dampers in the in-plane direction orthogonal to the plane of cross-tie
system can induce appreciable damping levels in the lower modes of the
network in this plane but the benefits can be redundant as cross-tie system is
already an effective system to for these modes. However dampers can be added
to compliment or increase the performance of cross-ties system but in this case
they need not be attached in every stay.
7. Hybrid damper-cross-tie systems are complex and must be analyzed as
networks with attached dampers. Adding cross ties to a stay configuration
modifies the free vibration characteristics completely and can render dampers
ineffective.
8. The behaviour of the network in higher modes primarily depends upon the
geometric properties of cross-ties and their relative position along each stay.
Hence its performance can be improved by a better design of secondary
restrainers.
9. Simulations confirm that the optimization of more network modes at the same
time for damper-cross-tie system is difficult to achieve in practice because of the
complexity associated with the large number of independent parameters to be
determined i.e. damper coefficients and location of units.
10. Addition of dampers in the orthogonal direction of cable network can be effective
especially in case of bridges with exceptionally long stays.

Hence we can say that Cross-tie systems without the addition of dampers can be
effective in mitigating stay cable vibrations. However these systems are not effective
in suppressing vibrations in the lateral direction of stay cables.


45
REFERENCES

1. Matsumoto M, Yagi T, Goto M, Sakai S. Rain-wind-induced vibration of inclined
cables at limited high reduced wind velocity region. J Wind EngIndust
Aerodynam 2003;91(1-2):1-12.

2. Macdonald JHG, Larose GL. Two-degree-of-freedom inclined cable galloping -Part
2: Analysis and prevention for arbitrary frequency ratio. J Wind
EngIndustAerodynam 2008;96(3):308-26.

3. Zuo D. Understanding wind- and rain-wind-induced stay cable vibrations. Ph.D.
Disseration. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkins University; 2005.

4. Ehsan F, Scanlan RH. Damping stay cables with ties. In: 5th US-Japan bridge
workshop. 1989;203-17.

5. Caracoglia L, Jones NP. Passive hybrid technique for the vibration mitigation of
systems of interconnected stays. J Sound Vib 2007;307(3-5):849-64.

6. Caracoglia L, Jones NP. In-plane dynamic behavior of cable networks. Part 2:
Prototype prediction and validation. J Sound Vib 2005;279(3-5):993-1014.

7. Irvine HM. Cable structures. Cambridge (MA, USA): MIT Press; 1981.

8. Liu M-Y, Zuo D, Jones NP. Deck-induced stay cable vibrations: Field
observations and analytical model. In: 6th international symposium on cable
dynamics. 2005;175-182.

9. Ozkan E. Evaluation of response prediction methodology for long-span bridges
using full-scale measurements. Ph.D. Dissertation. Baltimore, MD, USA: The
Johns Hopkins University; 2003.

10. Gimsing NJ. Cable supported bridges; concept and design. New York, USA:
John Wiley and Sons; 1983.

11. Caracoglia L., Zuo D. Effectiveness of cable networks of various configurations
in suppressing stay cable vibration; Article in press





46
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN WITH FRP BARS
Abhinav Srivastava
B. Tech, Department of Civil Engineering, IT BHU
ABSTRACT
Over the last thirty years composite materials, plastics, and ceramics have been the
dominant emerging materials. The volume and number of applications of composite
materials has grown steadily, penetrating and conquering new markets relentlessly.
Today high performance fiber reinforced plastics (FRP) are starting to challenge that
most ubiquitous material, steel, in everyday applications as diverse as automobile
bodies and civil infrastructure. Each type of composite brings its own performance
characteristics that are typically suited for specific applications. High performance
FRP can now be found in such diverse applications as composite armouring
designed to resist explosive impacts, fuel cylinders for natural gas vehicles,
windmill blades, industrial drive shafts, support beams of highway bridges and
even paper making rollers. FRP bars have been and are being used to replace
conventional steel rebars for a host of reasons, but perhaps the most relevant is
that of prevention of reinforcement corrosion. The principles for design and
construction have been recently established and proposed to industry by the
American Concrete Institute (ACI). The fundamental principles at the basis of this
document are rooted in the steel-reinforced concrete practice with modifications to
account for the physico-mechanical characteristics of FRP. Some unresolved
questions remain pertaining to specifications, test methods, detailing, validation
and long-term durability (including fire resistance). Resolving these issues will
increase the degree of confidence in the technology and allow for its more
economical exploitation.

1. INTRODUCTION

The use of FRP as reinforcement in concrete structures has been growing rapidly
due to its advantages over conventional steel reinforcement (e.g., corrosion
resistance, light weight, magnetic neutrality). A potential application of FRP
reinforcement is in structural concrete. Corrosion of reinforcing steel has been the
primary cause of deterioration of reinforced concrete (RC) structures requiring

47
multi-million annual repair costs around the world. Furthermore, modern
equipment that employs magnetic interferometers, such as in hospitals, require a
nonmagnetic environment with no metallic reinforcement. This has led to an
increasing interest in FRP reinforcement, which is inherently nonmagnetic and
resistant to corrosion. FRP reinforcement also provides the option of easily
embedding fiber optic strain measurement devices for structural health monitoring
purposes. FRP composites do not deteriorate in saline environment, which curtails
the life of conventional structures. Additionally, FRP has strength to weight ratios
of 50 times that of concrete and 18 times that of steel. However, FRP materials
often exhibit lower ductility and weaker bond to concrete compared to that of
conventional steel reinforcement. The bond of FRP to concrete can be improved by
means of mechanical anchorages such as surface deformations and sand coating,
but its lower ductility remains a major concern, especially in structures subjected
to dynamic loading. The behaviour of FRP-reinforced concrete elements largely
depends on the bond between the concrete and composite reinforcement

2. DESIGN PRINCIPLES
FRP materials are anisotropic and are characterized by high tensile strength with
no yielding in the direction of the reinforcing fibers. This anisotropic behaviour
affects the shear strength and dowel action of FRP bars, as well as their bond to
concrete performance. Proposed design procedures account for a lack of ductility in
concrete reinforced with FRP bars. Both strength and working stress design
approaches are acceptable according to the provisions of the 95 edition of ACI 318
(ACI Committee 318, 1995). An FRP-RC member is designed based on its required
strength and then checked for serviceability and ultimate state criteria (e.g., crack
width, deflection, fatigue and creep rupture endurance). In most instances,
serviceability criteria will control the design.

2.1 Design Values

The design tensile strength that should be used in all design equations is given as

where: f fu = design tensile strength of FRP considering reductions for service
environment; CE = environmental reduction factor, given in Table 1 for various fiber

48
types and exposure conditions; and f*fu= manufacturers guaranteed tensile
strength of an FRP bar defined as the mean tensile strength of a sample population
minus three times the standard deviation (f*fu= fu, ave 3). The design rupture
strain should be determined similarly (i.e., average minus three times the standard
deviation), whereas the design modulus of elasticity is the same as the average
value reported by the manufacturer. Design parameters in compression are not
addressed by the guide since the use of FRP rebars in this instance is discouraged.



2.2 Behaviour and Failure Modes

The non-ductile behavior of FRP reinforcement necessitates reconsideration of
failure modes. If FRP reinforcement ruptures, failure of the member is sudden and
catastrophic. However, there would be some limited warning of impending failure in
the form of extensive cracking and large deflection due to the significant elongation
that FRP reinforcement experiences before rupture. The concrete crushing failure
mode is marginally more desirable for flexural members reinforced with FRP bars
since the member does exhibit some pseudo-plastic behaviour before failure. In
conclusion, both failure modes (i.e., FRP rupture and concrete crushing) are
acceptable in governing the design of flexural members reinforced with FRP bars
provided that strength and serviceability criteria are satisfied. To compensate for
the lack of ductility, the member should possess a higher reserve of strength. The
suggested margin of safety against failure is therefore higher than that used in
traditional steel-RC design.

2.3 factor

When concrete crushing controls, a strength-reduction factor of 0.70 is adopted.
Furthermore, a factor of 0.50 is recommended for FRP rupture-controlled failure.
While a concrete crushing failure mode can be predicted based on calculations, the

49
member as constructed may not fail accordingly. For example, if the concrete
strength is higher than specified, the member can fail due to FRP rupture. For this
reason and in order to establish a linear transition between the two values of , a
section controlled by concrete crushing is defined as a section in which the
reinforcement ratio, f, is greater than or equal to 1.4 times the balanced
reinforcement ratio, fb, (f 1.4 fb,) and a section controlled by FRP rupture is
defined as one in which f<fb.

2.4 Minimum Reinforcement

If a member is designed to fail by FRP rupture, f<fb, a minimum amount of
reinforcement, Af, min, should be provided to prevent failure upon concrete
cracking (that is, MnMcr where Mn and Mcr are the nominal and cracking
moment, respectively). The minimum reinforcement area is obtained by multiplying
the existing ACI 318-95 limiting value for steel by 1.8 (i.e., 1.8 = 0.90/0.50 which is
the ratio).

2.5 Creep Rupture & Fatigue

Values for safe sustained and fatigue stress levels are given in Table 2. These
values are based on experimental results with an imposed safety factor of 1/0.60.



3. SHEAR

Several issues need to be addressed when using FRP as shear reinforcement,
namely: FRP has a relatively low modulus of elasticity; FRP has a high tensile
strength and no yield point; tensile strength of the bent portion of an FRP bar is
significantly lower than the straight portion; and FRP has low dowel resistance.


50
According to ACI 318-95, the nominal shear strength of a steel-RC cross section,
Vn, is the sum of the shear resistance provided by concrete, Vc, and the steel shear
reinforcement, Vs. Similarly, the concrete shear capacity Vc,f of flexural members
using FRP as the main reinforcement can be derived from Vcmultiplied by the ratio
between the axial stiffness of the FRP reinforcement (fEf) and that of steel
reinforcement (sEs) necessary to develop the same flexural capacity. For practical
design purposes, the value of scan be taken as 50% of the maximum allowed by
the code (i.e., 0.5s,max or 0.375 b). Considering a typical steel yield strength of
420 MPa (60 ksi) for flexural reinforcement, the equation for Vc,f is that shown in
Eq. (1) (noting Vc,f cannot be larger than Vc).



The ACI 318-95 method used to calculate the shear contribution of steel stirrups,
Vs, is applicable when using FRP as shear reinforcement with the provision that its
stress level, ffv, should be limited to control shear crack widths, maintain shear
integrity of the concrete, and avoid failure at the bent portion of the FRP stirrup
(i.e., ffv<ffb = strength of the bent). The stress level in the FRP shear reinforcement
at ultimate for use in design is given by ffv= 0.002Ef ffb. An expression for ffbis
given in ACI 440.1R-01.

4. DEVELOPMENT LENGTH

The development length of FRP reinforcement can be expressed as shown in Eq. (2)
as a function of the bar diameter, db, and the design strength. This should be a
conservative estimate of the development length of FRP bars controlled by pullout
failure rather than concrete splitting.



Manufacturers can furnish alternative values of the required development length
based on substantiated tests conducted in accordance with available testing

51
procedures. Reinforcement should be deformed or surface-treated to enhance bond
characteristics with concrete.

4.1 Test Methods

Bond characteristics and related bond-dependent coefficients; creep rupture and
endurance limits; fatigue characteristics; coefficient of thermal expansion;
durability characterization with focus on alkaline environment and determination
of related environmental reduction factors; strength of the bent portion; shear
strength; and compressive strength.
One of the test methods under development allows obtaining the strength capacity
of 90- degree bents for FRP bars used as stirrups in shear reinforcement or used as
anchors. The photographs given in Figures 2 and 3 show a specimen under test
and the fractured bent. This method is intended for use in laboratory tests in which
the principal variables are the size or type of the FRP bar and radius of the bent. It
consists of a tension test conducted using a unique fixture which has three
components, upper and lower steel parts and interchangeable aluminium corner
inserts, machined to fit a specific bar diameter and bent radius. Instrumentation
may be used depending on the parameters being monitored. If elastic modulus and
strain distribution are required, strain gages can be mounted directly on the FRP
bent. This test method has several advantages, which include ease and reliability.
For example, in the case of one of the glass FRP bar systems used for validation,
the coefficient of variation for 12 consecutive tests remained below 5.5%.




Fig. 1Specimen under test

52


Fig. 2 Failed bent

5. GFRP-REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGE DECKS

The original Sierrita de la Cruz Creek Bridge in Potter County, Texas, was replaced
because it had become structurally deficient and functionally obsolete. The new
bridge is 168.7 m (553 ft) long with a superstructure consisting of seven spans
using 24.1-m (79-ft) pre-stressed concrete (PC) beams. The superstructure is
divided into three units namely: a two-span unit on the northend and a three-span
unit in the middle with epoxy-coated steel-RC decks and a two-span unit at the
south end, each with a top mat GFRP bar and bottom mat epoxy-coated steel-RC
deck. The transverse slab reinforcement is the primary load-carrying reinforcement
of the slab and there is no provision for the development of tension ties associated
with slab arching action.
Design forces were determined by a one-way analysis of the slab as well as from the
empirical formula. The one-way analysis was performed assuming a 300-mm (1-ft)
longitudinal strip of the transverse slab, continuous over knife-edged support
representing the six PC beams. Because the bottom mat of steel reinforcement was
held to no more than the 150-mm (6-in) standard spacing and because panels were
used for most bays, positive moment regions were adequately reinforced. Thus,
only negative moments were considered in determining the required GFRP bar size
and maximum spacing. Only the slab overhangs had the potential to reach full
flexural capacity. Crack width, rather than strength and allowable stress limits,
was the controlling design factor and determined bar size and spacing for the GFRP
bars in the deck. The choice of the value of maximum acceptable crack width was
in this case 0.5 mm (0.02 in). The calculated maximum stress for this crack width
was less than 15% of the guaranteed ultimate strength of the bar. For the deck slab
design, #6 GFRP bars spaced at 140 mm (5.5 in) were required, versus the #5

53
epoxy-coated steel bars at 150 mm (6 in), which is the standard size and spacing.
To summarize, GFRP bars spaced 7% closer than the standard epoxy-coated steel
reinforcement, each with 42% more cross-sectional area than the standard steel
reinforcement, was required in the top mat for the GFRP-reinforced deck as
compared with a fully epoxy-coated steel reinforced deck. Figures4 and 5 show the
GFRP reinforcement placement and the final product.



Fig. 3 Top GFRP mat placement


Fig. 4 Concrete Placement


6. CONCLUSION

Globally, composite technology and its applications had made tremendous progress
during the last two decades or so, as evident from the present level of consumption
of composite materials at about 2.2 million MT, with the Asia Pacific region
accounting for about 24% of this usage.
Currently, about 40,000 composite products are in use for an array of applications
in diverse sectors of the industry all over the world. India started making use of

54


composites almost about 30 years ago with a consumption level of about 30000
MT. The most important feature governing the choice of material & form of
construction for any component is its structural integrity.

Whereas high specific strength and lightweight were often the dominant criteria to
be achieved, particularly for aerospace applications, there is today an increasing
emphasis on other criteria such as environmental durability, embedded energy, fire
resistance. The materials previously regarded as being synonymous with high
performance FRP, such as carbon fiber, are more affordable today and hence not
always used to the limit of their capabilities.

With more & more realization on conservation of nature & natural resources,
scarcity of wood looms large for the construction & housing sector. This calls for an
immediate attention for developing suitable wood substitutes. From the point of
view of wood substitution, natural fiber composites would enjoy wider acceptance.
India enjoys a niche for the natural fiber composites as the country is endowed
with large varieties of natural fiber. Value-added novel applications of natural fiber
composites would also ensure international market for cheaper substitutes.

As far as FRPs as reinforcement is concerned even with some unresolved issues
that should become a priority for future research, it can be concluded that the
availability of design and construction guides developed by ACI for the use of FRP
internal reinforcement for concrete structures should allow the construction
industry to take full advantage of this emerging technology. Applications for
concrete construction using internal FRP reinforcement are rapidly developing.









55
REFERENCES




















56
PRODUCTION OF LOW COST CONCRETE FROM
PAPER INDUSTRIAL WASTES
M.NIDHIN
(1)
, S.THAMIZHARASAN
(2)
(1)
Pre-Final Year Student, Crescent Engineering College,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
(2)
Pre-Final Year Student, Kongu Engineering College,
Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
ABSTRACT
Manufacture of ordinary Portland cement needs large amount of earth resources
and also releases enormous amount of green house gases during its production
which adversely affect the environment. Therefore an alternative to cement usage in
construction can make a huge impact on reducing environmental pollution. Paper
making industries generally produces large amount of solid wastes. To reduce
disposal and pollution problems emanating from these industrial wastes, it is most
essential to develop profitable building materials from them. Therefore in order to
resolve the disadvantages of both these sides, an attempt is made to use these
paper industrial wastes known as hypo sludge as replacement of cement for a
concrete. Hence it avoids environmental pollution due to usage of cement and also
solves the problem of mass disposal of these wastes.

This hypo sludge behaves like cement because of its silica, lime and magnesium
components. These components improve the setting of the concrete and also
provide necessary strength for the concrete. Keeping this in view, investigations
were done to produce low cost concrete by blending various ratios of cement with
sludge. The project deals with experimental investigations on strength of concrete
and optimum percentage of the partial replacement of cement by 10%, 20%, 30%,
40% hypo sludge and finding out the strength of blended materials. The percentage
of cost saved due to replacement is also found out. This project definitely has a
major impact on environmental production reduction.


57
1. INTRODUCTION

Over 300 million tonnes of industrial wastes are being produced per annum by
chemical and agricultural process in India. These materials pose problems of
disposal and health hazards.









The wastes like phosphor-gypsum, fluoro-gypsum and red mud contain obnoxious
impurities which adversely affect the strength and other properties of building
materials based on them. Out of several wastes being produced at present, the use
of phospho-gypsum, flout of solid waste. Paper fibers can be recycled only a limited
number of times before they become too short or weak to make high quality. It
means that the broken, low quality paper fibers are separated out to become waste
sludge. All the inks, dyes, coatings, pigments, staples and stickies (tape, plastic
films etc) are also washed off the recycled fibers to join the waste solids. The shiny
finish on glossy magazine paper is produced using a fine kaolin clay coating, which
also becomes solid waste during recycling. This paper mill sludge consumes a large
percentage of local landfill space for each and every year. Worse yet, some of the
wastes are land spread on cropland as a disposal techniques, raising concerns
about trace contaminants building up in soil or running off into area lakes and
streams. Some companies burn their sludge in incinerators, contributing to our
serious air pollution problems. To reduce disposal and pollution problems
emanating from these industrial wastes, it is most essential to develop profitable
building materials from them.

2. SOLID WASTE FROM PAPER INDUSTRY
Wastes from paper industries are of many types as explained and the major waste
from these industries is called hypo sludge which usually contains, low calcium
Fig.1 Hypo-Sludge Deposition

58
and maximum calcium chloride and minimum amount of silica. Hypo sludge
behaves like cement because of silica and concrete. The following tables explain the
properties and nature of hypo sludge from paper industrial wastes.
Table 1 Properties of raw hypo sludge:
SI.No. Constituent %Present in Hypo-sludge
1 Moisture 56.8
2 Magnesium oxide (MgO) 3.3
3 Calcium oxide (CaO) 46.2
4 Loss on ignescent 27.00
5 Acid insoluble 11.1
6 Silica (SiO2) 9.0
7 R2O3 3.6

Table 2 Comparison of cement and hypo sludge:
Sl.No. Constituent Cement (in %) Hypo Sludge in (%)
1 Lime(CaO) 62 46.2
2 Silica (SiO2) 22 9
3 Alumina 5 3.6
4 Magnesium 1 3.33
5 Calcium sulphate 4 4.05

3. NEED FOR HYPO SLUDGE UTILIZATION
While producing paper the various wastes are comes out from the various
processes in paper industry. From the preliminary waste named as hypo sludge
due to its low calcium is taken out for our project to replace the cement utilization
in concrete. Due to the cement production green house gases are emitted in the



Fig. 2 Hypo-Sludge Sample


59

atmosphere. For producing 4million tons of cement, they emit 1 million ton green
house gases. Also, to reduce the environment degradation, this sludge has been
avoided in mass level disposal in land. To eliminate the ozone layer depletion,
production of cement becomes reduced. For this, the hypo sludge is used as partial
replacement in the concrete as high performance concrete. By utilizing this waste
the strength could be increased and also cost reduction in the concrete can be
achieved.
4. TEST ON HARDENED CONCRETE

4.1 Compression Test
The compression test is a laboratory test to determine the characteristic strength of
the concrete but the making of test cubes is sometimes carried out by the
supervisor on site. This cube test result is very important to the acceptance of in
situ concrete work since it demonstrate the strength of the design mix.
Procedure:
1. 150mm standard cube mould is to used for the concrete mix
2. Adequate numbers of required cube moulds are arranged in respect with the
sampling sequence for the proposed pour.
3. The apparatus and associated equipment are cleaned before test and checked
free from hardened concrete and superfluous water
4. The cube mould is correctly assembled and all nuts are tightened
5. Light coat proprietary mould oil is applied on the internal faces of the mould.
6. Mould is placed on level firm ground and filled with sampled concrete to a layer
of about 50mm thick.
7. A layer of concrete is compacted thoroughly by tamping the whole surface area
with the standard tamping bar.
8. Step 5 and 6 are repeated till the mould is all filled.
9. Surplus concrete is removed after the moulds is fully filled and trowel the top
surface flush with the mould.
10. The cube surface marked with an identification number (say simply 1, 2, 3 etc)
with a nail or match stick and this numbers are recorded in respect with the
concrete truck and location of pore when the sampled concrete is obtained.

60
11. The cube surface covered with a piece of damp cloth or polythene sheeting and
the cube is kept in a place free from vibration for about 24hrs to allow inertial
set.
12. The mould pieces are stripped off in about 24hrs after the respective pore is
cast.
13. The test cube is marked with a reference number with waterproof felt pen on
the molded side, in respect with the previous identification number.
14. The cube are placed and submerged in a clean water bath or preferably a
thermostatically controlled curing tank until it is delivered to the accredited
laboratory for testing.
15. After curing, the specimens were tested for compressive strength using a
calibrated compression testing machine of 2000KN capacity.

Table 3 Compression strength after 7 days
Partial Replacement of
Hypo-sludge in %
Ultimate Load (Tons) Ultimate compression
strength
0 48 20.92
10 46 20.05
20 44.5 19.40
30 43 18.74
40 38 16.56



Fig. 3Ultimate Compressive Strength of Cube (7 days)


0
5
10
15
20
25
0 10 20 30 40
ultimate compressive
strength

61

Table 4 Compression strength after 14 days




Fig. 4 Ultimate Compressive Strength of Cube (14 days)

Table 5 Compressive strength after 28 days
Partial Replacement of
Hypo-sludge in %
Ultimate Load (Tons) Ultimate compression
strength
0 76 33.18
10 74 32.26
20 72.5 31.61
30 71 30.95
40 65 28.34

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 10 20 30 40
ultimate compressive
strength(N/mm2)
Partial Replacement of
Hypo-sludge in %
Ultimate Load (Tons) Ultimate compression
strength
0 62.5 27.25
10 61 26.59
20 59 25.72
30 57.5 25.07
40 52 22.67

62


Fig. 5 Ultimate Compressive Strength of Cube (28 days)

5. SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH TEST
Split tensile strength of concrete is usually found by testing plain concrete
cylinders. Cylinders of size 150mmX300mm were casting using M25 grade
concrete. Specimen with OPC and OPC replaced by hypo sludge at 10%, 20%, 30%,
40%, 50%, 60%, & 70% replacement levels were cast. During molding, the
cylinders were vibrated using a damping rod. After 24 hours, the specimens were
removed from the mould and subjected to water curing for 28 days. After curing,
the specimens were tested for compressive strength using a calibrated compression
testing machine of 2000kn capacity.

Table 6 Tensile strength after 28days
Partial
Replacement in %
Number of
Specimen
Ultimate
Load
Split Tensile Strength
in N/mm
2

0 3 205 2.90
10 3 204 2.91
20 3 203.5 2.92
30 3 202 2.92
40 3 192 2.93


24
26
28
30
32
34
0 10 20 30 40
Ultimate compressive
strength

63


Fig. 6 Split Tensile Strength
6. SLUMP TEST
The internal surface of the mould was thoroughly cleaned and freed from
superfluous moisture and any set concrete before the commencement of the test.
The mould was place on a metal pan, which was smooth, horizontal, rigid and
absorbent. The mould was carefully and firmly held in place while it was filled. The
mould was filled in four layers, each approximately one quarter of the height of the
mould. Each layer was tampered with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping
rod. The strokes were distributed in a uniform manner over the cross section of the
mould and for the second and subsequent layer penetrated into the underlying
layer. The bottom layer was tamped throughout the depth. After the top layer was
rode, the concrete was struck off level with a trowel such that the mould is exactly
filled. The mortar which has leaked out between the mould and the base plate was
cleaned away. The mould was removed from the concrete immediately by
determining the difference between the height of the mould and that of the highest
point of then specimen being tested. The above operations were carried out at a
place free from vibrations or shock and within a period of two minutes after
sampling.
Table 7 Slump Value









2.88
2.89
2.9
2.91
2.92
2.93
2.94
0 10 20 30 40
Split tensile strength
(N/mm2)
Sl.No. Ingredients Slump Value (mm)
1 Cement + 0% Hypo-sludge 61
2 Cement + 10% Hypo-sludge 62.5
3 Cement +20% Hypo-sludge 64
4 Cement + 30% Hypo-sludge 66
5 Cement + 40% Hypo-sludge 67.5

64
7. COST ANALYSIS
Cost analysis is carried out for the designed optimum mix proportion of percentage
of hypo sludge in concrete. The cost is calculated for 10m
3
of design optimum
concrete mix and compare with that of normal concrete mix and is tabulated below
Calculations:
Quantity of Cement Required = (1/6.15)*15=2.45m
3

Quantity of Sand Required = (1.5/6.15)*15=3.65m
3

Quantity of Coarse Aggregate Required = (3.65/6.15)*15=8.90m
3

Table 8 Cost of material of normal concrete/10m
3

Description Quantity Cost Cost of Material
Cement 72 250/Bag 18000
Hypo-sludge 0.50
Sand 3.65 750 2740
Coarse 8.90 500 4450
Total Cost 25190

Cost/m
3
= Rs 25190/10= 2519Rs/-
Table 9 Cost of Material of 30% Partially Replaced Concrete/10m
3

Description Quantity Cost Cost of Material
Cement 50.21 250/Bag 12550
Hypo-sludge 22 1/kg 22
Sand 3.65 750 2740
Coarse 8.90 500 4450
Total Cost 19762

Cost/m
3
= Rs. 19760/10=1976Rs, Cost Saved =2519-1976=543
%Cost Saved = (2519-1976)/2519=21.55%




65
7. CONCLUSION

The compressive strength test of the concrete give satisfactory results up to 30%
replacement of cement by hypo sludge as the strength exceeds the required value.
The split tensile strength also gives desired results when the % of the replacement
(30%) is increased. The replacement of cement with this waste of hypo-sludge
material provides maximum compressive strength at 30%replacement.This project
suggests a reduction in the amount of cement for equal strength of concrete mix.
On one hand the waste disposal problem is solved and on the other hand the paper
waste is gainfully utilized. Since there is a reduction in the cement usage, there is a
reduction in the amount of cement production and hence the release of green
house gases. Savings in cost of construction can be achieved. A better measure by
NEW CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL is formed out through this project.

REFERENCES

1. Shetty M.S., Concrete mix design.
2. IS 10262:1981 IS METHOD OF MIX DESIGN, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
3. IS 383:1970, specification of coarse and fine aggregate from natural sources of
concrete
4. Rajput R. K., Construction materials.
5. Journal on Indian Infrastructure and Construction.
6. Dutta B.N., Estimation and Costing.
7. Srinivasan R. and Prof. Palanisamy, the Effects of Wastes on Concrete.
8. Matti S.C., Agarwal R.K. And Kumar Rajdeeb, Concrete Mix Proportioning,
Indian Concrete Journal-December 2006.







66
SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF BUILDINGS
G. Ayiswarya, S.Pradeepa
Department of Civil Engineering, III Year, Arunai Engineering College,
Tiruvannamalai, India.

ABSTRACT

This paper deals with the seismic retro fitting in construction using FRP strips.
Externally bonded (ebb) fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) have been employed
extensively throughout the world in numerous rehabilitation applications of
reinforced concrete or masonry structures. This paper focuses on the seismic
retrofitting and masonry walls by means of FRPs. Basic retrofit issues, namely
shear strengthening and increase of confinement at plastic hinge or lap splice
regions, are summarized first and a summary of application techniques is given.
Some key behavior and design aspects for shear-strengthened or FRP-confined
members are provided and a brief description of some recent developments related
to the seismic strengthening of beamcolumn joints is presented.

1. DEFINITION FOR RETROFITTING

Modifying the existing structures with additional or new components or members.

2. SEISMIC RETROFITTING

Seismic retrofitting is the modification of existing structures to make them more
resistant to seismic activity, ground motion, or soil failure due to earthquakes.
With better understanding of seismic demand on structures and with our recent
experiences with large earthquakes near urban centers, the need of seismic
retrofitting is well acknowledged.

Seismic Retrofitting means providing Earthquake Resistance to an old building.
Retrofitting also allows a building to withstand much greater earthquake forces
then those for which it was originally designed with much less structural damage.
Retrofitting also means making a building re-serviceable and reusable after it has

67
suffered damages.

A seismic retrofit is the addition of one or more structural enhancements that will
help keep a building, its workers, production equipment and inventory safe from
the effects of seismic activity that occurs suddenly or over time. The enhancements
might be as simple as straps that secure equipment to complex structural anchors
or roofing modifications.

A seismic retrofit can be performed on numerous types of buildings, such as un-
reinforced masonry, concrete masonry units, tuck-under parking (also called soft
story construction) or frequently constructed concrete tilt-up. For this brief
introduction to seismic retrofitting, we focus on a retrofit for a concrete tilt-up
building, but if you would like details about seismic retrofitting for other types of
buildings, please contact our association.
The most common purpose of a seismic retrofit on a concrete tilt-up building is to
keep the roof (or, if applicable, the mezzanine or second floor) from separating from
the walls at the buildings perimeter. Typically, buildings need reinforcing because
the concrete tilt-up walls are very heavy, and when they move during an
earthquake, they exert a great deal of force.

A seismic retrofit on this type of building usually consists of adding roof-to-wall
anchors and continuity ties, strengthening the key structural connections that
have proven to be inadequate in older buildings.

3. FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER

The current method of flexural strengthening reinforced concrete members involves
bonding fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) strips, which requires extensive time and
skilled labor. An alternative method is being developed which uses powder actuated
fastening systems to attach the FRP strips to the concrete surface. Powder actuated
tools are inexpensive, readily available, and do not require sophisticated training to
operate. The fasteners must be attached in a certain manner as not to destroy the
concrete substrate, which reduces fastener strength and reduces the durability of
the concrete member. This paper presents the initial experimental and analytical

68
research from the investigation of this method on full-scale reinforced concrete T
beams.

The objective of the investigation described in this paper was to develop a basic set
of data required for the application of the strengthening method of bonding pre-
stressed FRP strips as reinforcing elements to the existing reinforced concrete
structures. In addition to the investigation aimed at establishing the dimensioning
data, the work also focused on technical issues related to the design and execution
in order to ensure the practical applicability of the method of externally bonded
pre-stressed FRP strips. Based on the experimental results, a design algorithm for
the strengthening was established according to the Czech and EC standard. The
seismic retrofitting of reinforced concrete buildings not designed to withstand
seismic action is considered. After briefly introducing how seismic action is
described for design purposes, methods for assessing the seismic vulnerability of
existing buildings are presented. The traditional methods of seismic retrofitting are
reviewed and their weak points are identified. Modern methods and philosophies of
seismic retrofitting, including base isolation and energy dissipation devices, are
reviewed. The presentation is illustrated by case studies of actual buildings where
traditional and innovative retrofitting methods have been applied.

4. SEISMIC RETROFITTING IN CONSTRUCTION

Seismic retrofitting of constructions vulnerable to earthquakes is a current problem
of great political and social relevance. Most of the Italian building stock is
vulnerable to seismic action even if located in areas that have long been considered
of high seismic hazard. During the past thirty years moderate to severe
earthquakes have occurred in Italy at intervals of 5 to 10 years. Such events have
clearly shown the vulnerability of the building stock in particular and of the built
environment in general. The seismic hazard in the areas, where those earthquakes
have occurred, has been known for a long time because of similar events that
occurred in the past.

It is therefore legitimate to ask why constructions vulnerable to earthquakes exist if
people and institutions knew of the seismic hazard. Several causes may have
contributed to the creation of such a situation. These are associated to historical
events, fading memory, greed, avarice, poverty and ignorance.

69

Among historical events particularly relevant are wars, epidemics, and natural
disasters which may limit, in a significant way, the available resources of a
country. In such circumstances there is a tendency to build with poor materials
and without too much attention to good construction techniques and safety
margins. A situation of this kind occurred in Italy and in Japan after the Second
World War and similar situations have occurred in Italy many times in the past. In
such a situation it is possible that the phenomenon of fading memory occurs and
past memories are easily erased. In Italy commercial profits often result from the
employment of poor material and workmanship rather than of the optimal
utilization of the production factors. The depressing situation of poor quality
control and material acceptance also falls into this framework, which, in most
cases, results only in paperwork devoid of substantive value. Marginal propensity
to expenditure sometimes ensures that even the owner prefers a low quality
product to save resources for more immediate needs.
Among causes arising from ignorance there may be both an inadequate knowledge
of the seismic hazard and design errors due to insufficient knowledge of the
earthquake problem; also the inability to correctly model the structural response to
the seismic action. While considerable progress has been made in recent years by
the research community in dealing with the above problems, it has become more
difficult to transfer the results to the seismic engineering profession and the
situation can only deteriorate in the near future. Recent changes in the curricula of
engineering schools are leading to a general impoverishment of the basic knowledge
and operational capabilities of our engineering graduates.

A final cause of vulnerability is connected with the maintenance of constructions; it
is obvious that if a construction is not regularly maintained, much as happens for
a motorcar, the mechanical properties of the materials may undergo local and
global degradation with a significant loss of resistance of the structural members
and of the entire construction. Also, changes in service conditions, often made
arbitrarily, may lead to substantial changes in the structural behavior resulting in
a degradation of the structural response to the expected loading conditions.

On the basis of what has been presented so far, it is not surprising that in areas
long known to be subject to the seismic hazard it is not infrequent to find
constructions vulnerable to earthquakes. These constructions need to be retrofitted

70
to allow them to withstand the effects of the earthquake ground motion expected at
the site considered. In the following sections some procedures used for the
evaluation of the seismic resistance and vulnerability of reinforced concrete
buildings will be described together with traditional and innovative techniques of
seismic retrofitting of the same structures. The paper ends with a description of the
seismic retrofitting of two reinforced concrete residential buildings in the village of
Solarino, near Syracuse, in Sicily. The buildings belong to the Institute Autonomo
Case Popolari (IACP) of Syracuse. As will be clear from following arguments the aim
of the paper is not to discuss in depth the state-of the-art of seismic retrofitting,
but rather to give a general overview. The aim is also to focus on a few specific
procedures which may improve the state-of-the-art practice for the evaluation of
seismic vulnerability of existing reinforced concrete buildings and for their seismic
retrofitting by means of innovative techniques such as base isolation and energy
dissipation.

5. SEISMIC ACTION

Seismic vulnerability is not an absolute concept but is strongly related to the event
being considered. The same construction may not be vulnerable to one class of
earthquakes and yet be vulnerable to another. Therefore, before attempting a
seismic vulnerability evaluation of a given construction, the seismic action that will
affect that construction must be fully specified. All seismic codes specify the
seismic action by means of one or more design spectra. These are a synthetic and
quantitative representation of the seismic action which, besides depending on the
characteristics of the ground motion, depends on some intrinsic characteristics of
the structure such as the fundamental mode of vibration and its energy dissipation
capacity.

The elastic design spectrum depends on the vibration periods of the structure and
on the available damping. This acceleration, called the maximum effective ground
acceleration or PGA, depends directly on the seismic hazard at the construction site
and acts as the anchoring acceleration of the spectrum.



71
6. SEISMIC REHABILITATION OF BEAM-COLUMN JOINTS USING FRP
LAMINATES

An innovative and practical technique for the seismic rehabilitation of beam-
column joints using fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) is presented. The procedure is
to upgrade the shear capacity of the joint and thus allow the ductile flexural hinge
to form in the beam. An experimental study is conducted in order to evaluate the
performance of a full-scale reinforced concrete external beam-column joint from a
moment resisting frame designed to earlier code then repaired using the proposed
technique. The beam-column joint is tested under cyclic loading applied at the free
end of the beam and axial column load. The suggested repair procedure was
applied to the tested specimen. The composite laminate system proved to be
effective in upgrading the shear capacity of the non-ductile beam-column joint.
Comparison between the behavior of the specimen before and after the repair is
presented. A design methodology for fiber jacketing to upgrade the shear capacity
of existing beam-column joints in reinforced concrete moment resisting frames is
proposed.

7. SEISMIC DESIGN

Seismic design is a specific area of architecture dedicated to the structural
analysis of buildings, bridges, and roads, with the aim of making them resistant
to earthquakes and other seismic activity. Its ethical goal is the protection of the
occupants and users of these structures. In an earthquake, unsound structures
are more likely to collapse and cause damage. Heavily urbanized areas become
more lethal because of the high density of structures and the threat of structural
collapse. In this sense, structures can be viewed as heightening the danger created
by any seismic activity and increasing the risk to life.

Seismic design must take into account the various effects produced by the ground
motion that is caused by the earthquake. Duration, magnitude, and velocity are
factors of seismic analysis that should be measured by architects, and each
earthquake possesses its own unique danger. Nevertheless, the common element in
the displacement of structures by the motion of earthquakes is the carrying over of
the seismic force into the structures themselves, which is the reason structures are

72
destroyed. The movement of the ground produces what is referred to as an inertial
force within structures; the greater the mass of the structure, the greater is this
inertial force, and hence the likelihood of destruction. The key becomes how the
structures can absorb these forces in order to minimize damage, as opposed to
being destroyed by them.
One of the approaches of seismic design is to produce more lightweight structures,
due to the correlation between structural mass and inertial force. Selection of
materials is critical to the process in order to minimize mass; yet the seismic
designer must also be aware of local building codes and requirements when
choosing material. These materials must also have good absorption ratings. Such
materials are ductile and are able to move with the force of the earthquake and
dissipate its impact. Materials with good absorption ratings are wood; steel frames;
and reinforced walls, such as concrete or masonry, while pre-cast concrete frames
are considered poor absorbers.

8. APPLICATIONS

One of the most promising applications of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
composites is in reinforced concrete columns. This paper provides a review of
recent research in this area. Based on the literature available, it is found that most
applications and research are focused on the FRP retrofit or repair of existing
reinforced concrete columns primarily for improved ductility. Some recent research
efforts have been directed to the new design of columns using FRP tubes or FRP
bars. The use of FRP tubes is reviewed in comparison to previous research on
concrete filled steel tubular (CFT) structures and the tubed structures. It is more
likely favourable for the FRP tube or rebars to be used as transverse reinforcement
of concrete columns for better ductility needed for seismic design. A new concept by
the author on confined concrete filled tubular (CCFT) columns is also introduced
along with promising test results.

9. CONCLUSION

Many more people are coming to live in earthquake-prone areas, especially urban
ones. Many such areas contain low-rise, low-cost housing, while little money is
available to retrofit the buildings to avoid total collapse and thus potentially save

73
lives. The lack of money, especially in developing countries, is exacerbated by
difficulties with administration, implementation and public awareness.

If we are planning to strengthen your home against earthquakes, it's essential to
acknowledge the basic concepts of seismic retrofitting.

REFERENCES:

1. http://www.icomos.org/iiwc/seismic/Cheung-M.pdf

2. http://www.indianconsultancy.com/earthquakeresistant/index.html





















74
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF HUMAYUNS TOMB
Meenakshi Verma
1
, Tabish Mohammad
2
, Uroos Choudhry
3
,
Ankur Gautam
4
, Neha Bansal
5
Civil Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, F/O Engineering and Technology, New-Delhi
Email id: meen.verma@gmail.com
1

ABSTRACT

Archaeological monuments, arts and crafts, oral and written literature, living
traditions, natural features and environment are all a part of our heritage. All that
we manifest in our day to day life is a part of our heritage.

We live in a country known for its varied natural environment and rich cultural
heritage seen in our world famous monuments, archaeological sites, natural areas
and our living traditions. Collectively, it is a past that we have a responsibility to
safeguard for future. It is our solemn responsibility to respect, cherish and preserve
the heritage that we have inherited.

The present study is an attempt in this direction to study the stability of an
existing monument Humayuns Tomb, so that so that we can figure out the
measures, if required, to protect it from damage. A procedure is established to
evaluate the critical forces and suggest the corresponding behaviour.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the ancient period construction of concrete structure was not popular due to the
lack of advance technology used in this type of construction. Masonry construction
was widely used at that time because of locally available material, need of less
skilled labor, less engineering intervention etc. However; there are some
disadvantages for this type of construction, particularly when it is built in seismic
environment. The seismic resistance capacity of masonry construction is relatively
low in comparison to engineered construction. In India, masonry construction are
generally made by using locally available material like stone, brick, timber, mud
etc. and are constructed in a traditional manner with or without earthquake
resistance features mentioned in IS: 4326 and IS: 13927. Therefore, this type of

75
construction is treated as non-engineered construction and most of the casualties
occur due to the collapse of these constructions in earthquake. The present report
is a step towards with regards to develop a procedure for seismic analysis of
historical masonry buildings.

2. OBJECTS AND SCOPE

The object of this study is to analyse the behaviour of a masonry monumental
building under seismic load and to present such data which could be used to
proportion the critical strengthening elements.

Therefore the scope of such is to determine whether the structure needs any
retrofitting or any other preventive measures to protect it from any severe damage
and casualties after an earthquake and to preserve our heritage.

3. PRESENT CONDITION AND NEED OF ANALYSIS

Most of our heritage buildings of hundreds of years back were informally
constructed in a traditional manner without due consideration to the effects of
dynamic loads. The major reason was obviously lack of awareness and knowledge.
Such buildings need to be analysed and if found unsafe, require retrofitting as per
the Indian Standards Codes to enhance the performance during an earthquake.

The present study is an attempt in this direction to study the stability of an
existing monument HUMAYUNS TOMB New Delhi, so that one can say that the
present state of this heritage structure in terms of his behaviour under seismic
loads. The observation on the building shows cracks and sign of distress at many
positions and hence become the need of the study. A procedure is established to
evaluate the critical forces and suggest the corresponding behaviour.

4. STEPS OF ANALYSIS

Following steps were used in the analysis as per IS 1893(part 1-2002):
1. Idealization of plans and elevations.
2. Calculation of loads on structure.
3. Determination of design base shear.

76
4. Vertical distribution of base shear.
5. Determination of rigidity of shear walls.
6. Determination of direct shear forces and torsional shear forces in shear wall.
7. Determination of increase in axial load in piers due to overturning.
8. Check the stability of flexural walls for out-of plane forces.

4.1 Idealisation of Plans For Analysis

Since the structure is very complex, therefore all the plans are idealized on the
basis of area. The area of actual plan is equal to the area of idealized plan. All the
calculations are based on the idealized plan. The calculations for actual and
idealized area are shown in Excel Sheets.
4.1.1 Ground Floor




ORIGINAL PLAN





77



IDEALISED PLAN
4.1.2 First Floor



ORIGINAL PLAN




78



IDEALISED PLAN
4.1.3 Second Floor




ORIGINAL PLAN


79



IDEALISED PLAN
4.1.4 Terrace




ORIGINAL PLAN



80



IDEALISED PLAN

4.2 Determination of Lateral Loads

One of the most important loads on a structure is due to earthquake, which arises
from inertia (mass) of the structure. These earthquake loads are sudden, dynamic
and can be of immense intensity. The magnitude of lateral force mainly depends
upon the seismic zone, type of soil or ground condition and fundamental
characteristics. The design base shear shall first be computed as a whole, than be
distributed along the height of the buildings based on simple formulas appropriate
for building with regular distribution of mass and stiffness. The design lateral force
obtained at each floor level shall than be distributed to individual lateral load
resisting elements depending upon floor diaphragm action. Following are the major
steps for determining the lateral forces.

4.2.1 Horizontal Seismic Coefficient (Ah):

The value of horizontal seismic coefficient shall be determined by the following
expression:
Ah =

Z = Zone Factor

81
R = Response Reduction Factor
I = Importance Factor
Sa/g = Average response acceleration coefficient.

4.2.2 Fundamental Natural Period Of Vibration (T):

The approximate fundamental natural period of vibration (T), in seconds, may be
estimated by the empirical expression:
T =
.

Following values were used in the calculations:

FACTOR VALUE
Z 0.24
I 1.5
R 1.5
Sa/g 2.5
Ta 0.187
Ah 0.3


4.3 Design Seismic Base Shear (VB)

The design lateral force or design seismic base shear along principal direction shall
be determined by the following expression:

VB = Ah * W
W: seismic load

4.4 Vertical Distribution of Base Shear To Different Floor Levels

The design base shear shall be distributed along the height of the building as per
the following expression:
Qi = VB *

=


82
Where,
Qi = Design lateral force at floor ith,
Wi = Seismic weight of floor ith,
hi = Height of floor ith measured from base, and
n = number of storey in the building is the number of levels at which the masses
are located.


4.5 Determination of Rigidity of Shear Wall By Considering Openings

The building is analysed considering each segment as a cantilever.
c =

[4(

+(

)]
Rigidity of Cantilever segment:
Rc =

In our analysis the openings of gates and jails were idealised as thorough opening
and the rigidity was calculated of each of the segment rather than a wall. The

83
reason for such an assumption is presence of dissimilar separating segments and
irregular distribution of space. There is an absence of district straight wall.

4.6 Determination of Direct Shear Forces and Torsional Shear Forces

4.6.1 Direct Shear Force

The building is modelled as a two-degree-of-freedom shear-beam system. In the
present study, the idealized plans obtained were in the form of piers or segments.
The stiffness of all the segments in longitudinal (L-direction) and transverse (T-
direction) directions of the building has been computed separately. This has been
done based on the assumption that force in any of the direction (longitudinal or
transverse) is resisted by all the segments.
For any ith wall, the relative rigidity is given by:
Ri=

+.

=


Ri: Relative rigidity of i
th
segment
Rc: rigidity of i
th
segment

DIRECT SHEAR = RELATIVE RIGIDITY * LATERAL FORCE

4.6.2 Torsional Shear Force

When the centre of mass and centre of gravity do not coincide, torsional shear force
will be induced on the wall in addition to the direct shear force. The horizontal load
P, at the centre of mass, thus a torsional moment

, is induced that is equal to

, where

, is the distance between the lines of force (centre of mass) and the
centre of rigidity.

In symmetrical structure eccentricity is equal to zero, but a minimum eccentricity
amounting to 5% of the building dimension is assumed which is called accidental
eccentricity.




84
4.6.2.1. Centre of Mass


Fig. 1. Shows the procedure used to calculate centre of mass

Xm = WiXi/WT
Ym = WiYi/WT

Wi = weight of each segment
Xi = distance from origin up to axis of segment ..in x - direction
Yi = distance from origin up to axis of segment .........in y - direction
WT= weight of all segments + roof

4.6.2.1 Centre Of Rigidity


Xcr = RTi * Xi
Ycr = RLi * Yi
RTi = relative rigidity of segment for transverse force
RLi =relative rigidity of segment for longitudinal force
Xi = distance of axis of segment from origin in x - direction
Yi = distance of axis of segment from origin in y direction

4.6.2.2 Total Eccentricity

85


eX = Xe+ 5% accidental eccentricity
eY = Ye + 5% accidental eccentricity
Since Humayuns tomb is a symmetric structure, therefore the centre of mass and
the centre of rigidity are nearly same, therefore the static eccentricity is
approximately equal to zero, but torsional shear force will be calculated for the
accidental eccentricity.

4.6.2.3 Torsional Shear

MT = lateral force * eX
ML = lateral force * eY

MT = torsional moment due to transverse force
ML = torsional moment due to longitudinal force

Where,
Rx and Ry are the rigidity in x- and y-direction
Vx and Vy are the base shear in x- and y-direction
ex and ey are the design eccentricity in x- and y-direction
dx and dy are the distance of considered wall from centre of gravity
Tx and Ty are the torsional shear force in x- and y-direction

4.7 Determination of Increase In Axial Load In Piers Due To Overturning


86
In shear wall analysis, the principal forces are in-plane shear (direct + torsional),
in- plane moment (in plane shear *1/2 of the height of pier) and dead load and live
load carried by the pier. In addition to those forces sometimes, the lateral forces
from the wind or earthquake creates severe overturning moment is great enough, it
may overcome the dead weight of the structure and may cause tension at the ends
of the piers of shear walls. It may also induce high compression forces in the pier of
walls that may increase the axial load in addition to dead load and live load.
The axial load on pier due to overturning is given by the following expression:
Povt = Movt *

Where,
Ii = distance from the centre of gravity of net wall section in the storey to the
centroid of the pier.
Ai = Cross-sectional area of the pier.
In = Moment of inertia

TOTAL SHEAR = DIRECT SHEAR + TORSIONAL SHEAR
MOVT= Total shear at a given floor critical height(hcr) + lateral loads at roof level
storey height

hcr: is measured from the sill level of a pier

4.8 Check The Stability Of Flexural Wall For Out-Of-Plane Forces

In seismic design of masonry building, it is assumed that the total base shear
induced by an earthquake will be resisted by the in-plane shear wall and
transverse walls or flexural walls which will not resist any shear. However, the
flexural wall will be checked for out- of-plane forces with the vertical loads.
The unity equation for checking out-of plane bending is given as:

1
Where,
fa and fb are compressive stress due to applied axial load and bending respectively.
Fa and Fb are allowable axial and bending compressive stress respectively.
For unreinforced masonry, the allowable compressive stresses:
Fb =

For h/r > 99

87
Fa = 0.25 * fm * (

/
)
2

For h/r < 99
Fa = 0.25 * fm * [1-(
/

)
2
]
Where
h/r = slenderness ratio of the wall and
fm = design compressive strength of masonry = 2.5 N/mm
2
.

5. RESULT AND CONCLUSION

A real life problem is chosen to demonstrate how the seismic assessment of stone
masonry structure can be carried out. The design forces, determined by
considering direct and torsional forces due to lateral loads, axial loads and due to
overturning in addition to live load and dead load are computed with permissible
values and on the basis of the analysis and calculation results following conclusion
are made:

1. The unity equation is satisfied, therefore the overall structure is stable, and no
pier was found weak.
2. The stresses are within permissible limit.
3. The structure is safe both in shear and in bending.
4. From the visual inspection, the cracks occurred might be due to deep
penetration of roots, disintegration of materials due to water seeping in some of
the parts of the structure. The Wall-Floor Area ratio is high; this is also one
reason for the stability.

REFERENCES

1. IS: 1905-1980, Indian Standard Code of Practice fro Structural safety of
Buildings-Masonry Walls, Second Revision-1981, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
2. IS: 4326-1993, Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthquake Resistant
Buildings Design and Construction of Buildings, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
3. IS: 13828-1993, Indian Standard Code of Practice for Improving Earthquake
Resistance of Low Strength Masonry Buildings, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
4. IS: 13920-1993, Indian Standard Code of Practice for Ductile Detailing of
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Seismic Forces, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi



88
EARTHQUAKE ITS TERMINOLOGIES, OCCURRENCES
AND SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA: A REVIEW

K.Theunuo
1
and S.B.Dwivedi
2

1
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras
Hindu University
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras
Hindu University


ABSTRACT

An Earthquake occurs when there is a sudden or violent shifting of massive rocks
along the plate margins or fault plane due to the release of stored stress energy.
The worlds earthquakes are not randomly distributed, as 90% of the worlds
earthquakes take place along the plate boundaries as tectonic earthquakes. We can
also predict the general regions on the Earth's surface where we can expect large
earthquakes as each year about 140 earthquakes of magnitude 6 or greater occur
along the plate boundary areas which constitute 10 percent of the Earth's surface.
Indian subcontinent have been divided into five seismic zones on the basis of the
seismic activity as well as the major past earthquake in India.

1. INTRODUCTION

An Earthquake is defined as the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earths
crust that creates seismic waves. The seismic event can be natural or caused by
humans, while most earthquakes are caused by movement of the Earth's tectonic
plates and rupture of geological faults, human activities like storing large amounts
of water behind a dam, drilling and injecting liquid into wells, coal mining and oil
drilling
1
, mine blasts and nuclear tests can also produce earthquakes. Earthquakes
manifest themselves at the earth surface by shaking and sometimes displacement
of the ground, but when a large earthquake is located offshore the sea bed may be
displaced sufficiently which cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger
landslides and occasionally volcanic activity.

89
Tectonic earthquakes occur along the plate boundaries where there is sufficient
amount of stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault
plane. Transform or convergent type plate boundaries, form the largest fault
surfaces on earth. As most of the boundaries have asperities (irregular surfaces), it
form a stick-slip behaviour. Thus once the boundary is locked, continuous relative
motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and strain energy is stored in
the volume around the fault surface. After a certain period of time the stress
increases sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing the plates to
slide over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy as a
combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault
surface, and cracking of the rock, causing an earthquake. This process of gradual
build-up of strain and stress, punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure
is referred to as elastic rebound theory. Energy release associated with rapid
movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes. It is estimated that
only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic
energy.

Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 70 km are classified as 'shallow-
focus' earthquakes, while those with a focal-depth between 70 and 300 km as 'mid-
focus' or 'intermediate-depth' earthquakes. In subduction zones, where older and
colder oceanic crust descends beneath another tectonic plate deep focus
earthquake may occur at much greater depths (ranging from 300 up to
700 kilometres)
2
. An earthquake that occurs after the main shock is called an
aftershock; it is in the same region as the main shock but always of a smaller
magnitude. If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, it is re-designated as the
main shock and the original main shock is re-designated as a foreshock.
Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the displaced fault plane adjusts to the
effects of the main shock.

An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus and the point at ground
level directly above is called the epicentre. The seismicity or seismic activity of an
area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period
of time. Earthquakes are measured with seismograph.




90
2. SEISMIC WAVES

Earthquakes produce three main types of seismic waves, which travel through the
rocks with different velocities: Longitudinal P-waves (shock- or pressure waves),
Transverse S-waves (both body waves) and surface waves (Rayleigh and Love
waves). Propagation velocity of the seismic waves ranges from approximately
3 km/s up to 13 km/s, depending on the density and elasticity of the medium. In
the Earth's interior the shock/P waves travel much faster than the S waves
(approx. relation 1.7: 1). The differences in travel time from the epicenter to the
observatory are a measure of the distance and can be used to image both sources
of quakes and structures within the Earth. Also the depth of the hypocenter/focus
can be computed roughly.
In solid rock P-waves travel at about 6 to 7 km per second but the velocity
increases within the deep mantle to ~13 km/s. The velocity of S-waves ranges from
23 km/s in light sediments and 45 km/s in the Earth's crust and up to 7 km/s
in the deep mantle.

3. FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE

There are about 500,000 earthquakes each year, and about 100,000 of these can
actually be felt (United States Geological Survey, USGS). Minor earthquakes occur
nearly constantly around the world compared to major which occur less frequently,
but earthquakes can occur almost anywhere. More earthquakes are reported
compared to the past, but this is because of the vast improvement in
instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes. The
United States Geological Survey estimates that, since 1900, there have been an
average of 18 major earthquakes of magnitude (7.0-7.9) with one great earthquake
(magnitude 8.0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been relatively stable
4
. In recent years, the number of major earthquakes per year has decreased,
though this is probably a statistical fluctuation rather than a systematic trend
5
.

4. CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

Earthquakes occur mainly along three kinds of plate boundary: ocean ridges where
the plates are pulled apart, margins where the plates scrape past one another and

91
margins where one plate is thrust under the other, thus because of friction and the
rigidity of the rock, it cannot simply glide or flow past each other. Rather, stress
builds up in rocks and when it reaches a level that exceeds the strain threshold,
the accumulated potential energy is dissipated by the release of strain, which is
focused into a plane along which relative motion is accommodated as the fault.
There are three main types of fault that may cause an earthquake: normal, reverse
(thrust) and strike-slip (fig.1). Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust
is being extended such as a divergent boundary. Reverse faults occur in areas
where the crust is being shortened such as at a convergent boundary. Strike-slip
faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past
each other and transform boundaries are a particular type of strike-slip fault. Many
earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that have components of both dip-
slip and strike-slip; this is known as oblique slip. Internal stress fields develop
within the plate which is caused by their interactions with neighboring plates and
sedimentary loading or unloading. These stresses may be sufficient to cause failure
along existing fault planes, giving rise to Intra-plate earthquakes.


Fig1: Schematic diagram of Normal, Reverse and Transform or Strike slip fault
A tectonic earthquake begins by an initial rupture at a point on the fault surface,
once the rupture has initiated it begins to propagate along the fault surface this
process is known as nucleation. The possibility that the nucleation involves some
sort of preparation process is supported by the observation that about 40% of
earthquakes are preceded by foreshocks.

5. PLATE TECTONICS AND PACIFIC RING OF FIRE

The theory of plate tectonics combines many of the ideas about continental drift
(Alfred Wegener 1912 ) and sea-floor spreading (Harry Hess of Princeton

92
University), where they interact along their margins. The world's earthquakes are
not randomly distributed over the Earths surface; most of them are confined to
narrow belts which define the boundaries of the plates, also important geological
processes such as the formation of mountain belts and volcanoes takes place along
these plate boundaries. At present seven major crustal plates have been identified
and subdivided into a number of smaller plates having patterns that are neither
symmetrical nor simple, they are about 80 kilometres thick and in constant motion
relative to one another, at rates varying from 10 to 130 millimetres per year. With
more information about the major plates, we find that many complicated and
intricate manoeuvres are taking place.



Fig 2: Global earthquake epicentres, 1963-1998
As lithosphere covers the whole Earth, ocean plates are also involved particularly in
the process of sea-floor spreading, the ocean floor is continuously pulled apart
along the mid-ocean ridges with hot volcanic material rising from the Earth's
mantle to fill the gap and continuously forming new oceanic crust, consequently
the mid-ocean ridges themselves are broken by offsets known as transform faults.

Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the
40,000 km long, horseshoe-shaped zone called the Circum-Pacific seismic belt,
known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate
6,7
Massive earthquakes also tend to occur along other plate boundaries, too, such
as the Himalayan Mountains
8
. The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at
the ring of fire in depths not exceeding tens of kilometres.




93


(a)

(b)
Fig 3: (a) Circum-Pacific seismic belt (b) Direction of different plate movement


Plate tectonics confirms that there are four types of seismic zones. The first follows
the line of mid-ocean ridges where seismic activity is low, and occurs at very
shallow depths. The lithosphere is very thin and weak at these boundaries, as a
result the strain cannot build up enough energy to cause large earthquakes, and
therefore volcanic activity takes place along the axis of the ridges.

The second type is the shallow-focus event unaccompanied by volcanic activity
where two mature plates are scraped by one another. The friction between the
plates can be so great that very large strains can build up before they are
periodically relieved by large earthquakes.

The third type is related to the collision of oceanic and continental plates where one
plate is thrust or subducted under the other plate so that a deep ocean trench is
produced, this type of earthquake can be shallow, intermediate, or deep, according
to its location on the subducted lithospheric slab.

The fourth type of seismic zone occurs along the boundaries of continental plates.
Within this zone, shallow earthquakes are associated with high mountain ranges
where intense compression takes place. Intermediate and deep-focus earthquakes
also occur and are known in the Himalayas and in the Caucasus.



94
6. EARTHQUAKE HAZARD ZONING OF INDIA

The Indian subcontinent has a history of many devastating earthquakes; the
Himalayan frontal arc is one of the most seismically active regions of the world, the
peninsular shield of India has also generated some remarkable earthquakes, the
Latur earthquake in the heart of the Indian shield is considered as a typical Stable
Continental Regions (SCR) earthquake, besides this the largest earthquake induced
by an artificial reservoir also occurred at Koyna, Maharashtra. The 1819 Runn of
Kutch earthquake (M ~ 8.0) is one of the largest Intra-plate events that produced a
surface scarp about 100 km long.

The major reason for the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that
India is driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year
9
sustaining the
elevation of the Tibetan Plateau, deforming the Himalaya, Altyn Tagh and Tien
Shan mountains, and causing a steady but unpredictable, sequence of earthquakes
in Asia and parts of India. The Himalayan mountain range is the dramatic outcome
of the collision of Indian and Eurasian plates, some 40 million years ago, this zone
has been marked by intense seismic activity, with four great earthquakes (1897
Assam,1905 Kangra; 1934 Bihar-Nepal and 1950 Assam) which occurred in a short
span of 53 years. The frequent moderate earthquakes and the infrequent great
earthquakes suggest that episodic slippage is continuing in this region. These
ongoing processes also imply that future great earthquakes can be expected in the
unruptured parts of the Himalayan front. Major uncertainties remain regarding the
recurrence interval of great earthquakes.

Geographical statistics of India show that almost 54% of the land is vulnerable to
earthquakes. One possible reason for seismicity in India is that deformation does
not occur as net contraction, but as flexural strain associated with the Himalayan
collision. In its northward progress, India streams through a flexural bulge that
locally stresses the plate.

95


Fig 4: Different Seismic zones in India

The seismic zonation map of a country is a guide to the seismic status of a region
and its susceptibility to earthquakes. India has been divided into five zones with
respect to severity of earthquakes. Of these, Zone V is seismically the most active
where earthquakes of magnitude 8 or more could occur. Recent strong motion

96
observations around the world have revolutionized thinking on the design of
engineering structures, placing emphasis also on the characteristics of
the structures themselves. In the case of shield type earthquakes, historic data are
insufficient to define zones because recurrence intervals are much longer than the
recorded human history, this may often give a false sense of security. According to
the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level of seismicity whereas
Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity. Each zone indicates the
effects of an earthquake at a particular place based on the observations of the
affected areas and can also be described using a descriptive scale like Modified
Mercalli intensity scale or the Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale (MSK).

Zone 5
Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers earthquakes of
intensity MSK IX or greater. It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone.
The state of Kashmir, Punjab, western and central Himalayas, the North-East
Indian region and the Rann of Kutch fall in this zone. Generally, the areas having
trap or basaltic rock are prone to earthquakes.

Zone 4
This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable to MSK VIII,
the Indo-Gangetic basin, Delhi, Jammu and Bihar fall in Zone 4. In Maharashtra
Patan area (Koyananager) also in zone 4.

Zone 3
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of Kashmir and Western Himalayas fall
under this zone. This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is
liable to MSK VII.

Zone 2
This region is liable to MSK VI or less and is classified as the Low Damage Risk
Zone.
9,10,11,12






97
Table.1: Past Major Earthquakes in India
Time

Place Comments Magnitu
de
Andaman Islands
earthquake August
11, 2009, at 01:25
am local time
(August 10,
19:55)UTC
Andaman Islands
of India. The
epicentre was 260
km north of Port
Blair
The strongest
earthquake in the region
since the2004
earthquake.
7.5
Gujarat
earthquake
On 6 April 2006,
reported at
11:29:16 p.m. IST
Gujarat, Kutch
and Saurashtra
.The location of the
earthquake was
measured at
23.281N,
70.422E at the
depth of 10KM.
5.5
Kashmir
earthquake
October 8, 2005 at
03:50:38 UTC,
08:50:38 Local
Time
Kashmir Pakistan
& India
The location of
earthquake was at
lat 34.43N long.
73.54E
Casualties greater than
80,000.
7.6
Indian ocean
earthquake
December 26,
2004 at 00:58:53
UTC, 07:58:53
Local Time.

West coast of
northern Sumatra,
India, Sri lanka,
Maldives location
of earthquake lat
3.30N , long.
95.87E
Third largest earthquake
ever recorded. Fatalities
around 283,106.
9.0 to
9.3
Gujarat
earthquake
January 26 ,2001
08:50:00 Local
Time
Kutchh Epicentre -
Lat. 23.6N, long.
69.8E.
fatalities around 20000
were recorded
7.6/7.7

98
Jabalpur
earthquake May
22, 1997
Jabalpur district
in Madhya Pradesh

The epicentre of
the earthquake
was located at
2311N
8001E23.18N80.
02E near
Koshamghat
village
Caused due to the
presence of Narmada
Fault.

A total of 887 villages
were affected,
approximately 8546
houses collapsed and
nearly 52,690 houses
were partially damaged.
The death toll was 39
and 350 were injured.
6.0
Latur earthquake
September 29,
1993
03:50:38 UTC,
22:25 Local Time
Affected areas
Latur-Killari, Lat
18.08N long.
76.52E


Fatalities around 9,748
were recorded..
6.2
Uttarkashi
earthquake
October 20, 1991.
Uttarkashi region
Indian state of
Uttarakhand
Lat. 30.73N &
long. 78.45E
Killed many people and
damaged completely or
partially about 48,000
houses it occurred
because of a slippage
along the Main Central
Thrust (MCT), a major
tectonic boundary,
which also divides lesser
Himalayan terrain in the
south from the snow
clad mountains in the
north
6.6.
Bihar earthquake
August 21, 1988
North Bihar and
Nepal.
killing about 1004
persons (282 in India
and 722 in Nepal) and
injuring more than
16,000.The earthquake
6.6

99
struck in two
installments of 10
seconds and 15 seconds
each and left cracks in
50,000 buildings,.
Kinnaur
earthquake
19 January
1975.
[2][3]

Its epicentre was
in Kinnaur district
in the south-
eastern part of
Himachal Pradesh.
Landslides, rock falls
and avalanches caused
major damage to the
Hindustan-Tibet road.
[2]

The Spiti and Parachu
valleys in particular
suffered the greatest
damage being on the
north-south Kaurik-
Chango fault.
6.8
Assam earthquake
August 15, 1950
Tibetan plateau
(Arunachal
Pradesh - china
border),
Lat. 28.5N, long.
96.7E.
It was the Largest
earthquake recorded in
mainland India since
Independence.
8.5
Bihar earthquake
2:13 PM (I.S.T.)
January 15, 1934
Bihar
Lat 25N, long.
85E.

Largest ever earthquake
recorded in mainland
India.

8.7
Assam earthquake
June 12, 1897
Shillong Plateau
Lat. 26N long.
91E.
Largest ever earthquake
recorded in mainland
India.
8.7.

Nicobar Island
earthquake
07:49 local time
December 31,
1881
At Andaman and
Nicobar Island
Lat. 8.52, long.
92.43
Earliest earthquake for
which rupture
parameters have been
estimated instrumentally
(from tide gauges).
7.9





100
7. EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

7.1 Shaking and ground rupture

Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes,
principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid
structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of
the earthquake magnitude, distance from the epicenter, and the local geological
and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation
13
.
Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along
the trace of the fault, it is a major risk for large engineering structures such as
dams, bridges and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of existing
fault
14
.

7.2 Landslides and Avalanches

Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, wildfires and coastal wave
attacks can produce slope instability leading to landslides, which is a major
geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel are
attempting rescue
15

7.3 Fire

Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. In the event
of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to
stop the spread of a fire once it has started. Example: Fires of the 1906 San
Francisco earthquake.

7.4 Tsunami

Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or
abrupt movement of large volumes of water. In the open ocean the distance
between wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers (62 miles), and the wave periods
can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600-800 kilometers
per hour (373497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves
produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal

101
areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers
across Open Ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the
earthquake that generated them
16
most destructive tsunamis are caused by
earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.

7.5 Floods

Floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged.
Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods
17

7.6 Human Impact

An earthquake may cause injury and loss of life, road and bridge damage, general
property damage and collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future
collapse) of buildings. The aftermath may bring disease, lack of basic necessities,
higher insurance premiums; Earthquakes can also cause volcanic eruptions,
bringing further problems.
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are thankful to the Head, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of
Technology, Banaras Hindu University for providing the infrastructure for the
research.
REFERENCES

1. Madrigal, Alexis (4 June 2008) Top five ways to cause Man-Made
Earthquakes. Wired news (Conde Net).
http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/06/top-5-ways-that.html.
Retrieved 2008-06-05
2. National Earthquake Information Center, 17october2005.
ftp://hazards.cr.usgs.gov/maps/sigeqs/20050926/20050926
3. Scientific American, 1976, Continents adrift and continents aground -
Reading from Scientific American: San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 2
30 p.
4. Common Myths about Earthquakes United States Geological Survey.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/faq.php?categoryID=6&faqID=110
5. The 10 biggest earthquakes in history, Australian Geographic, March 14,
2011

102
6. Historic Earthquakes and Earthquakes Statistics: Where do Earthquakes
occur? United States Geological Survey. .
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/faq.php?categoryID=11&faqID=95
7. Visual Glossary Ring of Fire United States Geological Survey.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/glossary.php?termID=150.
8. Jackson, JamesFatal attraction: living with earthquakes, the growth of village
into megacities, and earthquake vulnerability in the modern world
philosophical Transaction of the royal society. doi: 10.1098/rsta.2006.1805
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 15 August 2006 vol. 364 no. 1845 1911-1925
9. Earthquake Hazards and the collision between India and Asia. Colorado
Sc.Edu Science reviews NOAA 2002 abstract 18
10. Vulnerability Zones in India.
http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/SKAR-
64GBJW?OpenDocument
11. Lessons learned from the Gujarat earthquake WHO Regional Office for
South East Asia. http://w3.whosea.org/gujarat/finalreport3.html.
12. Rebecca Bendick, Roger Bilham, Frederick Blume, Grant Kier, Peter Molnar,
Anne Sheehan and Kali Wallace NOAA SCIENCE REVIEW 2002
13. On Shaky Ground Association of Bay Area Goverment, San Francisco, Report
1995, 1998 (updated 2003).
http://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/eqmaps/doc/contents.html
14. Guidelines for evaluating the hazards of surface fault rupture, California
Geological Survey
15. Natural Hazards Landslides. United States of Geological Survey.
http://www.usgs.gov/hazards/landslides/
16. Noson, Qamar, and Thorsen (1988). Washington Division of Geology and
Earth Resources Information Circular 85. Washington State Earthquake
Hazards.
17. Notes on Historical Earthquakes. British Geological Survey.
http://www.quakes.bgs.ac.uk/earthquakes/historical/historical_listing.htm










103
AN OVERVIEW OF SOFT COMPUTING TOOL ANN:
INTERDISCIPLINARY ENGINEERING PERSPECTIVE
Mousumi Dhara
1
, K. K. Shukla
2

1
Research Scholar,
2
Professor
Department of Computer Engineering,
Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005

ABSTRACT
Soft computing is an emerging field that consists of complementary elements of
fuzzy logic, neural computing, evolutionary computation, machine learning and
probabilistic reasoning. Due to their strong learning, cognitive ability and good
tolerance of uncertainty and imprecision, soft computing techniques have found
wide application. Soft computing differs from conventional computing in that,
unlike hard computing, it is tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth, and
approximation. In effect, the role model for soft computing is the human mind. A
neural network is a powerful data modelling tool that is able to capture and
represent complex input/output relationships. The motivation for the development
of neural network technology stemmed from the desire to develop an artificial
system that could perform "intelligent" tasks similar to those performed by the
human brain. ANN ensemble techniques have become very popular amongst neural
network practitioners in a variety of ANN application domains. Neural network is a
learning paradigm where a collection of finite number of neural networks is trained
for the same task.
Keywords: ANN, soft computing, learning paradigm
1. INTRODUCTION

Soft computing are neural computing, fuzzy logic, evolutionary computation,
machine learning, probabilistic reasoning, chaos theory and parts of learning
theory. It deals with imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth, and approximation to
achieve tractability, robustness and low solution cost. Conventional model-based
data processing methods are computationally expensive and require experts

104
knowledge for the modelling of a system; neural networks provide a model-free,
adaptive, parallel-processing solution. Neural Networks in a Soft computing
Framework presents a thorough review of the most popular neural-network
methods and their associated techniques. Various applications of soft computing
techniques are in economics, mechanics, medicine, automatics and image
processing and forecasting natural disaster like flood, earthquake. Now a day ANN
is used in different field of engineering to predict the future state of the system and
system parameters. Recently it has becomes a very hot topic in both neural
networks and machine learning communities, and has already been applied to
diversified areas such as face recognition, optical character recognition, etc.
Karunanithi et al. (1994) used the cascade-correlation algorithm for river flow
prediction and found that ANNs had the adaptive capability to match changes in
flow history. Hsu et al. (1995) found that multilayer feed-forward networks is best
suited for input-output function approximation. Liong et al. (2000) were able to
achieve a high degree of accuracy with ANNs for river stage forecasting. They also
found that reduction of insignificant input variables did not affect prediction
accuracy, and thus ANNs could be used to avoid unnecessary data collection.
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is currently a 'hot' research area in medicine and it
is believed that they will receive extensive application to biomedical systems in the
next few years. At the moment, the research is mostly on modelling parts of the
human body and recognizing diseases from various scans (e.g. cardiograms, CAT
scans, ultrasonic scans, etc.).

Neural network system helps where we can't formulate an algorithmic solution,
where we can get lots of examples of the behaviour we require and where we need
to pick out the structure from existing data. An artificial neural network (ANN),
usually called neural network(NN), is a mathematical model or computational
model that is inspired by the structure and/or functional aspects of biological
neural networks. A neural network consists of an interconnected group of artificial
neurons, and it processes information using a connectionist approach to
computation. In most cases an ANN is an adaptive system that changes its
structure based on external or internal information that flows through the network
during the learning phase. Modern neural networks are non-linearstatisticaldata
modelling tools. They are usually used to model complex relationships between
inputs and outputs or to find patterns in data. Neural Networks are a different

105
paradigm for computing: Von Neumann machines are based on the
processing/memory abstraction of human information processing. Neural networks
are based on the parallel architecture of animal brains. Neural networks are a form
of multiprocessor computer system, with simple processing elements, a high degree
of interconnection, simple scalar messages and adaptive interaction between
elements. Real brains, however, are orders of magnitude more complex than any
artificial neural network so far considered.
In this paper, soft computing technique is discussed with special emphasized on
artificial neural network ANN and its applications in different engineering field.
ANN is used to process control where processes cannot be determined as
computable algorithms.
2. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK

An artificial neural network is a system based on the operation of biological neural
networks, in other words, is an emulation of biological neural system. Why would
be necessary the implementation of artificial neural networks? Although computing
these days is truly advanced, there are certain tasks that a program made for a
common microprocessor is unable to perform; even so a software implementation of
a neural network can be made with their advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of ANN are: A neural network can perform tasks that a linear program
cannot. When an element of the neural network fails, it can continue without any
problem by their parallel nature. A neural network learns and does not need to be
reprogrammed. It can be implemented in any application. It can be implemented
without any problem.
Disadvantages of ANN are: The neural network needs training to operate. The
architecture of a neural network is different from the architecture of
microprocessors therefore needs to be emulated. Requires high processing time for
large neural networks
Another aspect of the artificial neural networks is that there are different
architectures, which consequently requires different types of algorithms, but
despite to be an apparently complex system, a neural network is relatively simple.
In the world of engineering, neural networks have two main functions: Pattern
classifiers and as non linear adaptive filters. As its biological predecessor, an

106
artificial neural network is an adaptive system. By adaptive, it means that each
parameter is changed during its operation and it is deployed for solving the
problem in matter. This is called the training phase.
An artificial neural network is developed with a systematic step-by-step procedure
which optimizes a criterion commonly known as the learning rule. The
input/output training data is fundamental for these networks as it conveys the
information which is necessary to discover the optimal operating point. In addition,
a non linear nature makes neural network processing elements a very flexible
system.
Basically, an artificial neural network is a system. A system is a structure that
receives an input, process the data, and provides an output. Commonly, the input
consists in a data array which can be anything such as data from an image file, a
WAVE sound or any kind of data that can be represented in an array. Once an
input is presented to the neural network, and a corresponding desired or target
response is set at the output, an error is composed from the difference of the
desired response and the real system output.
The error information is fed back to the system which makes all adjustments to
their parameters in a systematic fashion (commonly known as the learning rule).
This process is repeated until the desired output is acceptable. It is important to
notice that the performance hinges heavily on the data. Hence, this is why this data
should pre-process with third party algorithms such as DSP algorithms.
In neural network design, the engineer or designer chooses the network topology,
the trigger function or performance function, learning rule and the criteria for
stopping the training phase. So, it is pretty difficult determining the size and
parameters of the network as there is no rule or formula to do it. The best we can
do for having success with our design is playing with it. The problem with this
method is when the system does not work properly it is hard to refine the solution.
Despite this issue, neural networks based solution is very efficient in terms of
development, time and resources. Nowadays, neural network technologies are
emerging as the technology choice for many applications, such as patter
recognition, prediction, system identification and control.

107
3. THE BIOLOGICAL MODEL
Artificial neural networks born after McCulloc and Pitts introduced a set of
simplified neurons in 1943. These neurons were represented as models of biological
networks into conceptual components for circuits that could perform
computational tasks. The basic model of the artificial neuron is founded upon the
functionality of the biological neuron. By definition, Neurons are basic signaling
units of the nervous system of a living being in which each neuron is a discrete cell
whose several processes are from its cell body

Fig. 1 Neurons
The biological neuron has four main regions to its structure. The cell body, or
soma, has two offshoots from it. The dendrites and the axon end in pre-synaptic
terminals. The cell body is the heart of the cell. It contains the nucleolus and
maintains protein synthesis. A neuron has many dendrites, which look like a tree
structure, receives signals from other neurons.
A single neuron usually has one axon, which expands off from a part of the cell
body. The axon main purpose is to conduct electrical signals generated at the axon
hillock down its length. These signals are called action potentials. The other end of
the axon may split into several branches, which end in a pre-synaptic terminal. The
electrical signals (action potential) that the neurons use to convey the information
of the brain are all identical. The brain can determine which type of information is
being received based on the path of the signal.
The brain analyzes all patterns of signals sent, and from that information it
interprets the type of information received. The myelin is a fatty issue that

108
insulates the axon. The non-insulated parts of the axon area are called Nodes. At
these nodes, the signal traveling down the axon is regenerated. This ensures that
the signal travel down the axon to be fast and constant.
The synapse is the area of contact between two neurons. They do not physically
touch because they are separated by a cleft. The electric signals are sent through
chemical interaction. The neuron sending the signal is called pre-synaptic cell and
the neuron receiving the electrical signal is called postsynaptic cell. The electrical
signals are generated by the membrane potential which is based on differences in
concentration of sodium and potassium ions and outside the cell membrane.
Biological neurons can be classified by their function or by the quantity of
processes they carry out. When they are classified by processes, they fall into three
categories: Unipolar neurons, bipolar neurons and multi-polar neurons. Unipolar
neurons have a single process. Their dendrites and axon are located on the same
stem. These neurons are found in invertebrates. Bipolar neurons have two
processes. Their dendrites and axon have two separated processes too.
When biological neurons are classified by function they fall into three categories.
The first group is sensory neurons. These neurons provide all information for
perception and motor coordination. The second group provides information to
muscles, and glands. There are called motor neurons. The last group, the inter-
neuronal, contains all other neurons and has two subclasses. One group called
relay or protection inter-neurons. They are usually found in the brain and connect
different parts of it. The other group called local inter-neurons are only used in
local circuits.
4. THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Once modeling an artificial functional model from the biological neuron, we must
take into account three basic components. First off, the synapses of the biological
neuron are modeled as weights. The synapse of the biological neuron is the one
which interconnects the neural network and gives the strength of the connection.
For an artificial neuron, the weight is a number, and represents the synapse. A
negative weight reflects an inhibitory connection, while positive values designate
excitatory connections. The following components of the model represent the actual
activity of the neuron cell. All inputs are summed altogether and modified by the

109
weights. This activity is referred as a linear combination. Finally, an activation
function controls the amplitude of the output. For example, an acceptable range of
output is usually between 0 and 1, or it could be -1 and 1. Mathematically, this
process is described in the figure 2.

Fig. 2 Mathematical Model
From this model the interval activity of the neuron can be shown to be:

The output of the neuron, yk, would therefore be the outcome of some activation
function on the value of vk.
5. ACTIVATION FUNCTIONS
The activation function acts as a squashing function, such that the output of a
neuron in a neural network is between certain values (usually 0 and 1, or -1 and
1). In general, there are three types of activation functions, denoted by (.). First,
there is the Threshold Function which takes on a value of 0 if the summed input is
less than a certain threshold value (v), and the value 1 if the summed input is
greater than or equal to the threshold value.



110
Secondly, there is the Piecewise-Linear function. This function again can take on
the values of 0 or 1, but can also take on values between that depending on the
amplification factor in a certain region of linear operation.



Thirdly, there is the sigmoid function. This function can range between 0 and 1,
but it is also sometimes useful to use the -1 to 1 range. An example of the sigmoid
function is the hyperbolic tangent function.



The artificial neural networks which describe here are all variations on the parallel
distributed processing (PDP) idea. The architecture of each neural network is based
on very similar building blocks which perform the processing. An artificial neural
network consists of a pool of simple processing units which communicate by
sending signals to each other over a large number of weighted connections.
6. PROCESSING UNITS
Each unit performs a relatively simple job: receive input from neighbors or external
sources and use this to compute an output signal which is propagated to other
units. Apart from this processing, a second task is the adjustment of the weights.
The system is inherently parallel in the sense that many units can carry out their
computations at the same time. Within neural systems it is useful to distinguish
three types of units: input units (indicated by an index (i) which receive data from
outside the neural network, output units indicated by an index (o) which send data
out of the neural network, and hidden units indicated by an index (h) whose input
and output signals remain within the neural network. During operation, units can
be updated either synchronously or asynchronously. With synchronous updating,

111
all units update their activation simultaneously; with asynchronous updating, each
unit has a (usually fixed) probability of updating its activation at a time t, and
usually only one unit will be able to do this at a time. In some cases the latter
model has some advantages.
7. NEURAL NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
This focuses on the pattern of connections between the units and the propagation
of data. Feed-forward neural networks, where the data from input to output units
is strictly feed forward. The data processing can extend over multiple (layers of)
units, but no feedback connections are present, that is, connections extending from
outputs of units to inputs of units in the same layer or previous layers.
7.1 Training of Artificial Neural Networks
A neural network is a powerful data modeling tool that is able to capture and
represent complex input/output relationships. The motivation for the development
of neural network technology stemmed from the desire to develop an artificial
system that could perform "intelligent" tasks similar to those performed by the
human brain. A neural network has to be configured such that the application of a
set of inputs produces (either 'direct' or via a relaxation process) the desired set of
outputs. Various methods to set the strengths of the connections exist. One way is
to set the weights explicitly, using a priori knowledge. Another way is to 'train' the
neural network by feeding it teaching patterns and letting it change its weights
according to some learning rule.
Supervised learning or Associative learning in which the network is trained by
providing it with input and matching output patterns. These input-output pairs
can be provided by an external teacher, or by the system which contains the neural
network (self-supervised).
Unsupervised learning or Self-organization in which an (output) unit is trained to
respond to clusters of pattern within the input. In this paradigm the system is
supposed to discover statistically salient features of the input population. Unlike
the supervised learning paradigm, there is no a priori set of categories into which
the patterns are to be classified; rather the system must develop its own
representation of the input stimuli.

112

Reinforcement Learning in which learning may be considered as an intermediate
form of the above two types of learning. Here the learning machine does some
action on the environment and gets a feedback response from the environment. The
learning system grades its action good (rewarding) or bad (punishable) based on the
environmental response and accordingly adjusts its parameters. Generally,
parameter adjustment is continued until an equilibrium state occurs, following
which there will be no more changes in its parameters.

Fig. 3 Training of artificial neural network
Neural networks resemble the human brain in the following two ways:
1. A neural network acquires knowledge through learning.
2. A neural network's knowledge is stored within inter-neuron connection
strengths known as synaptic weights.
The true power and advantage of neural networks lies in their ability to represent
both linear and non-linear relationships and in their ability to learn these
relationships directly from the data being modelled. Traditional linear models are
simply inadequate when it comes to modelling data that contains non-linear
characteristics.
The most common neural network model is the multilayer perceptron (MLP). This
type of neural network is known as a supervised network because it requires a
desired output in order to learn. The goal of this type of network is to create a
model that correctly maps the input to the output using historical data so that the

113
model can then be used to produce the output when the desired output is
unknown. A graphical representation of an MLP is shown below.


Fig. 4 Block diagram of a two hidden layer multiplayer perceptron (MLP).
The inputs are fed into the input layer and get multiplied by interconnection
weights as they are passed from the input layer to the first hidden layer. Within the
first hidden layer, they get summed then processed by a nonlinear function
(usually the hyperbolic tangent).
As the processed data leaves the first hidden layer, again it gets multiplied by
interconnection weights, then summed and processed by the second hidden layer.
Finally the data is multiplied by interconnection weights then processed one last
time within the output layer to produce the neural network output.
The MLP and many other neural networks learn using an algorithm called back
propagation. With back propagation, the input data is repeatedly presented to the
neural network. With each presentation the output of the neural network is
compared to the desired output and an error is computed.
This error is then fed back (back propagated) to the neural network and used to
adjust the weights such that the error decreases with each iteration and the neural
model gets closer and closer to producing the desired output. This process is
known as "training".


114


Fig. 5 Demonstration of neural network learning to model the exclusive-or (Xor)
data

The Xor data is repeatedly presented to the neural network. With each
presentation, the error between the network output and the desired output is
computed and fed back to the neural network. The neural network uses this error
to adjust its weights such that the error will be decreased. This sequence of events
is usually repeated until an acceptable error has been reached or until the network
no longer appears to be learning.
7.2 Few Applications of Neural Networks

1. Process Modelling and Control - Creating a neural network model for a
physical plant then using that model to determine the best control settings for the
plant.
2. Machine Diagnostics - Detect when a machine has failed so that the system can
automatically shut down the machine when this occurs.
3. Portfolio Management - Allocate the assets in a portfolio in a way that maximizes
return and minimizes risk.
4. Target Recognition - Military application which uses video and/or infrared image
data to determine if an enemy target is present.
5. Medical Diagnosis - Assisting doctors with their diagnosis by analyzing the
reported symptoms and/or image data such as MRIs or X-rays.
6. Credit Rating - Automatically assigning a company's or individuals credit rating
based on their financial condition.

115
7. Targeted Marketing - Finding the set of demographics which have the highest
response rate for a particular marketing campaign.
8. Voice Recognition - Transcribing spoken words into ASCII text.
9. Financial Forecasting - Using the historical data of a security to predict the
future movement of that security.
10. Quality Control - Attaching a camera or sensor to the end of a production
process to automatically inspect for defects.
11. Intelligent Searching - An internet search engine that provides the most
relevant content and banner ads based on the users' past behavior.

8. CONCLUSION

The computing world has a lot to gain from neural networks. Artificial neural
networks are among the newest signal processing technologies nowadays. The field
of work is very interdisciplinary; here it will be restricted to an engineering
perspective. Their ability to learn by example makes them very flexible and
powerful. Furthermore there is no need to devise an algorithm in order to perform a
specific task; i.e. there is no need to understand the internal mechanisms of that
task. They are also very well suited for real time systems because of their fast
response and computational times which are due to their parallel architecture.
Neural networks have a huge potential, best of them when they are integrated with
computing, AI, fuzzy logic and related subjects.
REFERENCES
[1] Bezdek J. C. (1981) Pattern recognition with fuzzy objective function algorithms;
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[2] Chandramouli V, Raman H. (2001) Multi reservoir modelling with dynamic
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117
GREEN BUILDINGS
N. Venkateswarlu
1
1
VISVODAYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE,
Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Anantapur, KAVALI, ANDHRA
PRADESH.
E-mail: venkateshdmp@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
With the rapid advancement in the technology, the building industry is growing at
an enormous pace. This has resulted in an adverse impact, being made on the
environment. The pollution, resulting from the construction activities, is disturbing
the natural ecosystems and the damage caused by it, is irreparable. One area of
concern is the energy consumption and release of CO2. Green building technology
is expected to provide solutions to the problems faced by the world. Engineers,
architects and builders must ensure that the development is sustainable and for
the betterment of the society. An attempt has been made, I this paper, to outline
the various concepts and outcomes of using green buildings.

1. INTRODUCTION

It is found that the building industry will consume 40% of the total global energy
and release about 3800 megatons of CO2 into atmosphere. With this pollution the
environment is alarming. To bring them under control the concept of green
architecture came into spotlight.

2. RANGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

According to a world watch paper entitled A BUILDING REVOLUTION, the
building industry is responsible for:
1. 40% of worlds total energy is being consumed.
2. 30% of consumption of raw materials.

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3. 25% of timber harvest is going down.
4. 35% of worlds CO2 emission is because of building industry.
5. 16% of fresh water with drawled
6. 40% of municipal solid waste is taken place.
7. 50% of ozone depleting CFCS still in use
8. 55% of timber cut for non-fuel uses.
9. 30% of the residents having building sick building syndrome.

3. WHY TO GO TO GREEN ARCHITECTURE

The situation is alarming and leads to disturbances to natural ecosystems,
irreparable damage to the top soil and vegetation emission of green house gases
and particulate matter and pollution of air, land and water. The industry is thus
becoming non-sustainable. The neglect of natural elements in the planning and
design causes sick building syndrome. It is therefore necessary to increase the
efficiency and use discretion in all processes related to the green architecture.

4. WHAT IS A GREEN BUILDING

A Green building is one which incorporates several Green features, such as:
1. Effective use of existing landscapes
2. Use of energy efficient and Eco-friendly equipment
3. Use of recycled and Environmental friendly Building materials
4. Quality indoor air quality for human safety and comfort
5. Efficient use of water
6. Use of Non-Toxic & recycled materials
7. Use of renewable energy
8. Effective controls and building management system.

5. PRINCIPLES OF GREEN CONSTRUCTION
1. Low energy usage, clean/renewable energy
2. Site selection & planning, landscaping, storm water management.
3. Use of recycled and rapidly renewable materials
4. Efficient fixtures, wastewater reuse, efficient irrigation

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5. Improved indoor air quality, increased day lighting, better thermal
comfort/control, no HCFCs or CFCs.

6. SOME IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES

6.1 Orientation and Shape. Orient your building to minimize or maximize solar
heat gain according to your heating and cooling needs. Design the shape of your
building to optimize day lighting and reduce your electric lighting costs.

6.2 Landscaping. Greenery absorbs heat helping to increase occupant comfort and
lower air conditioning costs by bringing down interior temperatures and providing
shade. Green roofs also provide extra insulation in cold weather.

6.3 Windows and Day lighting. Incorporate daylight design elements such as
clerestories, light shelves, skylights and high performance windows. Tune your
window specifications to your buildings orientation. Shading coefficients are most
important on southern, eastern and western exposures, while northern exposures
should have high visible transmittance and low U-values.

Fig. 1
Thus, the % usage is dropped from 100% to a mere 27% a whooping saving of
almost 73% is achieved in lighting alone.

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6.4 Energy Efficiency. Passive design strategies can dramatically affect building
energy performance. Develop strategies to provide natural lighting. Install high-
efficiency lighting systems with advanced lighting controls. Design Orientation of
the building to get maximum day-lighting. Use Green roof and Green wall to avoid
heat gain into the building. Adopt spectrally neutral glass materials such that it
reduces heat gain. Minimize lighting of landscape features. Use of energy efficient
white goods .Use zero CFC base refrigerant in Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
system. Use Renewable energy to reduce environmental impacts associated with
fossil fuel energy use. Establish baseline data for energy consumption. Install
online energy monitoring system to monitor the energy performance.
6.5 Water Use Efficiency. A Green building is one which incorporates several
Green features, such as follows:
1. Capture storm water from impervious areas of the building for ground water re-
charge or reuse.
2. Do not use potable water for landscape irrigation. Use recycled water/storm
water.
3. Install moisture sensor on plants for water conservation .Use recycled water for
HVAC system.
4. Use recycled water for toilet flushing .Use ultra high efficiency water fittings and
controls

6.6 Eco-Friendly Building Materials and Resources. Select materials such that a
major portion of the building is recyclable during renovation and re-construction.
Use materials having longer life which ultimately can reduce environmental impact
in material manufacturing and transporting (wood, flooring, paneling, cabinet,
doors, frames, brick, light fixtures etc).Use locally available materials for
construction, thereby reducing environmental impact resulting from transportation
and supporting to the site area .After construction of the building, recycle or
salvage at least 50 to 75 % (by weight) of construction, demolition and land clearing
waste. Allocate separate space for sorting and storing waste disposals (E.g.
Newspapers, Organic substances, Dry waste etc). The location of storage place
should be easily accessible for the workmen .Provide Rest/change room with
shower facility for residents commuting on two wheelers & four wheelers. Design
waste bin, which allow for easy cleaning and thereby avoid health hazards.

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6.7 Indoor Air Quality. The intake air should be clean - suction should not be
close to exhaust fan, A/c exhaust, cooling tower and other source of
contamination. Install online CO2 system for monitoring indoor air quality through
building automation system. Provide sufficient fresh air intake Use non-toxic
materials to avoid contamination of air. Avoid exposure of building occupants to
potentially hazardous chemicals. Provide controls for temperature, ventilation and
lighting system, which can be controlled based on individual requirements. Install
temperature and humidification monitoring system for the building.

7. GREEN BUILDING FEATURES
The concept of Green Buildings is in an infant stage.The development of Green
buildings in India will have to be a combination of locally available materials and
economically viable technologies. Some of the typical ideas applicable in the Indian
context are as follows:

7.1 Building Materials.
1. Fly ash cement and Fly ash bricks for construction
2. Steel salvaged from old buildings
3. Recycled glass & ceramics for tiles and sanitary ware
4. Harvested or recycled wood from old buildings
5. Recycled glass for windows & doors
6. Non-Toxic and Environment friendly Paints

7.2 Electrical equipment.
1. Energy efficient amorphous core transformer. Alternatively environmentally
friendly Dry type transformer with On-load Voltage correction facility.
2. Oil free environmentally friendly Vacuum circuit breakers / Air circuit breakers
3. As far as possible, copper bus bars with minimum bends and joints
4. Flameproof copper cables for power distribution.
5. Automatic power factor correction relay for power factor correction (APFCR).

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7.3 Lighting Feeder.
1. Dedicated lighting feeder/transformer with on-line voltage correction facility
2. Maximum utilization of natural light during daytime.
3. Energy efficient light fittings and accessories.
4. Limit switch / key tag system for lighting control, wherever there is no
occupancy
5. Energy efficient High Pressure Sodium Vapor (HPSV) lamps for street and
outdoor lighting.
6. Solar photovoltaic cells for building lighting, Telephone booths, etc.,

7.4 Air Conditioning
1. Energy efficient screw chiller compressor with a built-in variable frequency drive.
Non CFC Refrigerant for refrigeration system
2. Variable Frequency Drives (VFD) for chiller pumps, condenser water pumps and
AHU fans for energy saving.
3. Temperature Indicating Controller (TIC)/ VFD for cooling tower fans,
alternatively, Natural Draft Cooling towers can also be used.
4. FRP Blades for cooling tower fans
5. Double-glazed glasses in air-conditioning environment to minimize heat gain.
6. Provide for Green wall and green roofing
7. Insulation of exposed roofs to minimize heat gain.
8. High efficiency pumps and motors

7.5 Building Management System (BMS).
1. Computerized Building Management System (BMS) to help in monitoring &
controlling electrical energy and water consumption.
2. Automatic Temperature sensors & controllers to maintain the required
temperature.
3. Movement sensors for rooms to control the lighting and air conditioning load.
4. Automatic controls for water taps.
5. Fire fighting& fire alarm systems to avoid fire hazardous.
6. Generator set Sound proof enclosure for the Generator room to control sound
pollution.

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7.6 Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS).
Uninterrupted power supply (UPS) for computers and telephone system, coupled
with battery less DC motor. White Goods Energy efficient and environmental
friendly white goods viz., Refrigerator, water cooler, etc.

8. BASIC CONCEPTS OF GREEN BUILDINGS
Conservation of natural resources through their efficient use:
1. Use of indigenous materials.
2. Efficient use of recyclable, recycled and salvaged materials and components.
3. Reduction in the use of high materials like cement, aluminium etc.,
4. Use of materials and techniques to provide high insulation against penetration of
heat, cold and sound.
5. Adopting design to use lighting and natural ventilation.
6. Use of landscaping to reduce the adverse effects of topography.
7. Scattered spacing of buildings to increase ventilation.
8. Courtyard houses with the central courtyards providing light, ventilation and
privacy.
9. Low walls and projecting eaves to reduce the exposure of walls to solar Radiation
and lashing rains.
10. Attic windows for circulation of air.
11. Judicious planning of trees to provide shade during summer and to allow suns
rays in winter.
12. Roof frame which can be easily dismantled and reassembled again.
13. Modular design to enable reuse of building components without alterations.
14. Location of bed rooms and living rooms in such a manner as to make use of the
natural elements of sunlight and ventilation.

9. MODERN ARCHITECTURE
Space design to suit the environment, location of facilities in appropriate places,
use of low energy materials and reusable and recycled materials, optimum
utilization of natural elements etc., are some of the techniques used in modern
architecture. These will include:

124
1. Preservation and protection of favorable feature of landscape and modification
of adverse ones.
2. Controlling the erosion of soil and sedimentation.
3. Controlling the runoff of storm water to have maximum percolation into the
ground.
4. Location of buildings with convenient and easy access to public transportation
systems
5. Use of indigenous and low energy materials for construction.
6. Use of renewable and salvaged materials.
7. Roof-top water harvesting.
8. Use of solar energy directly and/or indirectly for lighting and heating.
9. Day lighting devices
10. Natural cooling arrangements, providing wind scoop towers.
11. Good insulation of walls to protect the interior forms the elements of weather.
12. Use of paints, varnishes and other surface coatings as well as sealants and
adhesives that do not produce volatile organic compounds.
13. Avoiding the use of refrigeration equipments that use CFC or HCFC.
14. Avoiding the use of asbestos, especially those formed through dry process.
15. Landscaping to take advantage of nature.

9.1 Green concepts can be easily adopted for walls, windows and roofs
9.1.1.Walls. Increase the use of reusable materials like stone blocks in place of
monolithic cement concrete. Cavity walls with the cavities filled with air or
insulating materials such as glass wool. Walls with hollow blocks. Roof overhangs,
pergolas, buttresses. Creepers over the walls.

9.1.2. Windows and Other Openings. In hot humid climate of Kerala, large
protected wall openings are required to provide ventilation. In order to avoid direct
sunlight and lashing rains, sunshades or eave projections are necessary. In dry
countries, the window size, especially in the upper floors, will be small to avoid
penetration of sun and cold winds. Glass shutters will allow the sunlight but will
prevent heat escaping out, thus producing green house effect. This effect can be
reduced by right choice of glass to reduce penetration of heat and UV rays. Double
glazings also can de resort to.


125
9.1.3. Roof. Sloping roofs increase the volume of the room and, therefore, are
better than flat ones in summer. Clearstory windows will increase lighting and
ventilation. Using heat reflecting paints over roof will reduce heat conduction.
Suspended ceiling with insulating materials placed below the roof will make the
interior comfortable.

10. ARE GREEN BUILDINGS COSTLY
The additional cost for incorporating green design will be only 5 to 6% of the total
cost. This will be offset by the reduced costs of operation and maintenance. Cost of
lighting, heating/cooling, water supplied will be much less than that for the
conventional buildings. With the costs of cement and steel sky-rocketing, green
buildings will prove to be cost effective. Apart from the considerations of the direct
cost, the environmental cost of green buildings will be much lower than that of
conventional ones.

11. CASE STUDY


Fig. 2 CII-SOHRABJI GODREJ GREEN BUILDING
CENTRE AT HYDERABAD.

126
This building has been given the platinum rating by LEED. Some of its green
features are:
1. 80% of materials were recycled ones and were eco-friendly.
2. Two 13.5 wind scoop towers and screen walls provide air pre-cooled by 10
degrees to the AC systems.
3. 40% of the roof is covered by photo-voltaic cells producing 100 to 120 units of
power daily.
4. 60% of the roof is covered by roof garden.
5. The building discharges no water, as all the used water is recycled.
6. Waste water is treated on-site and used for gardening.
7. It has a central courtyard to enhance air and light in the interior. It is claimed
that 90% of the area does not require artificial lighting during the day time.

12. CONCLUSION
With the world facing serious environmental concerns, it is necessary for the
building industry to take all steps to reduce the environmental impact of the
industry. Green building techniques will go a long way to mitigate the adverse
environmental effects. The building codes and building rules should incorporate
mandatory provisions for green buildings. The engineers, architects and builders
should take up the challenge and play their role in delaying, if not preventing, this
world fast slipping towards environmental catastrophe.

REFERENCE
1. Stott R., Healthy response to climate change. BMJ 2006; 332: 13857.
2. Bhattacharjee J., Former Chief Engineer, MES. Paper on Green-building
concept and various applications.






127
USE OF RECEPTOR MODELLING IN SOURCE
APPORTIONMENT STUDY OF AMBIENT
PARTICULATE MATTER: REVIEW OF THE EXISTING
MODELS

Vivek Kumar Singh, Abhishek Jain
Department of Civil Engineering, IT BHU
Varanasi, U.P.


ABSTRACT

Several health studies have demonstrated an association between air pollution
sources and adverse health and environmental effects. Therefore, it is important to
identify the various sources contributing to the environment we are exposed to and
the characteristics of those sources and of major air pollutants so that they can be
controlled appropriately. The Physical and Chemical Characteristics of air
pollutants can be understood with the help of Receptor Models which help in
identifying their sources and in estimating contributions of each source to receptor
contributions. This paper provides a quick review of the basic Receptor Models
(CMB, PMF and UNMIX) that are practised for PM source apportionment when the
sources are unknown.

Keywords: Chemical mass balance (CMB); Source Apportionment; Positive matrix
factorization (PMF); UNMIX; PM.

1. INTRODUCTION

Air Pollution constitutes a widespread problem by decreasing the quality of air due
to continuous emission of Particulate Matter (PM) and many harmful gases into the
ambient environment. In India, major sources of urban air pollution include coal
combustion, oil refineries and industrial manufacturing facilities (Murray et al.,
2001). Automobile exhaust and emission from small-scale workshops are also
considered as important contributing factors.

128

Particulate Matter is the sum of all solid and liquid particles suspended in air,
many of which are hazardous. The particles size range varies from coarse
(PM10<dp>PM2.5), fine (dp<PM2.5) and ultra fine (dp<PM0.1). Typical ambient particles
are the complex mixture of dust, smoke, pollen, soot, liquid droplets and organic
compounds etc. Particulate Matter (PM), which is composed of a broad class of
chemically and physically diverse substance, can be very variable in size, chemical
composition, formation mechanism and origin. These PM absorb and scatter
sunlight, thereby altering the earths radiative balance subsequently leading to
increased temperature, decreased rainfall, and a weaker hydrological cycle
(Ramanathan et al.,2001). The scattering of sunlight is the leading cause of
visibility reduction.

Majority of the Indian cities have concentrations of Particulate Matter well above
the recommended limits of WHO and US EPA (Sadasivan and Negi, 1990; Gupta
and Kumar, 2006).Toxicological and epidemiological studies have confirmed the
relationship of exposure of particles to human health (Saxon and Diaz-Sanche,
2000; Schwartz et. al., 1996). Various epidemiological studies (Pope et al., 1995),
also, have shown that there is a significant relationship between increasing
particulate matter and increased human mortality and morbidity.

As the Human exposure to this particulate matter is associated with detrimental
health impacts and increased mortality rates (Chow et al., 2006), there is a great
need to formulate emission reduction strategies for effective air quality
management. Therefore, for devising abatement policies, the characterization of the
complex properties of these PM is extremely important. While formulating the
strategies, it is important to identify the different sources contributing to the
emission also to determine if the sources are local, regional or inter-continental in
nature. The characterisation of sources at receptor location and identifying the
physical location of their origin is important for policy making decisions.

Source Apportionment is a method of quantifying the relative impacts of different
emission sources on particulate matter formation and provides valuable
information that can be used in the formulation of emission reduction strategies.



129
Receptor Models are mathematical or statistical procedures for identifying and
quantifying the sources of air pollutants at a receptor location. Unlike Dispersion
modelling, Receptor Modelling cannot predict future air quality but looks at the
past data collected at one site over a specific time period to determine the source to
that site. It uses the variability of chemical composition,particle size, and
concentration variations in space and time to identify source types and to quantify
source contributions that affect particle mass concentrations, light extinction, or
deposition.

Receptor models provide the theoretical and mathematical framework for
quantifying source contributions at that receptor. The two basic types of receptor
models are
1. Sources are known(e.g. Chemical Mass Balance)
2. Sources are unknown( e.g. Positive matrix Factorization and UNMIX)

Many of the statistical based methods cannot be used for quantitative source
apportionment studies as they produce negative source composition and
contribution sometimes violating the mass conservation. The three receptor model
discussed above i.e. CMB, PMF and UNMIX are specifically designed for this
purpose and are capable of producing both the qualitative and quantative source
apportionment results (Hopke et al.,2003). The basic equation used by all the
three model above is of mass balance

X = GF+ E,

Where X is an n x m matrix consisting of n number of observations for m chemical
species. It is assumed that there are p sources influencing the data matrix. The aim
of multivariate receptor models is to obtain two matrices G and F where G is an n x
p matrix of source contributions describing the temporal variation of the sources, F
is a p x m matrix of source profiles, which is the chemical composition of the
emission, with each chemical species expressed as a mass fraction of the total, and
E represents the unexplained data variance by the model.





130
2. POSITIVE MATRIX FACTORIZATION

Multi-variate factor analysis has been widely used to identify sources of ambient
particles. Factor Analysis (FA) techniques are multivariate data analysis methods
that are used in environmental studies to estimate the number and compositions of
the sources as well as their contributions to the samples taken at the receptors.
PMF was developed as a new approach to FA which uses a weighted least-squares
approach and imposes non-negativity constraints for fitting the FA model. PMF
decomposes a matrix of speciated sample data into two matrices-factor
contributions and factor profiles which then need to be interpreted by an analyst as
to what source types are represented using measured source profile information,
wind direction analysis and emission inventories. EPA PMF is one of the receptor
model developed by EPA-ORD. PMF is applicable easily in source apportionment
studies as it incorporates the variable uncertainties often associated with
measurements of environmental samples and also forces all of the values in the
solution profiles and contributions to be nonnegative, which is more realistic then
solutions obtained from previously used methods. A speciated data set can be
viewed as a data matrix X of n x m dimensions, in which n number of samples and
m chemical species were measured as discussed above. The goal of the PMF model
is to identify a number of factors p, the species profile f of each source, and the
amount of mass g contributed by each factor to individual sample.

xij = gik kj
p
k=1
+ij

where eij is the residual for each sample.
The goal in PMF is to estimate the factor contribution (G) and factor profile (F)
matrices that best explain X. It minimizes the object function Q based upon the
uncertainties (u)

=
ij gik kj

=1
ij

=1

=1


Where the uncertainty data sheet is prepared and supplied as an input by the user
using equation
Uij = pjXij+ MDLj/3

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Where pj is the uncertainty proportional parameter for the jth species.Xij is the
measured concentration for ith sample and jth species and MDLjis the method
detection limit for jth species (Pekney et al., 2006).

3. CHEMICAL MASS BALANCE (CMB)

This model is used when the source profile is already known. If the nature of the
pollution sources influencing the measurements is known (i.e. p and F) then the
only unknown is G which can be solved by CMB using an effective variance least
squares approach. The CMB can analyze individual samples if local source profiles
are known (Abu et al., 2002). In order to obtain a source profile of a given source
the chemical species that characterize that source profile and the relative
proportions of each of those elements that provide the signature for the source
profile at the sampling site must be determined. CMB analysis can also be used to
estimate the daily contribution from the individual source if the source profiles are
properly estimated as the analysis could be applied on a single sample also.It is
applicable for small data set also (Chowdhury et al., 2003).

The CMB model uses the chemical compositions of airborne particulate matter
samples to estimate the contributions of different source types to the measured
concentrations at the receptor site using previously estimated source profile. These
source profiles can be obtained from the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) library (SPECIATE). The major drawback of this model is that it
cannot separate the sources that have very similar chemical compositions. It also
estimates the source contributions for each individual sample. The partial
composition may differ from one sample to next due to the difference in emission
rates, wind speed, direction and changes in emission composition.

The model consists if the following equations:
i = i11 +i22 +i33 . . +ijj +iJJ
Where, i = 1.........I and j = 1.......J
Ci = Concentration of species I measured at receptor site.
Fij = Fraction of species i emission from source j.
Sj = Estimate of the contribution of the source j.
I = Number of chemical species.
J = Number of source types.

132
These equations give unique solution only when the number of species is equal to
or greater than the number of sources.The greater the number of species, the more
precise the apportionment.

4. UNMIX

The EPA UNMIX model unmixes measured species concentration to infer the
source contributions at the receptor site. This model uses the transformation
method based on self modelling curve resolution technique to resolve the sources of
pollution using Eigen value analysis. This method uses implicit least-square
analysis approach to estimate the source profile and contribution.

While CMB requires a priori knowledge of the source profiles, Unmix seeks to solve
the general problem where the data are assumed to be a linear combination of an
unknown composition, which contribute an unknown amount to each sample. It
also assumes that the compositions and contributions of the sources are all
positive. It solves the problem assuming that for each source there are some
samples that contain negligible amount or no contribution from that source.
Unmixuses the non-negativity conditions and the constraints of the data to find out
the unique solution. When the data do not support a solution, Unmix will not find
any solution.

Unmix uses the SVD, singular value decomposition method to estimate the source
number by reducing the dimensionality of the data space m to p(Henry et al. 2003).
The equation used in the model can be expressed as



Where U, D and V are nxp,pxp diagonal and p x m matrices, respectively; and ij is
the error term. Geometrical concepts are also used to ensure that the results obey
the non-negative constraints and the additional constraints of the data.
If there are observations of M species in a data, the data can be plotted in an M-
dimensional data space where the coordinates of a data point are the observed
concentrations of the species. For N sources, the data space can be reduced to N-1

133
dimensional space. Unmix assumes that for each source there are some data
points where the contributions of the source is not present or negligible as
compared to the other sources. These data points are known as edge points. Unmix
finds these edge points and fit a hyper plane through them, this hyper plane is
called an edge. For N sources, there are N-1 hyper planes and the intersection of
these hyper planes defines a point that has only one source contributing, which
gives the source compositions. Similarly the composition of N sources can be
found.

5. COMPARISON OF THE MODELS

The major drawback of the CMB model is that with CMB, the user must provide
source profiles which the model uses to apportion mass. PMF and CMB have been
compared in several earlier studies. Rizzo and Scheff (2007) compared the
magnitude of source contributions resolved by each model and examined
correlations between PMF resolved contributions and that of CMB. The source
profiles information may not be always readily available especially in the developing
countries like India. In such cases, UNMIX and PMF are usually applied as they do
not require any priori source information.
On the other side, one of the major limitations with the UNMIX model is that it
scales the data matrix either by row or column, which tend to distort the analysis
results. This scaling issue, however, was solved by Paatero (Paatero et al., 1994)
developed the PMF with a very different approach that uses the explicit weighted
least-squares approach to obtain the source profiles and contributions. Also,
Unmix does not allow individual weighting of data points as does PMF. Although
major factors resolved by both are same, Unmix does not always resolve as many
factors as PMF (Pekney et al., 2006 ; Poirat et al., 2001).

6. APPLICATION AND IMPACT

With deteriorating air quality being one of the major global problems, it is
important to know about the various sources which are mainly responsible for the
declining air quality. Source apportionment studies are usually carried out for
developing effective air pollution regulation. In Tampa, Studies showed that a
reduction in mercury impact when a major power plant changed its fuel from coal
to natural gas. Also, In Steubenville, Ohio research clearly demonstrated the large

134
impact of regional domestic coal combustion on the deposition of mercury in rain
water. Research Results showed differences in air pollution sources during the
different stages of the recovery effect after 9/11 in World Trade Centre. Study in
Research Triangle Park, N.C., found around 50 per cent of PM from motor vehicle
exhaust was present inside homes and that cooking was a major contributor to PM
personal exposure. Also, Studies at a major steel facility helped quantify the impact
of various industrial sources on local areas in St. Louis. This research underlines
the importance of tracking specific sources and using the result to improve control
strategies.

7. CONCLUSION

This paper discussed about the various receptor models highlighting both the
advantages and disadvantages of a particular model in a particular situation.
Though each receptor model can be used alone to apportion the sources, the
author advises the use of all the three models or at least two of the model for
precise source apportionment study. Generally, the major source contributors as
obtained from all the three models are same. Actually, these receptor models are
complementary to each other and applying them together can lead to better
understanding of the complex source apportionment studies.

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Much of this work was carried out during the summer of 2010. We would like to
thank Assoc. Prof. Tarun Gupta for assistance and useful guidance. We would,
also, like to thank Mr. Jaiprakash and Mr. Anil Mandariya for all their valuable
assistance in the work.

REFERENCES

1. Sadasivan, S. , Negi , B.S. and Mishra, U.C.(1984).Compositions and Sources of
aerosol at Trombay, Bombay. Sci. Total Environ. 40:279-286.
2. Sadasivan, S. and Negi, B.S. (1990).Elemental Characterization of Atmospheric
Aerosols. Sci. Total Environ. 96:269-279.
3. Kothai et al., Source Apportionment of coarse and fine particulate matter at
Navimumbai, India. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, Vol. 8, No 4, pp. 423-436,
2008.

135
4. Song, Y.; Dai, W.; Shao, M; Liu, Y; Lu, S. H.; Kuster, W.; Goldan, P. Comparison
of receptor models for source apportionment of volatile organic compounds in
Beijing, China. Environ. Pollut. 2008, 156(1), 174-183.
5. Paatero, P.; Tapper, U. Positive matrix factorization: a non negative factor model
with optimum utilization of error estimates of data values. Environ metrics 1994,
5, 111-126.
6. Henry, R. C. History and fundamentals of multi variate air quality receptor
models. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 1997,37.37-42.
7. Henry, R.C. Multivariate receptor modelling by N-dimensional edge detection.
Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 2003, 65,179-189.
8. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Unmix 6.0 Model
http://www.epa.gov/heasd/products/unmix/unmix.htm.
9. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Postive matrix factorization 3.0,
http://www.epa.gov/heasd/products/pmf/pmf_registration.htm.
10. Henry, R.C.; Christensen, Erik R.; Selecting an Appropriate Multi variate
Source Apportionment Model result. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 2474-
2481.
11. Begum, B.A.; Biswas, Swapan K.; Hopke P.K.; Source Apportionment of Air
Particulate matter by Chemical mass Balance(CMB) and comparison with
positive matrix factorization(PMF) Model. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, Vol
7, No. 4, pp. 446-468,2007.
12. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA positive matrix factorization (PMF)
3.0 Fundamentals and User guide.
13. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA UNMIX 6.0 Fundamentals and
User guide.


















136
LOW-COST HOUSING

P. TARUN
1
AND Ch. KISHAN KUMAR
1
1
VISVODAYA ENGINEERINGCOLLEGE,
Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Anantapur, Kavali, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Email: tarunp1991@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The scope of the study covers national perspectives on housing for economically
weaker sections of the society, defining the problems and efforts that should be
made for solving the existing housing technologies. Housing is one of the
fundamental needs of any living being. Whether, rich or poor, all of us need a place
to live. But if we look at the cost of purchasing a house across the country and
metros in particular, its well beyond the affordable limit of the majority. In a
society where the majority cannot afford a place of their own because of the
skyrocketing property prices, low cost housing assumes crucial importance.
Moreover, the Government of India has a vision Housing for all by the year 2010.
Cost effective does not mean low quality and low durability meant only for low-
income or poor sections. This paper also deals with the efficiencies of low cost
housing and use of new materials and their experimentation on affected areas and
also the introduction of paper and cardboard as a building material. This paper is
based on reporting review.

1. INTRODUCTION

In every country the housing industry is a fundamental and planned sector linked
to improving the standard of living. The housing sector depends highly on
technological innovation as a constant driving force.

Technological innovation creates added value, it improves the product, and cuts the
costs, thus allowing for a greater distribution of the product on the market and an
extension in the distribution range.

Our country has a population of around 1.20 bn. Considering the vastness of the
country, both in terms of area and population, the dwelling unit required to pocket
such population would be around 16.8 m in the urban area and the fund

137
requirement would be around Rs 1,213.7 bn. (Ministry of Urban Development and
Poverty Alleviation).

This means that to address this problem we need low cost housing or cost effective
housing. Cost effective does not mean low quality and low durability meant only for
low-income or poor sections. On the contrary, there is a need for appropriate,
intermediate, modern and alternative technologies, which are strong durable,
functional and environment friendly. The Government machinery needs to ensure
sustainability in housing delivery, involving mixed component of cash, savings,
loans, and government subsidy. Propagating appropriate building materials and
sustainable responsible construction practices in the country becomes
government's most important responsibility.

When cost of construction is considered, it is not the cost of building technologies
alone, but the cost of land, infrastructure, and construction, all put together, that
makes up the final cost. So, in the Indian context the model where government and
private sector working together would be an ideal mix to ensure the demand of
fund for construction and supply of land for the same. The synergies of the
government for land and infrastructure and of the private sector for housing
development will go a long way in fulfilling the demand for housing. The most
important thing is that this will result in housing for all depending upon the
individual's income level.

A glance at the vast area of the country reveals that there is ample land for
construction. The fact is that except in metros like Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore,
Delhi, Hyderabad, Kolkata, and a few other big cities, there is no shortage of land
for construction in other parts of the country. So, we don't have to necessarily go
for skyscrapers, instead 3 or 4-storeys building will serve the purpose better.
Moreover all these skyscrapers have higher requirement of power for lifts, pumping
up water, fire hazard, etc which are in short supply in the country.

With housing cost beyond the reach of poor, low-income and even middle-income
groups, there is need to identify cost effective technologies and more focused
approach towards bringing down the property prices across the country, to a
reasonable limit. Otherwise Housing for all by the year 2010 will remain a dream
only.

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2. EFFICIENCIES OF LOW COST HOUSING

2.1 Construction efficiencies.

Construction efficiencies are among the most effective approach for decreasing the
cost of housing construction without reducing its life. Construction details that use
standard material dimensions and equipment modules limit waste and labor,
reducing costs by at least 10 percent. Using locally available and easy to repair
materials, equipment, and finishes also contains construction and life-cycle costs.

Factory-built housing, both manufactured and modular, offers greater cost savings
when compared with conventional site-built housing. Moreover, modular housing is
considered the strongest among framework housing, conforms to the same
standards, and codes as site-built. Pre-manufactured components, such as roof
and floor trusses and wall panels, allow builders to enclose a structure, quickly
saving both time and labour costs. The ability to place and secure a finished unit
quickly can be especially advantageous in urban areas where a site-built home
faces prolonged exposure to robbery and vandalism.

Rehabilitation of existing housing and the adaptive reuse of other building types, if
the structures are in good condition, can also offer cost-effective construction
practices. Recycling an entire building to extend its useful life is environmentally
sound and preserves cultural and historic structures.

2.2 Space efficiencies.

Space efficiencies can be achieved without reducing livable spaces, by minimizing
circulation space and room dimensions. For example, the arrangement of
circulation space in a central joint or short hallway with surrounding rooms can
significantly decrease the unit square footage without changing the size of the
rooms. The ratio of a rooms width and length also determines how well
conventional furnishes will fit without wasting space. Rooms that are very long
proportionally often do not offer the most efficient use of space.

Dense building forms minimize the buildings envelope, and thus decrease costly
building components, such as the foundation, roof, and exterior walls. A one-story

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single-family dwelling is more expensive to build than a two-story structure with
the same square footage, quality of construction, and facilities. Dense building
forms also reduce life cycle costs because they are less luxurious to heat, cool, and
maintain.

2.3 Design for durability.

Design for durability saves on costly maintenance and future building renovations.
Spending on durable materials, finishes, furnishings, and equipment may involve
higher initial construction costs, but is compensated by substantially decreased
life-cycle costs. Good examples of moderate up-front costs and big savings follow.
A typical two-ply asphalt single roof needs to be replaced every 10 to 15 years. A
three-ply roof, for only a few hundred dollars more in materials and no additional
costs for installation, can easily last the tenure of typical homeownerships.

Burnished block is slightly more expensive than standard face block but lasts
longer, is more impervious to water, and has much higher aesthetic appeal.

High-quality windows may cost more than lightweight vinyl windows but are
unlikely to warp easily and will keep energy costs down. 5/8 drywall costs
minimally more than 1/2 but will withstand wear and tear better.

Solid core doors and durable hardware will cost more than hollow core doors, but
will need less frequent repair and replacement. High-quality workmanship is
equally important to assure durability.

3. DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES IN INDIA

The developments in composite material after meeting the challenges of aerospace
sector have fallen down for cookery to domestic and industrial applications.
Composite, the wonder material with light-weight, high strength-to-weight ratio and
stiffness properties have come a long way in replacing the conventional materials
like metals, woods etc. The material scientists all over the world focused their
attention on natural composites reinforced with jute, sisal, coir (coconut fiber),
pineapple etc. primarily to cut down the cost of raw materials.


140
Eastern India has been bestowed with abundant cultivation of jute. The production
of processed jute fiber in India has touched 1.64 million tons in 1999-2000. Jute as
a natural fiber has been traditionally used for making twines, ropes, cords, as
packaging material in sacks & gunny bags, as carpet backing and more recently, as
a geo-textile material. But, lately the major share of its market has been eroded by
the advent of synthetic materials, especially polypropylene.

In order to save the crop from extinction and to ensure a reasonable return to the
farmers, non-traditional outlets have to be explored for the fiber. One such avenue
is in the area of fiber-reinforced composites. Such composites can be used as a
substitute for timber as well as in a number of less demanding applications. Jute
fiber due to its adequate tensile strength and good specific modulus enjoys the
right potential for usage in composites. Jute composites can thusensure a very
effective and value-added application avenue for the natural fiber.

Interest in using natural fibers as reinforcement in polymer matrices and also in
certain applications as partial replacement of glass fibers has grown significantly in
recent years for making low cost composite building materials. Thus, new
alternative materials have emerged that could partially meet the demands of
conventional materials especially wood in buildings.

3.1 Natural fibers.

Jute, sisal, banana and coir (coconut fiber), the major source of natural fibers, are
grown in many parts of India. Some of them have aspect ratios (ratio of length to
diameter) > 1000 and can be rush easily. Sisal and banana fibers are cellulose-rich
(> 65%) and show tensile strength, modulus and failure strain comparable with
other cellulose-rich fibers like jute and flax whereas the lignin-rich (> 40%) coir
fiber is relatively weak and possess high failure strain.

These fibers are extensively used for cordage, sacks, fishnets, matting and rope,
and as filling for mattresses and cushions (e.g. rubberized coir). Cellulosic fibers
are obtained from different parts of plants, e.g. jute and ramie are obtained from
the stem; sisal, banana and pineapple from the leaf; cotton from the seed; coir from
the fruit, and so on.

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Recent reports indicate that plant-based natural fibers can very well be used as
reinforcement in polymer composites, replacing to some extent more expensive and
non-renewable synthetic fibers such as glass.

The maximum tensile, impact and flexural strengths for natural fiber reinforced
plastic (NFRP) composites reported so far are 104.0 MN/m
2
(jute-epoxy), 22.0 kJ/
m
2
(jute-polyester) and 64.0 MN/m
2
(banana-polyester), respectively.

3.2 Jute and glass fibers.

Although the tensile strength and Youngs modulus of jute are lower than those of
glass fibers, the specific modulus of jute fiber is superior to that of glass and when
compared on modulus per cost basis, jute is far superior. The specific strength per
unit cost of jute, too, approaches that of glass. Therefore, where high strength is
not a priority, jute may be used to fully or partially replace glass fiber. The need for
using jute fibers in place of the traditional glass fiber partly or fully as reinforcing
agents in composites stems from its lower specific gravity (1.29) and higher specific
modulus (40 GPa) of jute compared with those of glass (2.5 & 30 GPa respectively).
Apart from much lower cost and renewable nature of jute, much lower energy
requirement for the production of jute (only 2% of that for glass) makes it attractive
as a reinforcing fiber in composites.

The natural fiber imparts lower durability and lower strength compared to glass
fibers. However, low specific gravity results in a higher specific strength and
stiffness than glass. This is a benefit especially in parts designed for bending
stiffness. In addition, the natural fibers offer good thermal and acoustic insulation
properties along with ease in processing technique without wearing of tool.

The jute composites may be used in everyday applications such as lampshades,
suitcases, paperweights, helmets, shower and bath units. They are also used for
covers of electrical appliances, pipes, post-boxes, roof tiles, grain storage silos,
panels for partition & false ceilings, bio-gas containers, and in the construction of
low cost, mobile or pre-fabricated buildings which can be used in times of natural
calamities.



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4. NEW MATERIALS FOR LOW COST HOUSING

4.1 Steel stiffened ferrocrete (ssf).

This is a revolutionary invention, because it offers a fire proof, cyclone proof
&earthquake proof house for rural poor people, at the construction cost of only
about Rs.130/sq. ft., comparable to that of conventional hut. Whereas relatively,
the conventional RCC building structures cost more than Rs.300/sq. ft. Though
cost-wise SSF structure is comparable to that of conventional mud huts,
performance wise it is equal / rather better than RCC structures to effectively
withstand even severe natural hazards such as cyclones, earthquakes, etc.

4.2 Spercrete panel housing.

The devastating Tsunami of 26th Dec.-04, has given another opportunity to invent
yet another low-cost construction technology. In this context, a new SPERCrete
panel system housing is developed. On the request of Sri Ilango, the most popular
Gandhian panchayath president of Kutthumbakkam village, Thiruvallur District,
Tamil nadu, SPERC is constructing a prototype full scale model of this SPERCrete
panel house, using ferrocrete / Ferro cement construction technique. The
additional advantage in this invention is the possibility of expanding it to first floor
construction with the same spercrete panels in future, as it offers flat roofing.
Spercrete panel system also offers fire-proof, cyclone-proof and earthquake
resistant housing at about mere Rs.100/- per sq. ft., which lasts for few
generations. SPERC hopes that this latest innovation of Spercrete panel system
would revolutionize the scenario of future low cost housing.

4.3 Grancrete.

The United Nations estimates there are almost a billion poor people in the world,
750 million of who live in urban areas without adequate shelter and basic services.
But scientists at Argonne and Casa Grande LLC are developing a promising new
technology that may lead to affordable housing for the worlds poorest. A tough new
ceramic material that is almost twice as strong as concrete may be the key to
providing high-quality, low-cost housing throughout developing nations.


143
The ceramic is called Grancrete, which, when sprayed onto a rudimentary
Styrofoam frame, dries to form a lightweight but durable surface. The resulting
house is a major upgrade to the fragile structures in which millions of the worlds
poorest currently live.

The Virginia firm Casa Grande in conjunction with Argonne developed Grancrete. It
is based on an Argonne-developed material called Ceramicrete, which was
developed in 1996 to encase nuclear waste. The resilient Ceramicrete permanently
prevents hazardous and radioactive contaminants from leaching into the
environment.

According to experiments, Grancrete is stronger than concrete, is fire resistant and
can withstand both tropical and sub-freezing temperatures, making it ideal for a
broad range of geographic locations. It insulates so well that it keeps dwellings in
arid regions cool and those in frigid regions warm. Currently, Grancrete is sprayed
onto Styrofoam walls, to which it adheres and dries. The Styrofoam remains in
place as an effective insulator, although Wagh suggests simpler walls, such as
woven fiber mats, also would work well and further reduces the raw materials
required.

Using Grancrete in developing countries also allows for two important criteria, says
Wagh. When you build houses in these poor villages, the materials you use should
be indigenous, and the labour should be indigenous, he says. Every village has
soil and ash, and the labour and training requirements are so minimal that two
local people can build a house in two days.

According to Paul, workers only need two days of training to learn how to control
and calibrate the machinery. Casa Grande typically assembles a team of five people
who can start in the morning and create a home that residents can move into that
evening. The material cures in 15 minutes, whereas concrete can take hours or
days to dry. Grancrete is made from an environmentally friendly mix of locally
available chemicals.

Grancrete is 50 percent sand or sandy soil, 25 percent ash and 25 percent binding
material, Wagh says. Binding material is composed of magnesium oxide and

144
potassium phosphate, the latter of which is a biodegradable element in fertilizer. So
even if Grancrete were to decompose, he points out, it would revitalize the soil.

The cost of building a Grancrete home, estimated by Casa Grande at about $6,000
U.S. for labour and materials, is several times less expensive than a home built
using conventional building materials. And the homes themselves are more than
four simple walls. For less than $10,000 U.S., laborers can produce Grancrete
dwellings of 800 square feet; a typical apartment in a city like Bombay, India, is
only 400 square feet.

5. LOW COST HOUSING FROM RECYCLED MATERIALS

The main walls of the structure are built of used tires, laid concrete-block fashion,
and filled with densely packed earth. Concrete 'parging' covers these walls,
smoothing them, and surrounding aluminium pop cans which occupy space and
reduce the amount of concrete needed. In addition, the walls are built as 'U'-
shaped bays, with the open end of the U facing the sun, and the arch butting into
the earth. The walls thus built are immensely thick and strong, and (according to
the Potters) qualify, as load-bearing foundation walls in their own right. A low wall
closes the south side of the house, beneath wide windows that admit light and
warmth.

6. HOUSES OF THE FUTURE

6.1 Design concept.

The Cardboard House represents the reduction of technology and the simplification
of needs. By demonstrating that we are able to recycle 100% of the building
components at extremely low cost, the Cardboard House is a direct challenge to
the housing industry to reduce housing and environmental costs. A cardboard
house places the least demand on resources and encourages people to shift their
preconceptions about the typical Australian house. Many Australians enjoy
camping on their holidays, easily shifting their lifestyle from the rigidity of the
urban home to the freedom of the campsite.

145
Being extremely low cost and transportable, the Cardboard House could be used in
a wide variety of applications. You could live in one while your permanent house is
being built or renovated, for emergency housing, or for short-term accommodation.

Fig. 1: An example

6.2 Selection of card board as a building material.

Cardboard is not a traditional building material, however the introduction of
innovative bonding, cutting and structural techniques has provided the opportunity
to consider this lightweight and recyclable material in a more creative fashion.
Structure provides a creative architectural frame from which the house derives its
aesthetic. Fixed and moveable furnishings, floor systems, door and opening frames,
lighting and other services all relate to the structure and layout. The roof covering
is a lightweight material that is as transportable as the structure. Similar to a tent
fly, the roof fabric assists in holding down the building, providing a diffuse light in
the day and a glowing box at night. Water is collected in bladders underneath the
floor which double as ballast to hold down the lightweight building. A composting
toilet system produces nutrient-rich water for gardening.
Low-voltage lighting can be powered using a 12-volt car battery or small
photovoltaic cells mounted on the roof framing.

6.3 Implications for the future of housing.

The Architects see this project as a genuine housing option. Extremely low cost,
transportable, lightweight and flexible, this building could be used in a variety of
widespread applications. The Cardboard House is seen as a prototype that may
serve to meet future housing in a way that is responsible and beautiful.

146
6.4 Environmental features.

1. Uses 85% recycled materials.
2. All materials are 100% recyclable
3. Recycling the house saves 12 cubic meters of landfill, 39 trees and 30000 litres
of water.
4. Extremely low cost, transportable, and flexible, this is a genuine housing option
that could be used in a variety of temporary applications.
5) Autonomous servicing: uses only 12-volt batteries or small photovoltaic cells
for power generation.
6) Composting system produces nutrient-rich water for gardening.

7. CONCLUSION

With housing cost beyond the reach of poor, low-income and even middle-income
groups, there is need to identify cost effective technologies and more focused
approach towards bringing down the property prices across the country, to an
affordable limit. Otherwise Housing for all will remain a dream only.

REFERENCES

1. Suresh S.V, Bharathi Nirman: News and Letters HIDCO-New Delhi.
2. Madhava Rao A.C and Ramachandramurthy D.S: Performance
3. Evaluation of Low Cost Houses- SERC Madras
4. Mathur G.C., Low Cost Housing in Developing Countries.
5. Unmesh C. Desai; The Indian Concrete Journal * January 2001 pg: 1to16
6. Lal A.K., Handbook of Low Cost Housing, New Age International publisher.
7. Kumar Deepak, Low Cost Housing & Vastushastra.
8. Zainun Noor Yasmin and Majid Muhd. Zaimi Abd., Techniques To Develops
Forecasting Model On Low Cost Housing In Urban Area, Malaysian Journal of
Civil Engineering (2002).





147
BIO-FILTERS IN SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT
Sravani
1
, Shiva Shankar Y
2
and Abhishek Kumar
2
1
Student, Department of Chemistry, Loyola Academy, Secunderabad
2
M-Tech Student, Environmental Engineering Division, Department of Civil Engineering,
Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
Email: prabhala89@rediff.com

ABSTRACT
Bio-logical treatment by the use of bacteria and other microorganisms to remove
contaminants in air, water and waste water by assimilating them is emerging
technology in environmental management. The applications of Bio-logical methods
are increasing due to advantages like cost effectiveness and use of natural systems
with decreased by-products. All Bio-logical-treatment processes take advantage of
bacterias remarkable ability to use diverse waste constituents to provide the
energy for microbial metabolism and the building blocks for cell synthesis. This
metabolic activity can remove contaminants. These methods can be applied in
various fields like air treatment removing odors and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), water and waste water management. This paper discusses about the
applications of Bio-filters in environmental management.
Keywords: Bio-filter, Vegetative Filter Strips, Grey Water, Storm Water, Volatile
Organic Compounds
1. INTRODUCTION
Use of environmentally friendly and sustainable alternative for managing and
recycling wastes, has gained increasing importance with increased capital costs in
treatment and disposal. Use of Bio-filters is a good solution to minimize the
operational and maintenance costs. Bio-filtration is a pollution control technique
using living material to capture and biologically degrade process pollutants.
Initially Bio-filters are used in odor control at waste water treatment plants. With
passage of time and need for sustainable alternatives in environmental
management, their applications are increasing. Common uses include processing
waste water, storm water management and biotic oxidation of contaminants in air.

148
The paper discusses about the applications of Bio-filters in waste air, water and
waste water management.

2. BIO-FILTERS IN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Biological waste air treatment techniques have become the method of choice in
many instances for the control of low concentrations of odors, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) or hazardous air pollutants in large streams. Bio- filters are
reactors in which a humid polluted air stream is passed through a porous packed
bed (generally peat or compost mixture) on which a mixed culture of pollutant-
degrading organisms is naturally immobilized. The elimination of gaseous
component in Bio-filter is the result of complex combination of different physic-
chemical and Bio-logical phenomena (http://deshusses.pratt.duke.edu). Under
optimal conditions, the volatile or gaseous pollutants can be degraded completely to
carbon dioxide, water and excess Bio-mass. In the case of contaminants such as
hydrogen sulfide or reduced sulfur compounds, or Bio-degradable chlorinated
compounds, harmless sulfate or chloride are additional by-products
(http://www.engr.ucr.edu).
Bio-filter media types include wood-chip media, soil media, and inorganic synthetic
media. Wood-chip/bark media generally possess a large diversity and density of
microorganisms, accepts moisture relatively well, has low initial costs, and is
readily available. The normal lifetime for wood-chip/bark media is 2 4 years. Soil
media is a blended mix of soils, primarily sand-based. The primary advantage of
soil media over wood-chip/bark media is service life. Soil has an estimated lifetime
of over 30 years as a filter media. Soil is denser than wood-chip/bark media and
therefore resists compaction, it resists acidification because of its inherent pH
buffering properties, it is less difficult to rehydrate after drying out, and generally
distributes the air more uniformly than wood-chip/bark media. The inorganic
synthetic media consists of strong, uniform sized gravel like cores that do not
compact as easily as organic media. This type of media may be used in the modular
designs because it allows greater media depth and a smaller footprint. The cores
are commonly coated with nutrient rich organic and inorganic adsorbents. The
media typically comes with a 10 year life guarantee (www.odor.net).

149
Bio-filters are categorized by the configuration (open or closed) and flow sequence
(up-flow, down-flow, or horizontal flow). A closed system controls both the Bio-filter
outlet and inlet gas streams whereas an open system discharges treated gas from
the Bio-filter directly to the atmosphere. Industrial applications may place Bio-
filters in closed vessels with deep layers of media to save space. These systems may
be either up or down flow, depending upon the moisture application system. Open
Bio-filters are more commonly used as they are less expensive than closed systems,
have relatively thin layers of media to reduce backpressure on the air handler, are
outdoors, and are usually quite large in terms of surface area exposed to the
atmosphere (http://www.ncsu.edu).
2.1. Major Design Considerations
Methods of air flow distribution and media support -
Air flow through the Bio-filter may be distributed by several methods. The outer
walls of the air plenum may be formed by earth beams, concrete walls or other
support mechanisms. A plenum lining provides for proper drainage of the Bio-filter,
it can be formed with perforated air distribution piping buried in a coarse rock bed.
If a rock bed is used, special consideration must be given to the type of rock.
Limestone and other soft rock cannot be used because it breaks down in the acidic
environment and may obstruct air flow.
2.1.1. Media selection
Media may be purchased or blended based on local availability. Wood chips, bark,
and various soil media are commonly used. Media replacement frequency is
affected by media selection, as mentioned above.
2.1.2. Moisture Control
Moisture control may be accomplished by pre-humidification of the air in a mist
chamber with spray nozzles, with a packed tower humidification chamber, by
keeping the media wet using soaker piping within the media bed, surface irrigation
with spray nozzles, or a combination of these methods. Moisture sensors have not
proven to be extremely reliable, therefore manual operator monitoring is typically
used to ensure adequate moisture content.


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2.1.3. Loadings
Loading of Bio-filters should be properly designed to prevent acid formation,
corrosion problems, premature compaction of the media, short-circuiting the media
bed, inadequate Bio-logical activity, and other problems which can result in sub-
standard performance of the Bio-filter.
2.1.4. Corrosion Protection
Due to the formation of sulfuric acid as a byproduct in hydrogen sulfide treatment,
the following corrosion protection should be included in the Bio-filter design:
1. Liners or protective coatings on concrete
2. Installation of pH probes in drain water to measure pH (www.odor.net).

3. BIO-FILTERS IN WATER AND WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT
Bio-filters can be used in treatment of water containing natural organic matter,
storm water management and treatment of waste water.

3.1. Bio-filters in Water Treatment
Due to its low maintenance costs and effective removal of Bio-degradable organic
matter, ozonation Bio-filtration is becoming an attractive drinking water
treatment method. Natural organic matter (NOM) in water is a major concern and
should be removed from drinking water due to the following reasons
1. affects properties of water (color, taste and odor);
2. reacts with disinfectants used in water treatment affecting the disinfection
process
3. increased coagulant demand;
4. may control coagulation conditions and coagulation performance;
5. affects corrosion processes;
6. affects Bio-stability and Bio-logical re-growth in distribution systems
(http://www.techneau.org)
Four principal methods for removal of NOM are chemical coagulation, anion
exchange, membrane filtration, and granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration. GAC
is being replaced with ozonation Bio-filtration process (OBP). In this process,

151
instead of using adsorptive properties of GAC, the microbes living in the media are
employed. Bio-logical processes offer a potentially useful alternative because
regular regeneration of GAC is not required and Bio-degradable organic matter is
preferably eliminated
The principle of Bio-filtration is to utilize bacteria and protozoa, which are attached
to the surface of filter materials, to clean water from undesirable substance in
drinking water. The Bio-filters are used for removal of Bio-degradable organic
matter, iron, manganese, sulphate, nitrate, pesticides, taste and odor causing
substances and algal metabolites.
The ozonation Bio-filtration processes (OBP) are used for the removal of NOM from
groundwater as well as surface water. In groundwater and small surface water
treatment plants, ozonation-Bio-filtration may be used as the only unit processes.
In larger plants, which are using polluted surface water, it is common that OBP are
only parts of the unit processes used in the plant. Commonly, the process is
combined with coagulation and particle separation. The process often includes pre-
ozonation to provide primary disinfection and also to aid coagulation/flocculation
in a following particle separation step. In Bio-filtration granular activated carbon is
normally the filter media, and disinfection step (UV, chlorination, chloramination)
after the Bio-logical filtration in order to obtain additional disinfection and
inactivate the heterotrophic bacteria present in the Bio-filter effluent. This
procedure is proved to be successful in some towns of European Nations
(http://www.techneau.org).
3.2 Bio-filters in Storm and Waste Water Management
Bio-filters can be applied to address all of the design objectives of urban Storm
Water Management. These include: reduction of urban runoff impacts,
groundwater recharge, water quality control, stream channel protection and peak
discharge control...The most common application of the Bio-filters is typically their
use as the first stage of the treatment and their purpose is to address groundwater
recharge and water quality control for small headwater areas (wwe.epa.gov).
Grey-water represents 80% of the total wastewater generated in homes, the product
of many everyday activities including personal hygiene, household cleaning, and
the washing of dishes, cooking utensils and clothes. An alternative form of grey-
water management is the Bio-logical filter, which uses natural processes to purify
water. Bio-logical filters have proven to be an appropriate technology for the

152
treatment of domestic grey-water, ensuring the effective removal of 95% of organic
matter. The quality of water found in effluent is optimal for use as irrigation, and
can be channeled into a body of surface water or used to recharge groundwater
aquifers through infiltration. Cleaning up the water helps to minimize the negative
environmental impacts caused by the disposal of grey-water in soils, lakes and
rivers.
A Bio-filter is designed to treat grey-water and regulate storm water by Bio-
filtration, which combines mechanical retention through filtering material and Bio-
logical transformation of the pollutants in the water to be treated, eliminating a
significant amount of pollutants before they reach the groundwater, river or natural
wetland. The system can be designed for a single house or groups of houses. The
size of the system varies according to the volume of water treated. Grey-water
contains nitrates, phosphates, soap, salt, bacteria, foams, food particles, organic
matter, suspended solids, perfumes and dyes. Grey-water originates from
households, schools and all places where water is used for cleaning purposes,
excluding excreta. It is the product of laundries, bathrooms, sinks and other
household uses. Home Bio-filters are a sustainable way of removing pollutants
from grey-water (www.ideassonline.org).
Vegetative filter strips and bare soil can be used in this process. Different studies
have shown the efficacy of vegetated buffer strips in removing contaminants from
various kinds of wastewater (particularly wastewater derived from farming activities
or non-point-sources of pollution); while soil column experiments have shown that
pollutant concentrations can be attenuated in part by the soil itself. In particular,
use of vegetative filter strips designed for the removal of sediments, organic matter,
nutrients, agrochemicals, and bacteria from run-off and wastewater is
recommended.
Three different types of vegetated Bio-filter types are
3.2.1. Grass Swales
Grass swales have traditionally been used as a low cost storm-water conveyance
practice, called grassed waterways, in low to medium density residential
developments (e.g., half-acre lots).


153
These attributes include:
1. Slower flow velocities than pipe systems that result in longer times of
concentration and corresponding reduction of peak discharges
2. Ability to disconnect directly connected impervious surfaces, such as driveways
and roadways, thus reducing the computed runoff.
3. Filtering of pollutants by grass media
4. Infiltration of runoff into the soil profile, thus reducing peak discharges and
providing additional pollutant removal
5. Uptake of pollutants by plant roots (phyto-remediation) (www.epa.gov)
3.2.2. Dry Swale with Filter Media
The dry swale consists of an open channel that has been modified to enhance its
water quality treatment capability by adding a filtering medium consisting of a soil
bed with an under drain system. The dry swale is designed to temporarily store the
design water quality volume and allow it to percolate through the treatment
medium. The system is designed to drain down between storm events within
approximately one day. The water quality treatment mechanisms are similar to Bio-
retention practices except that the pollutant uptake is likely to be more limited
since only a grass cover crop is available for nutrient uptake (www.epa.gov).
3.2.3. Vegetative Filter Strips
Vegetative Filter Strips and buffers are areas of land with vegetative cover that are
designed to accept runoff as overland sheet flow from upstream development. They
can be constructed, or existing vegetated buffer areas can be used. Dense
vegetative cover facilitates sediment attenuation and pollutant removal. Unlike
grass swales, VFS are effective only for overland sheet flow and provide little
treatment for concentrated flows. Grading and level spreaders can be used to create
a uniformly sloping area that distributes the runoff evenly across the filter strip
Filter strips have been used to treat runoff from roads and highways, roof
downspouts, very small parking lots, and pervious surfaces. They can also be used
as the outer zone of a stream buffer or as pretreatment to a structural practice.
VFS are often used as pretreatment for other structural practices, such as
infiltration basins and infiltration trenches. This recommendation is consistent
with recommendations in the agricultural setting that filter strips are most effective
when combined with another practice (www.epa.gov).

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3.2.4. Bio-retention
Bio-retention is a practice that manages and treats storm-water runoff using a
conditioned planting soil bed and planting materials to filter runoff stored within a
shallow depression. The method combines physical filtering and adsorption with
Bio-logical processes. The system consists of a flow regulation structure, pre-
treatment filter strip or grass channel, sand bed, pea gravel overflow curtain drain,
shallow ponding area, surface organic layer of mulch, a planting soil bed, plant
material, a gravel under drain system, and an overflow system (www.epa.gov).
This technology can be used even at house hold or community level by passing the
house hold grey water through vegetated Bio-filter after suitable pretreatment.
Pretreatment is essential because it prevents larger particles from reaching the Bio-
filter. Routine maintenance for this process involves the removal of solids and fat
stuck to the tanks. Maintenance frequency depends on the volumes of water
discharged and the number of solids present. The effluent of Bio-filter can be used
for maintaining lawns or can be disposed safely into surface streams.
The recent studies indicate that even the traditional waste water treatment
methods like Suspended growth systems (Activated Sludge process) and Attached
growth systems (trickling filters) can be enhanced by increasing the rate of Bio-logic
metabolism by modifying aeration patterns, use of media like plastics ,rubber
etc(www.epa.gov).

4. CONCLUSION
Sustainable environmental management mainly includes proper water, waste water
management and conservation of atmosphere by protecting from harmful hazards
of air pollution. Use of Bio-filters satisfies the purpose by reducing the operational
and maintenance costs.
Proper management of storm water and house hold waste water is very much
required to implement water conservation and reuse techniques like ground water
recharge and reuse of household domestic waste water. Natural Bio-filters like
vegetative filter strips can be used as a solution.



155

REFERENCES
1. Home Bio-filters Bio-logical Filters to Remove Grey water Nutrients available at
http://www.ideassonline.org/public/pdf/Bio-filtro_ideassonline_eng.pdf
2. Marc A Dehusses Bio-logical Waste Air Treatment in Bio-filters available at
http://deshusses.pratt.duke.edu/files/deshusses/u31/pdf/ja7.pdf
3. Marc A. Dehusses BIO-TRICKLING FILTERS FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
available at http://www.engr.ucr.edu/~mdeshuss/pdf%20Files/bc3.pdf
4. Michael L. Clar Billy J. Barfield Thomas P. OConnor (2004) Storm water Best
Management Practice Design Guide Volume 2 Vegetative Bio-filters available at
http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/600r04121/600r04121a.pdf
5. ODOR CONTROL TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY available at
http://www.odor.net/images/Bio-xide.pdf
6. R.E. Nicolai and R.M. LefersBio-filters Used to Reduce Emissions from Livestock
Housing A Literature Review available at
http://www.ncsu.edu/airworkshop/Posters-n-p.pdf
7. T. Juhna, E. Melin (2006) Ozonation and Bio-filtration in Water Treatment
8. Operational status and Optimization issues Techneau available at
http://www.techneau.org/fileadmin/files/Publications/Publications/Deliverable
s/D5.3.1B-OBF.pdf






156
INTEGRATING CELLULAR TECHNOLOGY WITH CIVIL
ENGINEERING
Ashutosh Chaturvedi
1
, Akshay Dikshit
1
, Devraj Sinha Roy
1
1
Department of Electronics Engineering, 3
rd
year, Northern India Engineering College,
Lucknow
E-mail: ashutoshc21@gmail.com, akshay0803@gmail.com, raj24490@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Suppose there is a construction project to be done, and then prior to that there will
be surveys of the project like the site analysis, geographical variations etc. If the
project is for a Highway, say 500 KM long, then we will have to trace the proposed
path for the complete knowledge of how and what to start with. This can be done
by using sensors at those portions and controlling them by micro controllers over a
network via DTMF or GPRS modules. For example, we attach an ultrasonic sensor
which emits ultrasonic waves and receives the waves reflected from nearby
surroundings. It will keep on INFORMING the controller about the conditions of
the structure by analyzing the distance from which the waves are coming back.
Our work is based mainly on DTMF & GPRS controlling of the devices because they
have no range boundations as well as mobile networks are available almost
everywhere. We just have to make a call to the device, it will auto answer our call
and based on reports and data we will send instructions to the device via our
mobile phones to take the next action, like sending more details or informing some
other team which is stationed nearby.

1. INTRODUCTION
Mobile communication systems have proved to be a great leap for mankind, no
matter which field you hail from, what discipline you are in, you cannot ignore
Cellular Services and using them definitely has added benefits, be it in ease of
communicating, data transfer, fun & entertainment. So in order to make the
mobile phones more beneficiary we present here a paper for Integrating Cellular
Technology with Civil Engineering at Nirmaan-11, IT-BHU. It is a part of the event

157
PRAGATI with the theme Emerging aspects of Remote Sensing, GIS and GPS.
First of all talking about GPS or the global positioning system, mobile phones are
nowadays equipped with GPS facilities. It is a system to trace the exact location of
a person on the earth if he is carrying a GPS device with him. Lets see how this
can help civil engineers:
Suppose there is a construction project to be done, and then prior to that there will
be surveys of the projects like the site analysis, geographical variations etc. If the
project is for a Highway, say 500 KM long, then we will have to trace the proposed
path for the complete knowledge of how and what to start with. If we use a GPS
equipped vehicle and just traverse one throughout the proposed path, we can get a
recorded graphical analysis of the path with very minute details of the path due to
which it will lead to speedy processing of the project which is very necessary in
India.
Now looking out for another feature is the site analysis in tough terrains, for this
application lets suppose there is a construction project to be done in some
mountainous region or a place where reaching is not so easy. For this instead of
moving with extra efforts we can send a robot which is capable of image processing
as well as communication, that robot will reach the site and will be least affected
by the hardships there. By studying the reports and data sent by the robot, we can
have detailed analysis of the site by without actually going there and decide how to
start the project.
Moving a step ahead and perhaps most important aspect of this presentation of
this paper we have to think about the monitoring of the civil constructions. For
example, suppose a mega project is completed with a very new approach and the
site is up to public use, but since the idea was new, we have to be cautious about
the shortcomings or limitations of that too. We all know that every construction
has a life time after that it becomes weak and demands maintenance work, by
proper usage of sensors (Remote Sensing) we can keep 24x7 watch on whatever
portions we desire to and quickly take suitable action as soon as a threat is
detected. This can be done by using sensors at those portions and controlling them
by micro-controllers over a network via DTMF or GPRS modules. For example, we
attach an ultrasonic sensor which emits ultrasonic waves and receives the waves
reflected from nearby surroundings. It will keep on INFORMING the controller
about the conditions of the structure by analyzing the distance from which the
waves are coming back. Now if there is a flaw in the structure, say a crack, there

158
will be slight deformation which may be not interpreted by human senses but the
sensors would record a slight change in received waveforms due to which,
according to programming of the circuit we will get a notification. Now we can
tolerate a fixed amount of distortion then we just have to feed in the values up to
which there is no danger, we will be kept in touch of that too but if there is much
deviation from those parameters we will be alarmed over the network and we can
decide the next step. These simple applications are easy to use, cheap, extremely
fast and accurate and the most important benefit is that we will be in touch of each
and every part of our structure every time. Our work is based mainly on DTMF &
GPRS controlling of the devices because they have no range boundations as well as
mobile networks are available almost everywhere. We just have to make a call to
the device, It will auto answer our call and based on reports and data we will send
instructions to the device via our mobile phones to take the next action, like
sending more details or informing some other team which is stationed nearby.
These approaches are quite useful and if applied properly can add new benefits for
civil engineers in future and overall we can help our nation in better management
of Human Resource as well as speedy infrastructural developments.

2. THE IDEA

The main theme of this presentation is to design a system which will regularly
monitor a structure which might be a mega civil project or any new design of a
building or something which is very important and critical either from economic
point of view or utility. Sensors have changed the world of electronics a lot. With
the help of sensors, emitters and receivers we can monitor anything without
human effort and get informed whenever there is a change in it. Starting over the
project first of all we had to decide what kind of sensors will fulfill our purpose.
Initially for the sake of simplicity we used IR sensors. IR stands for infrared sensors
which consist of an IR LED and an IR receiver. We fixed the sensor on a wall out of
which flat cemented flakes dropped occasionally. We kept on repairing it but it fell
again. So we used this sensor to immediately know if next time the cement pieces
even came out a centimeter from their regular position.
If it worked here, we could easily implement it on any structure we want to. After
fixing the sensor in such a position that initially the IR rays travelled straight along

159
the wall but if something pops out of the wall, it will hinder the path of the ray, it
will get reflected and come back to the sensor and generate a HIGH logic at its IR
receiver which in turn is fed to the microcontroller. As soon as it gives high logic,
the program running in the controller retrieves whats the next action, which we
have programmed to simply turn on a LED on a monitor panel which will be with
us. As soon as we get the LED on, we come to know that something is wrong there
in the wall.

3. THE IMPLEMENTATION
To realize the above mentioned scheme we used an AVR Development board which
has all necessary circuitry to take input from the sensors and give corresponding
results. Then we have an AT Mega 8535 microcontroller, a DTMF decoder module,
2 cell phones with headset and auto answering facility. The controller has 40 pins
out of which 32 can be used as I/O pins i.e. we have 4 8-bit ports which we can
configure to work as per our need. On one port (PORT A) we connected the sensor
and on another we connected the DTMF decoder to send the information to us.
DTMF stands for Dual Tone Multiple Frequency. Every key on our mobile has
unique tone, although we cannot distinguish between them but electronics can
do!!! So we are ready with the apparatus. We connect one cell phone to the
microcontroller in such configuration that on different situations it VIRTUALLY
PRESSES different keys varying from 0 to 9.
VIRTUAL PRESS means that the keys will not be pressed but the microcontroller
will short that switch which is equivalent to pressing that switch. We programmed
our system such that whenever the sensors make a high logic the CALL BUTTON
will be shorted. The call will reach the remote phone i.e. to us and we come to know
that something is erroneous there. The call will be auto answered and. After this
according to variety of situations there the controllers will VIRTUALLY PRESS
respective keys as per our program and transmit it over the phone line. At our end
the DTMF decoder will inform us which key is pressed there and hence we come to
know what PROBABLY could be the problem. But there is one major drawback in
this system and that is that if some creatures like insect, lizard etc come in front of
the sensor it will get initiated for the whole process. To overcome this difficulty we
can make use of Ultrasonic sensors which can be configured to sense changes at
some distance or even also we can use MEMS which will give us the logic just if it
varies in position. In that case we are free from surrounding disturbances.

160

4. THE ADVANTAGES

MEMS stand for Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, where by some mechanical
force or variation we can generate electronic signals. They are very easy to use and
handle, the procedure for using them is exactly same as IR or LDR sensors with the
only difference that they generate the voltage whenever there is a change in its
alignment or somewhat. The only AS ONE CAN SAY disadvantage is that they are
right now much costlier than normal sensors but we are sure that cheaper
fabrication of memos would soon be a reality.
Furthermore these systems can be used in any location, in all terrains, they are
least affected by climate and physical conditions. There are places which are
hazardous for humans, so we can design small robots fixed with these devices to
properly analyze and monitor such areas and inform us about any such changes
we are concerned off or somewhat.



5. CONCLUSION
In the end we just want to say that this is just a sudden implementation of a very
small scale project but it proved very useful and they can surely be applied in
larger dimensions for big use and they are going to be beneficial.
Last but not the least, I want to tell you that we call this system as S. M. S and
thats not Short Message Service but its Structure Monitoring System or simply we
can say Smart Monitoring System but as we have implemented it through mobile
phones, SMS seems to be perfect title for it.

6. FIGURES

161

Fig.1 : The AVR Development Board
.




162











DTMF keypad frequencies (with sound clips)

1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477 Hz 1633 Hz
697 Hz 1 2 3 A
770 Hz 4 5 6 B
852 Hz 7 8 9 C
941 Hz * 0 # D

163

Fig.2: Detailed Schematic













164

Fig.3 The AT mega 8535 pin out








165


Fig. 4.

REFERENCES
1. Majidi & Ayala, Microcontrollers.
2. Technophilia Systems, AVR Tutorial.
3. William Lee, Mobile Communication Engineering.
4. Schilling Taub, Principles of Communications.












166
APPLICATION OF GIS & GPS FOR ONLINE VEHICLE
TRACKING

GANESH KUMAR. B, SWARUP. S
INSTITUTE OF ROAD AND TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY,
ERODE 638316, India
Email: ganeshkumar.pollachi@gmail.com, swarupselvaraj@live.com
A AB BS ST TR RA AC CT T
Roads are part of the infrastructure that makes up the spinal cord of modern
society. The aim of the project work is to develop a system for obtaining real time
data such as velocity, location of vehicles, and travel time of vehicles etc using GPS
receivers. The data from the GPS are transmitted to a base station via GSM to the
system ARC GIS and it can be displayed in map. The current technology in the field
of communication is used for Real time vehicle tracking. This solution doesnt
require any intervention of user and data gets automatically transferred through
service provider networks for two-way communication. The various issues involved
in this task include the use of GPS receivers linked with mobile applications (GSM)
to provide direct observations of the vehicle. This is coupled with a database
management system using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software, to
provide a reliable and efficient system for online vehicle monitoring, navigation and
tracking. Integration of GIS/GPS with modern techniques such as Web mapping
will enable web based tracking of vehicles from away part of the globe. Web
mapping solution plays an important role in online vehicle tracking service, based
on GPS and Cellular technology. The ideal solution would allow customers to
access a Web-based map to track their vehicles in real-time.
1 1. . I IN NT TR RO OD DU UC CT TI IO ON N
T Th he e p pr re es se en nt t a an nn nu ua al l p pr ro od du uc ct ti io on n o of f v ve eh hi ic cl le es s i in n I In nd di ia a i is s o of f t th he e o or rd de er r o of f 7 7. .3 3 m mi il ll li io on n. . A As s
t th he e n nu um mb be er r o of f v ve eh hi ic cl le es s o on n r ro oa ad d i in nc cr re ea as se es s, , t th he e f fo ol ll lo ow wi in ng g p pr ro ob bl le em ms s a as ss so oc ci ia at te ed d w wi it th h
t th he e t tr ra af ff fi ic c m ma an na ag ge em me en nt t a al ls so o i in nc cr re ea as se es s v vi io ol la at ti io on n o of f t tr ra af ff fi ic c r ru ul le es s, , a ac cc ci id de en nt ts s, , v ve eh hi ic cl le e
t th he ef ft t. .
At present there is no scientific system available to track and minimize the
problems mentioned above. With the integration of GPS data, GIS database, it is

167
possible to monitor the movements of all vehicles on road. However this involves
the usage of GPS in all vehicles, which will decrease the cost of the vehicles by an
amount of at least Rs.2500/- by providing a built-in GPS in all vehicles. Attempt
has been made to design a system to track the vehicles owned by government and
private agencies such as universities, Call Taxis, corporations etc using GIS and
GPS.
2. GIS (GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM)
GIS is a computer based system, consisting of computer hardware, software,
geographic data, and personnel designed to effectively capture, store, update,
manipulate, analyze and display the spatial and non-spatialdata.GIS allows a user
to interact with geographically referenced information. A GIS can provide a valuable
tool for tracking and monitoring vehicles movements. The current location of
vehicles can be viewed in a transportation network. The entire system was framed
around the two major building blocks of a GIS enabled system of Spatial and Non-
spatial data. This project work attempts to display the extent of existing GIS
applications within road transportation network, and critically assess their
appropriateness and potential for vehicle tracking. Spatial data are spatial layers
that required to be incorporated into the system and Non-spatial Data are
attributes that are required to be attached to the spatial data layers.
3. GPS TECHNOLOGY (GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM)
A satellite based radio positioning system.
T Th hr re ee e S Se eg gm me en nt ts s
1 1. . S Sp pa ac ce e S Se eg gm me en nt t - - 2 24 4 s sa at te el ll li it te es s. .
2 2. . C Co on nt tr ro ol l S Se eg gm me en nt t. .
3 3. . U Us se er r S Se eg gm me en nt t. .

3 3. .1 1. . G GP PS S S Sa at te el ll li it te e

1 1. . F Fi ir rs st t o on ne e l la au un nc ch he ed d i in n 1 19 97 78 8 a an nd d i is s c co on nt tr ro ol ll le ed d b by y t th he e U U. .S S D De ep pa ar rt tm me en nt t o of f D De ef fe en ns se e. .
2 2. . E Ea ac ch h s sa at te el ll li it te e i is s b bu ui il lt t t to o l la as st t a ab bo ou ut t 1 10 0 y ye ea ar rs s. . R Re ep pl la ac ce em me en nt ts s a ar re e c co on ns st ta an nt tl ly y b be ei in ng g
b bu ui il lt t a an nd d l la au un nc ch he ed d i in nt to o o or rb bi it t. . S Si ig gn na al ls s a ar re e a av va ai il la ab bl le e t to o c ci iv vi il li ia an n u us se er rs s f fr re ee e o of f
c ch ha ar rg ge e. .

168
3 3. . G GP PS S s sa at te el ll li it te es s t tr ra an ns sm mi it t t tw wo o l lo ow w p po ow we er r r ra ad di io o s si ig gn na al ls s, , d de es si ig gn na at te ed d L L1 1 a an nd d L L2 2. . G GP PS S
u us se es s t th he e L L1 1 f fr re eq qu ue en nc cy y o of f 1 15 57 75 5. .4 42 2 M MH Hz z i in n t th he e U UH HF F b ba an nd d. .

3 3. .2 2. . G GP PS S N No om mi in na al l C Co on ns st te el ll la at ti io on n

1 1. . 2 24 4 s sa at te el ll li it te e i in n 6 6 o or rb bi it ta al l p pl la an ne es s. .
2 2. . 4 4 s sa at te el ll li it te es s i in n e ea ac ch h p pl la an ne e. .
3 3. . 2 20 0, ,2 20 00 0 k km m a al lt ti it tu ud de e, , 5 55 5 D De eg gr re ee e I In nc cl li in na at ti io on n. .

3 3. .3 3. . S Sa at te el ll li it te e S Se eg gm me en nt t

1 1. . N NA AV VS ST TA AR R ( (N Na av vi ig ga at ti io on n b by y S Sa at te el ll li it te e T Ti im mi in ng g a an nd d R Ra an ng gi in ng g) ). .
2 2. . S Sa at te el ll li it te es s o or rb bi it t i in n 6 6 o or rb bi it ta al l p pl la at te es s t to o p pr ro ov vi id de e c co om mp pl le et te e c co ov ve er ra ag ge e. .
3 3. . S Sa at te el ll li it te es s o or rb bi it t a at t 1 10 0, ,9 90 00 0 m mi il le es s. .

3 3. .4 4. . U Us se er r S Se eg gm me en nt t

1 1. . U Un ni it ts s r re ec ce ei iv ve e t tr ra an ns sm mi is ss si io on n f fr ro om m S Sa at te el ll li it te es s. .
2 2. . C Co os st t b be et tw we ee en n R Rs s1 10 0, , 0 00 00 0 t to o R Rs s7 7, , 0 00 0, ,0 00 00 0 / /- - ( (d de ep pe en nd ds s o on n a ac cc cu ur ra ac cy y) ). .
3 3. . M Mu us st t b be e l li in ne e o of f s si ig gh ht t w wi it th h s sa at te el ll li it te es s. .

3 3. .5 5. . P Pr ri in nc ci ip pl le e o of f G GP PS S

1 1. . P Po os si it ti io on n o of f s sa at te el ll li it te es s i is s k kn no ow wn n. .
2 2. . S Sa at te el ll li it te e p pr ro ov vi id de es s a an n e el le ec ct tr ro on ni ic c a al lm ma an na ac c t to o t th he e r re ec ce ei iv ve er r ( (S So ok kk ki ia a) ). .
3 3. . T Th he e s sp pe ee ed d o of f t th he e r ra ad di io o s si ig gn na al l f fr ro om m e ea ac ch h s sa at te el ll li it te e i is s k kn no ow wn n. .
4. Timing allows the calculation of the distance from each satellite.
5. Using triangulation, the position of the receiver is calculated.

4 4. . T TR RA AC CK KI IN NG G
T To o t tr ra ac ck k w wh he er re e t th he e v ve eh hi ic cl le e i is s i in n t th he e g gi iv ve en n m mo om me en nt t o of f t ti im me e i is s e eq qu ua al ll ly y, , i if f n no ot t e ev ve en n
m mo or re e c cr ru uc ci ia al l, , i in n e ef ff fi ic ci ie en nt t f fl le ee et t m ma an na ag ge em me en nt t. . T Tr ra ac ck ki in ng g a an nd d m mo on ni it to or ri in ng g o of f v ve eh hi ic cl le e

169
m mo ov ve em me en nt ts s e em me er rg ge ed d w wi it th h t th he e a ad dv va an nc ce es s i in n m mo ob bi il le e c co om mm mu un ni ic ca at ti io on n ( (G GS SM M) ) a an nd d
s sa at te el ll li it te e n na av vi ig ga at ti io on n ( (G GP PS S) ). . T Th he e p po os si it ti io on n o of f a a v ve eh hi ic cl le e i is s m mo on ni it to or re ed d v vi ia a o on nb bo oa ar rd d G GP PS S, ,
t tr ra an ns sm mi it tt te ed d b ba ac ck k t to o a a b ba as se e v vi ia a G GS SM M, , a an nd d l lo oa ad de ed d i in nt to o G GI IS S s so of ft tw wa ar re e w wh he er re e i it t c ca an n b be e
d di is sp pl la ay ye ed d o on n m ma ap p. . I If f t th hi is s i is s a ap pp pl li ie ed d t to o a a f fl le ee et t o of f c ca al ll l t ta ax xi i t th he e e ex xa ac ct t l lo oc ca at ti io on n o of f a al ll l
v ve eh hi ic cl le es s w wi il ll l b be e k kn no ow wn n a at t a al ll l t ti im me es s t to o t th he e c ca ar r o ow wn ne er rs s, , t th hu us s i im mp pr ro ov vi in ng g a an ny y n ne ee ed de ed d
e em me er rg ge en nc cy y r re es sp po on ns se e t to o t th he e d dr ri iv ve er r a an nd d c cu us st to om me er r r re es sp po on ns se e t to o i in nc co om mi in ng g o or rd de er rs s, ,
e en ns su ur ri in ng g t th ha at t t th he e n ne ea ar re es st t a av va ai il la ab bl le e t ta ax xi i i is s s se en nt t t to o t th he e p pi ic ck ku up p l lo oc ca at ti io on n. . W Wh he en n a a G GP PS S
i is s m mo ou un nt te ed d o on n a a c ca ar r, , i it t c co on nt ti in nu uo ou us sl ly y r re el la ay ys s t th he e c ca ar r s s p po os si it ti io on n t to o a a c co on nt tr ro ol l c ce en nt tr re e. .
T Th he e c ca ar r c ca an n e ea as si il ly y b be e t tr ra ac ck ke ed d i in n c ca as se e i it t i is s s st to ol le en n. . I In n c ca as se e o of f a an n e em me er rg ge en nc cy y
b br re ea ak kd do ow wn n, , h he el lp p c ca an n r re ea ac ch h t th he e e ex xa ac ct t l lo oc ca at ti io on n w wi it th hi in n a a s sh ho or rt t s sp pa an n o of f t ti im me e. .

5 5. . C CO ON NC CE EP PT T O OF F V VE EH HI IC CL LE E T TR RA AC CK KI IN NG G
T Th he e c co on nc ce ep pt t o of f v ve eh hi ic cl le e t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g s st ta ar rt te ed d w wi it th h t th he e F Fi ir rs st t g ge en ne er ra at ti io on n p pr ro od du uc ct t o of f d da at ta a
l lo og gg gi in ng g s sy ys st te em ms s. . T Th hi is s h ha ad d l li im mi it ta at ti io on ns s a as s d da at ta a w wo ou ul ld d b be e l lo og gg ge ed d o on n t th he e d de ev vi ic ce e i in n a a
v ve eh hi ic cl le e a an nd d c co ou ul ld d b be e d do ow wn nl lo oa ad de ed d o on nl ly y a af ft te er r t th he e v ve eh hi ic cl le e r re ea ac ch he ed d i it ts s d de es st ti in na at ti io on n. .
T Th he en n c ca am me e t th he e S Se ec co on nd d- -g ge en ne er ra at ti io on n p pr ro od du uc ct t i in n t th he e f fo or rm m o of f i in nf fr ra ar re ed d t to ow we er rs s. . T Th hi is s t to oo o
w wa as s s sh ho or rt t- -l li iv ve ed d, , a as s i it t r re eq qu ui ir re ed d h hu ug ge e i in nv ve es st tm me en nt ts s t to o s se et t u up p t th he e i in nf fr ra ar re ed d t to ow we er rs s a al lo on ng g
t th he e h hi ig gh hw wa ay ys s t to o t tr ra ac ck k t th he e v ve eh hi ic cl le es s. . T Th he e T Th hi ir rd d- -g ge en ne er ra at ti io on n p pr ro od du uc ct t i in nv vo ol lv ve ed d
G GP PS S/ /G GS SM M m mo od de el ls s w wi it th h f fi ix xe ed d s so of ft tw wa ar re e. . E Ev ve en n t th hi is s w wa as s f fo ou un nd d t to o b be e e ex xp pe en ns si iv ve e, , h he en nc ce e
c co ou ul ld d n no ot t b be e u us se ed d c co om mm me er rc ci ia al ll ly y . .N No ow w, , a a n ne ew w r ra an ng ge e o of f p pr ro od du uc ct ts s h ha as s e em me er rg ge ed d i in n t th he e
g gl lo ob ba al l m ma ar rk ke et t t th ha at t i is s b ba as se ed d o on n G GP PS S/ /G GS SM M m mo od de el ls s, , b bu ut t w wi it th h a a m mo od du ul la ar r c co on nc ce ep pt t, ,
o of ff fe er ri in ng g t tw wo o- -w wa ay y i in nt te er ra ac ct ti io on n b be et tw we ee en n t th he e o ow wn ne er r a an nd d t th he e d dr ri iv ve er r a al ll l t th hr ro ou ug gh h t th he e
j jo ou ur rn ne ey y. .
6 6. . T TY YP PE ES S O OF F V VE EH HI IC CL LE E T TR RA AC CK KI IN NG G

B Ba as se ed d o on n t th he e w wa ay y i in n w wh hi ic ch h v ve eh hi ic cl le es s a ar re e t tr ra ac ck ke ed d, , t th he e t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g s sy ys st te em m c ca an n b be e
c cl la as ss si if fi ie ed d b br ro oa ad dl ly y i in nt to o t tw wo o t ty yp pe es s n na am me el ly y, ,
1 1. . O On nl li in ne e v ve eh hi ic cl le e t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g
2 2. . O Of ff fl li in ne e v ve eh hi ic cl le e t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g
I In n c ca as se e o of f o of ff fl li in ne e t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g t th he e G GP PS S i is s c co ou up pl le ed d t to o a a m me em mo or ry y u un ni it t a an nd d t th he e d da at ta a
r re ec co or rd de ed d i in n t th he e m me em mo or ry y u un ni it t, , w wh hi ic ch h c ca an n b be e d do ow wn nl lo oa ad de ed d s so o t th ha at t t th he e m mo ov ve em me en nt ts s o of f
v ve eh hi ic cl le e, , n no o o of f s st to op ps s, , s sp pe ee ed d v vi io ol la at ti io on n, , t tr ra av ve el l t ti im me e e et tc c c ca an n b be e m mo on ni it to or re ed d. . I In n c ca as se e o of f
o on nl li in ne e t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g t th he e G GP PS S r re ec ce ei iv ve er r m mo ou un nt te ed d o on n t th he e v ve eh hi ic cl le es s w wi il ll l c co on nt ti in nu uo ou us sl ly y

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t tr ra an ns sm mi it t s si ig gn na al l t th hr ro ou ug gh h s so om me e m me ea an ns s l li ik ke e G GS SM M/ /I In nt te er rn ne et t t to o t th he e b ba as se e s st ta at ti io on n s so o t th ha at t
t th he e e ex xa ac ct t p po os si it ti io on n o of f t th he e v ve eh hi ic cl le es s c ca an n b be e m mo on ni it to or re ed d o on n l li in ne e. .
6.1. Online Vehicle Tracking
Online Tracking using GPS positioning has been implemented in many industries
in the past few years. Online tracking enables the controller to have an idea about
the relative locations of several vehicles on a computer screen so that the
movements of vehicles can be monitored. This also makes two-way
communication between the driver and controller possible. This can also enable the
controller to issue warning then and there whenever they violate the instructions
given to them. Technology evens allows immobilization of the vehicles when theft is
suspected. Online Tracking can be done using the lap top, computer connected to
the Internet or using mobile phone and a palm top computer. Online Technology
provides a range of equipment including the vehicle GPS/GSM tracking system. An
attempt is made to replace of the offline vehicle tracking.
7 7. . R RO OU UT TI IN NG G

R Ro ou ut te es s a an nd d D Di ir re ec ct ti io on ns s w wi it th h d di is sp pl la ay y o of f r ro ou ut te es s o on n m ma ap p, , S Sh hi if ft t w wi is se e e em mp pl lo oy ye ee e n na am me es s
w wi it th h p pi ic ck ku up p p po oi in nt ts s / /t ti im me e, , t to o t th he e f fi in nd d s sh ho or rt te es st t p pa at th h c cr ri it te er ri ia a. .
7 7. .1 1. . T Tr ra ac ck ki in ng g
D Di is sp pa at tc ch hi in ng g, , m mo on ni it to or r r re em mo ot te e v ve eh hi ic cl le es s, , c co on nv ve en ni ie en nc ce e o of f I In nt te er rn ne et t a ac cc ce es ss si ib bl le e
i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n, , n ne ee ed d e em ma ai il l a al le er rt ts s, , c ce en nt tr ra al li iz ze ed d d da at ta a w wi it th ho ou ut t a a L LA AN N o or r W WA AN N, ,
r re es sp po on ns si iv ve en ne es ss s t to o c cu us st to om me er r s se er rv vi ic ce e i is ss su ue es s i is s i im mp po or rt ta an nt t. . O On nl li in ne e t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g i is s n no ot t
c co om mp pl le et te el ly y a af ff fe ec ct te ed d b by y r ra ai in n, , i ic ce e, , f fo og g b be ec ca au us se e o of f t th he es se e c co on nd di it ti io on ns s t th he e d de eg gr re ee e o of f
p pr re ec ci is si io on n c ca an n b be e p po oo or r. .
7 7. .2 2. . M Mo od de e o of f O Op pe er ra at ti io on n
R Re ea al l t ti im me e w wi it th h p po os si it ti io on n u up pd da at te es s e ev ve er ry y i in n m mi in nu ut te e. .
7 7. .3 3. . C Co om mm mu un ni ic ca at ti io on n M Me et th ho od d
D Da at ta a i is s t tr ra an ns sf fe er rr re ed d f fr ro om m t th he e v ve eh hi ic cl le e t to o t th he e c co om mp pu ut te er r u us si in ng g t th he e G GS SM M w wi ir re el le es ss s
n ne et tw wo or rk k. .

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T Th he e f fo ol ll lo ow wi in ng g o ou ut tp pu ut ts s c ca an n b be e v vi ie ew we ed d o or r g ge en ne er ra at te ed d
1 1. . S Si im mu ul lt ta an ne eo ou us s l lo oc ca at ti io on n o of f a al ll l v ve eh hi ic cl le es s. .
2 2. . S St ta ar rt t- -S St to op p t ti im me e, , t to ot ta al l d dr ri iv ve e t ti im me e, , a an nd d m mi il le ea ag ge e f fo or r e ea ac ch h t tr ri ip p. .
3 3. . R Ro ou ut te e t ta ak ke en n, , a av ve er ra ag ge e s sp pe ee ed d, , n nu um mb be er r o of f t ti im me es s t th he e d dr ri iv ve er r e ex xc ce ee ed de ed d t th he e s sp pe ee ed d
l li im mi it t. .
4 4. . L Lo oc ca at ti io on n/ /p po os si it ti io on n b by y a ap pp pr ro ox xi im ma at te e s st tr re ee et t a ad dd dr re es ss s. .
5 5. . A Al le er rt ts s f fo or r s sp pe ee ed di in ng g, , m mo ov ve em me en nt t a af ft te er r h ho ou ur rs s, , z zo on ne e v vi io ol la at ti io on ns s. .
6 6. . A Au ut to om ma at ti ic ca al ll ly y l lo oc ca at te e c cl lo os se es st t v ve eh hi ic cl le e o or r l lo oc ca at ti io on n t to o s se er rv vi ic ce e a ad dd dr re es ss s. .
7 7. . R Re ec co or rd ds s d da at ta a o ou ut ts si id de e o of f c co ov ve er ra ag ge e a ar re ea a a an nd d a au ut to om ma at ti ic ca al ll ly y u up pd da at te es s o on n r re et tu ur rn n. .
8 8. . C CA AS SE E S ST TU UD DY Y

This paper presents the contribution of the project on online vehicle tracking
project in Coimbatore Corporation. In this we are supposed to track the vehicles,
which are roaming in the streets of Coimbatore. However the some concept can be
extended to track the vehicles when they move beyond the city limits. The area of
interest is route tracking between the map areas of Coimbatore Corporation. The
case study presented is chosen in explaining some acoustical aspects of online
vehicle tracking. A base map with all features has been prepared in the scale of
1:25000 in GIS environment. The places represent static points in the map.

8 8. .1 1. . L Lo oc ca at ti io on n M Ma ap p
C Co oi im mb ba at to or re e C Co or rp po or ra at ti io on n e ex xt te en nd ds s 1 10 05 5. .6 6s sq q. .k km m w wi it th h f fo ou ur r z zo on ne es s a an nd d 7 72 2 w wa ar rd ds s. . I It t h ha as s
a an n a an nn nu ua al l a av ve er ra ag ge e r ra ai in nf fa al ll l o of f 6 60 00 0 m mm m. . T Th he e p pr re es se en nt t p po op pu ul la at ti io on n o of f t th he e c ci it ty y i is s
a ap pp pr ro ox xi im ma at te el ly y 1 13 3 l la ac cs s i in nc cl lu ud di in ng g a a f fl lo oa at ti in ng g p po op pu ul la at ti io on n o of f a ar ro ou un nd d 1 1. .5 5 l la ac ce es s. . T Th he e a ar re ea a
o of f t th he e c co or rp po or ra at ti io on n i is s 1 10 05 5. .6 6s sq q. .k km m. . T Th he e c ci it ty y i is s l lo oc ca at te ed d a at t 4 43 32 2. .0 00 0 m m a ab bo ov ve e t th he e M Me ea an n
S Se ea a L Le ev ve el l ( (M M. .S S. .L L) ). . T Th he e c co or rp po or ra at ti io on n m ma ai in nt ta ai in ns s 6 60 03 3. .5 50 0 k km ms s o of f s st to or rm m w wa at te er r d dr ra ai in ns s. .
T Th he e C Co or rp po or ra at ti io on n m ma ai in nt ta ai in ns s a a l la ar rg ge e n ne et tw wo or rk k o of f r ro oa ad ds s w wi it th hi in n t th he e c ci it ty y o of f 6 68 83 3. .5 50 0 K Km m. .
T Th he e C Co oi im mb ba at to or re e d di is st tr ri ic ct t m ma ap p i is s s sh ho ow wn n i in n



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F Fi ig g. .1 1 L Lo oc ca at ti io on n o of f C Co oi im mb ba at to or re e i in n T Ta am mi il l N Na ad du u

8 8. . P PL LA AN NN NI IN NG G A AN ND D D DE ES SI IG GN N
G GI IS S p pr ro ov vi id de es s a a v va al lu ua ab bl le e t to oo ol l i in n t th he e p pr ro oc ce es ss s o of f p pl la an nn ni in ng g a an nd d d de es si ig gn ni in ng g r ro oa ad ds s. . T Th hi is s i is s
c cl lo os se el ly y r re el la at te ed d t to o t th he e t te er rm m C Co om mp pu ut te er r A Ai id de ed d D De es si ig gn n ( (C CA AD D) ), , M Mo od de er rn n s so of ft tw wa ar re e t te en nd ds s t to o
b br ri id dg ge e t th hi is s g ga ap p b be et tw we ee en n d di is sc ci ip pl li in ne e- -s sp pe ec ci if fi ic c a ap pp pl li ic ca at ti io on ns s o of f G GI IS S i in n a a w wa ay y t th ha at t t th he ey y
a ar re e f fu ul ll ly y i in nt te eg gr ra at te ed d. . G GI IS S c ca an n h he el lp p t to o v vi is su ua al li iz ze e a an nd d c co om mm mu un ni ic ca at te e t th he e e ef ff fe ec ct ts s o of f r ro oa ad ds s
o on n t th he ei ir r e en nv vi ir ro on nm me en nt t. . E En ng gi in ne ee er ri in ng g d dr ra aw wi in ng gs s a an nd d m ma ap ps s m ma ay y e ev vo ok ke e a a v vi iv vi id d l la an nd ds sc ca ap pe e
i in n m mi in nd ds s o of f e en ng gi in ne ee er rs s f fa am mi il li ia ar r w wi it th h t th he em m, , b bu ut t t to o d de ec ci is si io on n m ma ak ke er rs s o or r t th he e p pu ub bl li ic c i in n
g ge en ne er ra al l t th he es se e d dr ra aw wi in ng gs s c ca an n b be e q qu ui it te e i in nc co om mp pr re eh he en ns si ib bl le e. . T Tr ra ad di it ti io on na al ll ly y, , d di is sp pl la ay yi in ng g
d di if ff fe er re en nt t r ro ou ut te e o op pt ti io on ns s a an nd d p pr ro op po os sa al ls s h ha as s b be ee en n d do on ne e i in n t th he e f fo or rm m o of f 2 2D D m ma ap ps s, ,
a as ss si is st te ed d b by y s se ec ct ti io on n d dr ra aw wi in ng gs s, , m ma ay y b be e t to og ge et th he er r w wi it th h a an n a ae er ri ia al l p ph ho ot to o, , w wh he er re e t th he e r ro oa ad d
n ne et tw wo or rk k w wa as s o ov ve er rl la ai id d i in n t th he e f fo or rm m o of f l li in ne es s. . I It t i is s s si im mp pl le e a an nd d s st tr ra ai ig gh ht tf fo or rw wa ar rd d, , b bu ut t i it t i is s
n no ot t c co on nv ve ey yi in ng g m mu uc ch h i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n o on n t th he e a ac ct tu ua al l i im mp pa ac ct t. .
8 8. .2 2. . P Pl la an nn ni in ng g b by y P Pl la an nn ni in ng g V Ve er rs si io on n S So of ft tw wa ar re e 3 3. .2 24 4
Planning software is powerful stand-alone software to check the number of
available satellites before actual work. A least six satellites must be available to
locate a point with a reasonable degree of accuracy. By downloading the almanac
from the Internet or placing the GPS for 20 to 60 minutes of equilibrium state, the
electronic almanac can be obtained which shows the position of satellites. T Th he es se e
a al lm ma an na ac cs s a ar re e i im mp po or rt te ed d t to o p pl la an nn ni in ng g v ve er rs si io on n s so of ft tw wa ar re e 3 3. .2 24 4 w wh hi ic ch h w wi il ll l i in nd di ic ca at te e t th he e
s su ui it ta ab bl le e t ti im me es s f fo or r s su ur rv ve ey y w wo or rk k. . W Wh he en n t th he e d da at te e o of f s su ur rv ve ey y i is s e en nt te er re ed d i in n t th he e s so of ft tw wa ar re e, ,
a av va ai il la ab bi il li it ty y o of f s sa at te el ll li it te es s, , D DO OP P p pl lo ot ts s, , r re ec ct ta an ng gu ul la ar r s sk ky y p pl lo ot t, , p po ol la ar r s sk ky y p pl lo ot t, , d de et ta ai il ls s o of f

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c co oo or rd di in na at te e s sy ys st te em m, , D Da at tu um m, , m ma as sk k a an ng gl le e, , r ri is se e, , a az zi im mu ut th h a an nd d t th he ei ir r r re es sp pe ec ct ti iv ve e p po os si it ti io on ns s
c ca an n b be e o ob bt ta ai in ne ed d . .A A s sa am mp pl le e o ou ut tp pu ut t o of f t th he e p pl la an nn ni in ng g s so of ft tw wa ar re e i is s s sh ho ow wn n i in n F Fi ig g 2 2. .








Fig 2. View of Satellites and DOP Plots
The choice of GPS receiver capability is important in vehicle monitoring
applications. A GPS with an accuracy of five meters is good enough for tracking
civilian vehicles. GPS direct speed measurement should always be used in
preference to speeds calculated on the basis of vehicle positions over time. The
number of satellites the receiver is able to track (NSAT) and the PDOP give an
indication about the reliability of the speed data. As the dilution of precision
increases the error increases. The GPS data when DOP levels are more than two are
not reliable.
8 8. .3 3. . D De es si ig gn n
T Th he e d de es si ig gn n p pr ro oc ce es ss s b be eg gi in ns s w wi it th h a an n i id de en nt ti if fi ie ed d n ne ee ed d a an nd d c co on nc cl lu ud de es s w wi it th h s sa at ti is sf fa ac ct to or ry y
q qu ua al li if fi ic ca at ti io on n. . T Th he e d de es si ig gn n f fl lo ow w d di ia ag gr ra am m F Fi ig g 3 3 i is s t th he e t to oo ol l t th ha at t a ap pp pr ro oa ac ch he es s t to o m mo ov ve e
f fr ro om m g ge en ne er ra al l r re eq qu ui ir re em me en nt ts s, , i il ll lu us st tr ra at ti in ng g t th he e p pr ro oc ce es ss se es s a an nd d s st to or ra ag ge e o of f d da at ta a i in n t th he e
s sy ys st te em m. . D Da at ta a s s p pr ro oc ce es ss se ed d ( (G GP PS S) ) i is s f fi ir rs st t i id de en nt ti if fi ie ed d a an nd d t th he en n t th he e d da at ta a t tr ra an ns sf fe er r p pr ro oc ce es ss s
i is s i is so ol la at te ed d b by y u us se er r i in nt te er rf fa ac ce e c co om mm mu un ni ic ca at te ed d b by y G GS SM M i is s d de er ri iv ve ed d, , v vi is su ua al li iz ze ed d i in n t th he e
s sy ys st te em m. . T Th he e d da at ta a f fl lo ow w i is s a a t tr ra an ns sf fe er r o of f d da at ta a b be et tw we ee en n t tw wo o e en nt ti it ti ie es s i is s d de en no ot te ed d b by y a ar rr ro ow w
d di ir re ec ct ti io on n. . G GS SM M ( (G Gl lo ob ba al l S Sy ys st te em m f fo or r M Mo ob bi il le e C Co om mm mu un ni ic ca at ti io on ns s) ) i is s t th he e m mo os st t a ad dv va an nc ce ed d
d di ig gi it ta al l c ce el ll lu ul la ar r t te ec ch hn no ol lo og gy y. . G GS SM M i is s i in n a a g go oo od d p po os si it ti io on n f fo or r g gl lo ob ba al l r ro oa am mi in ng g a an nd d m ma an ny y
n ne ew w G GS SM M p ph ho on ne es s a ar re e c ca al ll le ed d " "g gl lo ob ba al l p ph ho on ne es s" ", , s si in nc ce e t th he ey y a ar re e u us se ed d i in n v vi ir rt tu ua al ll ly y a an ny y
c co ou un nt tr ry y. . T Th he e S SI IM M c ca ar rd d ( (" "S Su ub bs sc cr ri ib be er r I Id de en nt ti if fi ic ca at ti io on n M Mo od du ul le e" ") ) i is s a al ls so o a a u un ni iq qu ue e a an nd d
e es ss se en nt ti ia al l c co om mp po on ne en nt t o of f G GS SM M p ph ho on ne es s. .





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T Te ec ch hn ni ic ca al ll ly y, , G GS SM M w wa as s b bu ui il lt t b ba as se ed d o on n t th he e T TD DM MA A p pr ro ot to oc co ol l. . G GS SM M i is s a a d di ig gi it ta al l c ce el ll lu ul la ar r
C Co om mm mu un ni ic ca at ti io on ns s s sy ys st te em m. . A Ac cc cu ur ra ac cy y i is s 4 4. .5 5m m i in nd do oo or r a an nd d 2 2. .5 5m m o ou ut td do oo or rs s. . P Pr ro ov vi id di in ng g
a ae er ri ia al l o of f 1 1 m me et te er r o ou ut ts si id de e t th he e c ca ar r i in nc cr re ea as se es s G GP PS S a ac cc cu ur ra ac cy y. . T To o b be e a ab bl le e t to o m ma ak ke e u us se e o of f
t th he e G GS SM M t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g s sy ys st te em m, , t to o a ac ch hi ie ev ve e e ec co on no om my y i in n d de es si ig gn n y yo ou u r re eq qu ui ir re e s su up pp po or rt t f fr ro om m
s so o- -c ca al ll le ed d " "l lo oc ca at ti io on n- -b ba as se ed d s se er rv vi ic ce es s" " b by y t th he e G GS SM M n ne et tw wo or rk k o of f y yo ou ur r c ch ho oi ic ce e i in n y yo ou ur r
r re eg gi io on n. . N No ow w d da ay ys s S Sa at te el ll li it te e a an nd d D Di ig gi it ta al l T Tr ra ac ck ki in ng g S Sy ys st te em ms s i is s t th he e h hi ig gh h t te ec ch h t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g
e eq qu ui ip pm me en nt t h ha av ve e a ac cc cu ur ra ac cy y d da at ta a o of f 1 1m m. .
The device is fitted in vehicles and as they pass by a cell phone tower, data get
automatically transferred through the tower to our central computer. Using this we
can provide hourly or daily reports on the vehicle to its owner, we can access it
through a computer or mobile phone the details such as the location of the truck at
a given point of time, number of kilometers logged, idle time and estimated time of
arrival at destination. E-Logistics Company offers its patented vehicle-tracking
product, costing Rs 7,500 each, based on the GSM model.

F Fi ig g. .3 3. . I In nt te er ra ac ct ti iv ve e D De es si ig gn n P Pr ro oc ce es ss s
9 9. . R RO OU UT TI IN NG G
R Ro ou ut te e p pl la an nn ni in ng g i is s a a p pr ro oc ce es ss s t th ha at t h he el lp ps s v ve eh hi ic cl le e d dr ri iv ve er rs s t to o p pl la an n a a r ro ou ut te e p pr ri io or r o or r
d du ur ri in ng g a a j jo ou ur rn ne ey y. . I It t i is s w wi id de el ly y r re ec co og gn ni iz ze ed d a as s a a f fu un nd da am me en nt ta al l i is ss su ue e i in n t th he e f fi ie el ld d o of f
t tr ra an ns sp po or rt ta at ti io on n. . A A v va ar ri ie et ty y o of f r ro ou ut te e o op pt ti im mi iz za at ti io on n c cr ri it te er ri ia a o or r p pl la an nn ni in ng g c cr ri it te er ri ia a m ma ay y b be e
u us se ed d i in n r ro ou ut te e p pl la an nn ni in ng g. . T Th he e q qu ua al li it ty y o of f a a r ro ou ut te e d de ep pe en nd ds s o on n m ma an ny y f fa ac ct to or rs s s su uc ch h a as s
d di is st ta an nc ce e, , t tr ra av ve el l t ti im me e, , t tr ra av ve el l s sp pe ee ed d a an nd d n nu um mb be er r o of f t tu ur rn ns s. . T Th he es se e a al ll l f fa ac ct to or rs s a al ll l c ca an n b be e
r re ef fe er rr re ed d a as s t tr ra av ve el l c co os st t. . R Ro ou ut te e p pl la an nn ni in ng g i is s o on ne e o of f t th he e m mo os st t p po op pu ul la ar r a ap pp pl li ic ca at ti io on ns s
w wi it th hi in n t tr ra an ns sp po or rt ta at ti io on n. . C Co on ns se eq qu ue en nt tl ly y, , a an ny y b bu us si in ne es ss s d de ep pl lo oy yi in ng g v ve eh hi ic cl le es s i is s i in nt te er re es st te ed d
i in n d de et te er rm mi in ni in ng g w wh hi ic ch h r ro ou ut te e i is s t th he e b be es st t t to o f fo ol ll lo ow w a as s m me ea an ns s t to o s sa av ve e t ti im me e a an nd d
e es ss se en nt ti ia al ll ly y g ga ai in n t th he e b be es st t c co os st t/ /b be en ne ef fi it t r ra at ti io o. . T Th he er re e a ar re e a al ls so o m ma an ny y o on nl li in ne e r ro ou ut ti in ng g
a ap pp pl li ic ca at ti io on ns s f fo or r C Co oi im mb ba at to or re e a av va ai il la ab bl le e o on n t th he e I In nt te er rn ne et t, , a al ll lo ow wi in ng g t tr ra av ve el le er rs s t to o l lo og g i in n. .

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t th he e w we eb bs si it te e y yo ou u c ca an n a ac cc ce es ss s y yo ou ur r v ve eh hi ic cl le e t th hr ro ou ug gh h w we eb b a an nd d c co on ns si id de er ri in ng g d di if ff fe er re en nt t
o op pt ti io on ns s f fo or r s se er rv vi ic ce ea ab bi il li it ty y p pu ur rp po os se e. . R Ro ou ut te e p pl la an nn ni in ng g i is s a al ls so o a ap pp pl li ie ed d a as s a a p pa ar rt t o of f
l lo oc ca at ti io on n p pl la an nn ni in ng g, , z z. .
C Ca al lc cu ul la at ti in ng g o ov ve er ra al ll l d dr ri iv ve e t ti im me e t to o a an nd d f fr ro om m s si it te e, , m ma ax xi im mi iz zi in ng g p po ot te en nt ti ia al l c cu us st to om me er r
i in nf fl lo ow w a an nd d e en ns su ur ri in ng g b be es st t p po os ss si ib bl le e a ac cc ce es ss si ib bi il li it ty y, , t th he e m ma ap p u us se ed d i is s n no ot t t to o s sc ca al le e. . T Th hi is s i is s
t th he e n ne et tw wo or rk k c co om mm mu un ni ic ca at ti io on n i in n a an nd d a ar ro ou un nd d C Co oi im mb ba at to or re e. .
1 10 0. . U US SI IN NG G G GI IS S F FO OR R M MA AN NY Y P PU UR RP PO OS SE ES S
1 1. . T Tr ra af ff fi ic c a ac cc ci id de en nt t p pa at tt te er rn ns s a ar re e v vi is su ua al li iz ze ed d a an nd d s sa af fe et ty y i im mp pr ro ov ve em me en nt ts s a ar re e m ma ad de e w wh he er re e
t th he ey y a ar re e m mo os st t n ne ee ed de ed d. .
2 2. . B By y c co ol ll le ec ct ti in ng g s si ig gn ni if fi ic ca an nt t d da at ta a f fo or r t th he e w wh ho ol le e s su ui it ta ab bl le e n ne et tw wo or rk k, , r re ep pa ai ir rs s a an nd d w wo or rk ks s
b bu ud dg ge et ti in ng g h ha av ve e b be ec co om me e m mo or re e r re el li ia ab bl le e a an nd d c ca al lc cu ul la at te ed d i in n a ad dv va an nc ce e. .

F Fi ig g. . 4 4. .T Ty yp pi ic ca al l M Ma ap p o ou ut tp pu ut t f fr ro om m r ro ou ut te e p pl la an nn ne er r
T Th he e g ge en ne er ra al l c co on nc cl lu us si io on n i is s t th ha at t G GP PS S h ha as s o of ff fe er re ed d o on nl li in ne e v ve eh hi ic cl le e i id de en nt ti if fi ic ca at ti io on n a an nd d
m mo on ni it to or ri in ng g t to oo ol l a ap pp pl li ic ca at ti io on n. . T Th hi is s p pa ap pe er r p pr re es se en nt ts s s so om me e o of f t th he e a ap pp pl li ic ca at ti io on ns s o of f t th he e
G GP PS S l li ik ke e i im mp pr ro ov vi in ng g t tr ri ip p r re ep po or rt ti in ng g, , t tr ra av ve el l t ti im me e s st tu ud di ie es s, , d dy yn na am mi ic c r ro ou ut te e g gu ui id da an nc ce e
( (D DR RG G) ), , o on nl li in ne e v ve eh hi ic cl le e n na av vi ig ga at ti io on n a an nd d t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g. . I In n c ca as se e o of f o on nl li in ne e t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g t th he e r ro ou ut ti in ng g
s sh ho ou ul ld d b be e u up pd da at te ed d. .
1 11 1. . N NA AV VI IG GA AT TI IO ON N
R Ro ou ut te e p pl la an nn ni in ng g i in n a ad dv va an nc ce e o of f a a j jo ou ur rn ne ey y i is s o on ne e w wa ay y t to o e en nh ha an nc ce e t tr ra an ns sp po or rt ta at ti io on n
m ma an na ag ge em me en nt t. .

176


U Us si in ng g a an n i in n- -c ca ar r n na av vi ig ga at ti io on n s sy ys st te em m b by y p pr ro ov vi id di in ng g b ba as se e m ma ap p o of f d di ig gi it ta al l m ma ap p d da at ta a a an nd d
n na av vi ig ga at ti io on n s so of ft tw wa ar re e r re el le ea as se ed d a a m ma ap p d da at ta ab ba as se e p pr ro ov vi id di in ng g t tu ur rn n- -b by y- -t tu ur rn n v ve eh hi ic cl le e
n na av vi ig ga at ti io on n. . U Us se ed d i in n c co on nj ju un nc ct ti io on n w wi it th h G GP PS S t th hi is s s sy ys st te em m n no ot t o on nl ly y i is s a an n i in n- -c ca ar r r ro ou ut te e
f fi in nd de er r, , b bu ut t a al ls so o p pr ro ov vi id de es s t th he e d dr ri iv ve er r w wi it th h d de et ta ai il le ed d i in ns st tr ru uc ct ti io on ns s o on n w wh he er re e t to o t tu ur rn n i in n
w wh ha at t d di ir re ec ct ti io on n. . I It t a al ls so o c co on nt ta ai in ns s a a l lo ot t o of f i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n o on n p po oi in nt ts s o of f i in nt te er re es st t a a d dr ri iv ve er r
m mi ig gh ht t w wa an nt t t to o k kn no ow w. . I It t c ca an n g gu ui id de e t th he e d dr ri iv ve er r i in n c ca as se e o of f n ne ew w p pl la ac ce e o or r r ro ou ut te e. .

1 12 2. . P PR RI IN NC CI IP PL LE E O OF F G GP PS S N NA AV VI IG GA AT TI IO ON N

Measurements of code-phase arrival times from at least four satellites are used to
estimate four quantities: position in three dimensions (X, Y, Z) and GPS time (T).
Assume a timing error of 1 micro second. This is the principle of GPS navigation of
capturing positions of (X, Y, Z, T), where, X-latitude, Y-longitude, Z-altitude & T-
GPS time.
T Ti im me e e er rr ro or r c ca al lc cu ul la at te ed d
S Sp pe ee ed d o of f l li ig gh ht t i in n a a v va ac cu uu um m 1 18 86 6, ,0 00 00 0m mi il le es s/ /s se ec c
1 18 86 6, ,0 00 00 0 m mi il le es s/ /s se ec c s se ec c/ /1 1, ,0 00 00 0, ,0 00 00 0 = =0 0. .1 18 86 6 m mi il le es s 5 52 28 80 0 f ft t/ /m mi il le e = =9 98 82 2f ft t. .


Fig.5.Differential GPS (DGPS)
1 13 3. . P PR RI IN NC CI IP PL LE ES S O OF F D DG GP PS S

Maps >> Static Maps >> Tamil Nadu >> District >>Coimbatore
Details: Area 7469 sq. km, Population 4,271,856(2001 census)


177

1 1. . T Th he e ' 'B Bl lo oc ck k S Sh hi if ft t T Te ec ch hn ni iq qu ue e' ' u us se es s t th he e c co om mp pu ut te ed d c co oo or rd di in na at te es s a at t a an ny y t ti im me e a an nd d
c co om mp pa ar re es s t th he em m w wi it th h t th he e k kn no ow wn n c co oo or rd di in na at te es s o of f t th he e b ba as se e s st ta at ti io on n. . E Ex xp pe ec ct t a an n m mm m
o of f e er rr ro or r f fo or r e ev ve er ry y k km m o of f d di is st ta an nc ce e b be et tw we ee en n t th he e m mo ob bi il le e a an nd d b ba as se e. .
2 2. . T Th he e ' 'R Ra an ng ge e C Co or rr re ec ct ti io on n T Te ec ch hn ni iq qu ue e' ' u us se es s t th he e i in ns st ta an nt ta an ne eo ou us s a an nd d k kn no ow wn n b ba as se e
s st ta at ti io on n c co oo or rd di in na at te es s t to o c co om mp pu ut te e t th he e e er rr ro or r i in n a al ll l p ps se eu ud do o- -r ra an ng ge es s. .

1 14 4. . D DG GP PS S S SU UR RV VE EY Y
I In n o or rd de er r t to o p pl la ac ce e t th he e v ve eh hi ic cl le e p po os si it ti io on n, , t th he e d di ig gi it ti iz ze ed d m ma ap p w wi il ll l b be e g ge eo o r re ef fe er re en nc ce ed d s so o
t th ha at t t th he e c co o- -o or rd di in na at te e r re ec co or rd de ed d b by y t th he e G GP PS S d da at ta a c ca an n b be e f fi it tt te ed d d di ir re ec ct tl ly y i in nt to o t th he e
d di ig gi it ti iz ze ed d m ma ap p. . G Ge eo o- -r re ef fe er re en nc ci in ng g h ha as s b be ee en n d do on ne e u us si in ng g A AR RC C G GI IS S 9 9. .1 1 s so of ft tw wa ar re e . .I In n o or rd de er r
t to o d do o g ge eo o r re ef fe er re en nc ci in ng g t th he e l la at ti it tu ud de e a an nd d l lo on ng gi it tu ud de e a at t l le ea as st t 6 6 c co on nt tr ro ol l p po oi in nt ts s m mu us st t b be e
k kn no ow wn n. . T Th he e c co on nt tr ro ol l p po oi in nt ts s o on n t th he e f fi ie el ld d m mu us st t b be e s se el le ec ct te ed d s su uc ch h t th ha at t t th he ey y c ca an n b be e
e ea as si il ly y i id de en nt ti if fi ie ed d o on n t th he e m ma ap p. . T Th he e l la at ti it tu ud de e a an nd d l lo on ng gi it tu ud de e o of f t th he e c co on nt tr ro ol l p po oi in nt ts s m mu us st t
b be e a ac cc cu ur ra at te el ly y d de et te er rm mi in ne ed d s so o t th ha at t t th he e G Ge eo o- -r re ef fe er re en nc ci in ng g s sh ha al ll l b be e a ac cc cu ur ra at te e. . H He er re e t th he e
b ba as se e s st ta at ti io on n i is s t ta ak ke en n a as s C Co oi im mb ba at to or re e ( (R R. .S S. .P Pu ur ra am m) ). . R Re ec ce en nt t s su ur rv ve ey ys s r re ep po or rt te ed d b by y t th he e
D DG GP PS S p po os si it ti io on ni in ng g u un ni it ts s i in nd di ic ca at te e t th ha at t a a s si ig gn ni if fi ic ca an nt t p po os si it ti io on n o of f t th he e p pl la ac ce es s. . T Th he e
l la at ti it tu ud de e a an nd d l lo on ng gi it tu ud de e o of f t th he e c co on nt tr ro ol l p po oi in nt ts s a ar re e s sh ho ow wn n i in n T Ta ab bl le e 1 1. .
T Ta ab bl le e 1 1 L La at ti it tu ud de e a an nd d L Lo on ng gi it tu ud de e v va al lu ue es s o of f c co on nt tr ro ol l p po oi in nt ts s
S S
n no o. .
P Pl la ac ce e L Lo on ng gi it tu ud de e L La at ti it tu ud de e
1 1 P Pe er ru ur r 7 76 6 5 55 5 E E 1 10 0 5 58 8 E E
2 2 M Ma ad du uk kk ka ar ra ai i
7 77 7 5 56 6' '. . 3 31 10 0 E E
1 10 0 5 54 4' '. . 3 38 80 0 N N
3 3 O On ni ip pu ud du ur r 7 77 7 0 02 2 1 17 7. . 7 77 73 3 E E 1 11 1 0 0 . . 3 39 95 5 N N
4 4 G Ga an nd dh hi ip pu ur ra am m 7 76 6 5 57 7' '. . 3 32 25 5 E E 1 11 1 0 0' '. . 4 42 25 5 N N
5 5 R R. .S S. .p pu ur ra am m 7 76 6 5 56 6' '. . 3 30 00 0 E E 1 11 1 0 0' '. . 4 42 25 5 N N
6 6 S Si in ng ga an na al ll lu ur r 7 77 7 7 7' '. . 3 30 0 E E. . 1 11 1 0 0' '. . 4 40 00 0 N N

1 15 5. . T TY YP PI IC CA AL L L LA AY YO OU UT T F FO OR R I IN N- -C CA AR R N NA AV VI IG GA AT TI IO ON N S SE ET TU UP P

178


Fig 6.Typical Layout for In-Car Navigation Setup
T Th he e c co om mb bi in na at ti io on n o of f o on nl li in ne e v ve eh hi ic cl le e t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g t te ec ch hn no ol lo og gy y i is s d di is sp pl la ay ye ed d b by y p pr ro ov vi id de ed d
a al lo on ng g w wi it th h t th he e c ca ar r. . T Th he e w wh ho ol le e c co on nc ce ep pt t o of f m me ec ch ha an ni is sm m i is s r re ep pr re es se en nt te ed d i in n t th he e f fo ol ll lo ow wi in ng g
c ch ha ar rt t, , w wh hi ic ch h i in nd di ic ca at te es s t th he e p pr ro oc ce es ss s o of f t th he e s sy ys st te em m a an nd d r re ea al li is st ti ic c f fi in na al l r re es su ul lt t. .
16. D DA AT TA A P PR RO OC CE ES SS SI IN NG G
P Pr re ep pa ar re e G GI IS S b ba as se e m ma ap p ( (r ra as st te er r i im ma ag ge es s) ) o of f C Co oi im mb ba at to or re e a ar re e i im mp po or rt te ed d t to o A Au ut to oC CA AD D
e en nv vi ir ro on nm me en nt t f fo or r o on n- -s sc cr re ee en n v ve ec ct to or ri iz za at ti io on n o or r d di ig gi it ti iz zi in ng g. . D Di ig gi it ti iz zi in ng g i is s a a p pr ro oc ce es ss s o of f
e en nc co od di in ng g g ge eo og gr ra ap ph hi ic c f fe ea at tu ur re es s i in n d di ig gi it ta al l f fo or rm m a as s x x, , y y c co oo or rd di in na at te es s. . T Th he e d dr ra aw wi in ng gs s w we er re e
e ed di it te ed d a an nd d h he en n e ex xp po or rt te ed d t to o A AR RC C G GI IS S V Ve er rs si io on n 9 9. .1 1e en nv vi ir ro on nm me en nt t. . A Af ft te er r u up pl lo oa ad di in ng g
c co on nv ve er rt t t th he e d dr ra aw wi in ng g f fi il le es s ( (* *. .d dw wg g) ) t to o s sh ha ap pe e f fi il le es s l li ik ke e l li in ne e, , p po ol ly yg go on n, , p po oi in nt t. .
S Sh ha ap pe e f fi il le es s d do on n t t u us su ua al ll ly y c co on nt ta ai in n i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n a as s t to o w wh he er re e t th he e a ar re ea a r re ep pr re es se en nt te ed d o on n
t th he e m ma ap p f fi it ts s o on n t th he e s su ur rf fa ac ce e o of f t th he e e ea ar rt th h. . T Th he e p pr ro oc ce es ss s o of f a as ss si ig gn ni in ng g a a g ge eo og gr ra ap ph hi ic c
l lo oc ca at ti io on n ( (e e. .g g. . l la at ti it tu ud de e a an nd d l lo on ng gi it tu ud de e) ) t to o a a g ge eo og gr ra ap ph hi ic c f fe ea at tu ur re e i is s k kn no ow wn n a as s G Ge eo o- -
r re ef fe er re en nc ci in ng g b by y s sp pa at ti ia al l a ad dj ju us st tm me en nt t o of f t th he e d da at ta a. . T Th he e l la at ti it tu ud de e a an nd d l lo on ng gi it tu ud de e o of f t th he e
c co on nt tr ro ol l p po oi in nt ts s m mu us st t b be e a ac cc cu ur ra at te el ly y d de et te er rm mi in ne ed d s so o t th ha at t t th he e G Ge eo o- -r re ef fe er re en nc ci in ng g s sh ha al ll l b be e
a ac cc cu ur ra at te e. . T Th he en n t th he e a ac ct ti iv ve e G GP PS S d da at ta a i is s c co on nn ne ec ct te ed d b by y U UP PS S p po or rt t t th he en n t th he e p po oi in nt t i is s
d di is sp pl la ay ye ed d i in n t th he e m ma ap p. . A Ar rc c V Vi ie ew w p pr ro ov vi id de es s t th he e t to oo ol ls s w we e n ne ee ed d t to o q qu ue er ry y, , a an na al ly yz ze e t th he e
d da at ta a a an nd d p pr re es se en nt t r re es su ul lt ts s a as s p pr re es se en nt ta at ti io on n- -q qu ua al li it ty y m ma ap ps s. .

179











F Fi ig g 5 5L La ay yo ou ut t o of f t th he e M Me ec ch ha an ni is sm m


180
F Fi ig g. . 7 7 G Ge eo o R Re ef fe er re en nc ce e M Ma ap p o of f C Co oi im mb ba at to or re e w wi it th h R Ro oa ad d N Ne et tw wo or rk ks s u us si in ng g A AR RC C G GI IS S
V Ve er rs si io on n 9 9. .1 1

1 17 7. . S SH HO OR RT TE ES ST T P PA AT TH H
C Co om mp pu ut ti in ng g s sh ho or rt te es st t p pa at th hs s o ov ve er r a a n ne et tw wo or rk k i is s a an n i im mp po or rt ta an nt t t ta as sk k i in n m ma an ny y n ne et tw wo or rk ks s o of f
t tr ra an ns sp po or rt ta at ti io on n r re el la at te ed d a an na al ly ys se es s. . S So om me e d dr ri iv ve er rs s m ma ay y p pr re ef fe er r t th he e s sh ho or rt te es st t p pa at th h b ba as se ed d
o on n d di is st ta an nc ce e a an nd d t tr ra av ve el l t ti im me e. . T Th hi is s c co on nv ve en nt ti io on na al l m me et th ho od d f fo or rm me ed d t th he e b ba as si is s o of f k kn no ow wn n
a as s g gr ra ap ph h t th he eo or ry y, , a an nd d p pa av ve ed d t th he e w wa ay y f fo or r p pa at th h f fi in nd di in ng g a al lg go or ri it th hm ms s t th ha at t a ar re e a ap pp pl li ie ed d i in n
G GI IS S i in n t th he e s so ol lu ut ti io on n o of f r ro ou ut te es s i in n t tr ra an ns sp po or rt ta at ti io on n n ne et tw wo or rk ks s. . H He en nc ce e, , i in n G GI IS S r ro ou ut te e
p pl la an nn ni in ng g i is s o of ft te en n r re ef fe er rr re ed d t to o a as s n ne et tw wo or rk k a an na al ly ys si is s. . T Th he e r ro ou ut te e s se el le ec ct ti io on n c cr ri it te er ri ia a c ca an n b be e
e ei it th he er r f fi ix xe ed d b by y a a d de es si ig gn n o or r i im mp pl le em me en nt te ed d v vi ia a a a s se el le ec ct ta ab bl le e u us se er r i in nt te er rf fa ac ce e. . I In n t th he e
c cu ur rr re en nt t p pr ro oj je ec ct t r ro ou ut te e s se el le ec ct ti io on n i is s v vi ia a u us se er r i in nt te er rf fa ac ce e. . I In n t th he e o op pt ti im mi iz za at ti io on n o of f t th he e t tr ra av ve el l
d di is st ta an nc ce e ( (r ro oa ad d s se eg gm me en nt t l le en ng gt th h) ), , d di is st ta an nc ce e i is s s st to or re ed d i in n d da at ta ab ba as se e a an nd d t th he e r ro ou ut te e- -
p pl la an nn ni in ng g a al lg go or ri it th hm m i is s u us se ed d. . I In n t th he e o op pt ti im mi iz za at ti io on n o of f t tr ra av ve el l t ti im me e, , r ro oa ad d s se eg gm me en nt t l le en ng gt th h
a an nd d s sp pe ee ed d l li im mi it t o on n t th ha at t r ro oa ad d a ar re e s st to or re ed d i in n d da at ta ab ba as se e a an nd d t tr ra av ve el l t ti im me e i is s c ca al lc cu ul la at te ed d
( (d di is st ta an nc ce e/ /s sp pe ee ed d l li im mi it t) ). . B By y C Co os st t a an nd d b be en ne ef fi it ts s A An na al ly ys si is s t th he e u us se er r c ca an n a ab bl le e t to o a as ss se et t a a
r re el li ia ab bl le e c co os st t. . T Th he e c ca al lc cu ul la at te ed d t tr ra av ve el l t ti im me e w wa as s u us se ed d a as s t tr ra av ve el l c co os st t i in n t th he e p pe er rf fo or rm ma an nc ce e
o of f p pa at th h o op pt ti im mi iz za at ti io on n. . A As s i in nc cr re ea as se ed d p pr ri ic ce es s o of f p pe et tr ro ol le eu um m p pr ro od du uc ct ts s, , w we e c ca an n f fi in nd d t th he e
s sh ho or rt te es st t p pa at th h c cr ri it te er ri ia a u us si in ng g a ap pp pl li ic ca at ti io on ns s o of f G GI IS S & & G GP PS S/ /G GS SM M a an nd d s sa av ve e f fu ue el l. .
1 18 8. . S SH HO OR RT TE ES ST T P PA AT TH H W WI IT TH H U US SE ER R G GI IV VE EN N O OR RI IG GI IN N A AN ND D U US SE ER R G GI IV VE EN N
D DE ES ST TI IN NA AT TI IO ON N
1 1. . C Cr re ea at te e a a t to op po ol lo og gy y m ma ap p a an nd d c cl li ic ck k o on n U Ut ti il li it ty y N Ne et tw wo or rk k a an na al ly ys st t i in n t th he e s su ub b m me en nu u o or r
b bu ut tt to on n. .
2 2. . S Se el le ec ct t o or ri ig gi in n, , d de es st ti in na at ti io on n p po oi in nt ts s b by y c cl li ic ck ki in ng g a an ny y p po oi in nt t o on n r ro oa ad d n ne et tw wo or rk k. .
3 3. . C Cl li ic ck k A An na al ly ys si is s b bu ut tt to on n a an nd d s se el le ec ct t t tr ra av ve el l c co os st t ( (l li in ne e l le en ng gt th h o or r d dr ri iv ve e t ti im me e) )
4 4. . S Sh ho or rt te es st t p pa at th h w wi il ll l b be e d di is sp pl la ay ye ed d i in n g gr re ee en n c co ol lo or r o on n t th he e m ma ap p a an nd d d di ir re ec ct ti io on ns s f fr ro om m
O Or ri ig gi in n t to o D De es st ti in na at ti io on n w wi il ll l b be e d di is sp pl la ay ye ed d i in n s sh ho or rt te es st t p pa at th h d di ia al lo og g. .


181

F Fi ig g. . 8 8. . T Th he e N Ne et tw wo or rk k A An na al ly ys st t


1 19 9. . T TR RI IP P R RE EP PO OR RT TI IN NG G

C Cl la as ss si ic ca al l m me et th ho od ds s o of f t tr ri ip p r re ep po or rt ti in ng g h ha av ve e d di is sa ad dv va an nt ta ag ge es s l li ik ke e t th he e p po oo or r d da at ta a q qu ua al li it ty y o on n
t tr ra av ve el l s st ta ar rt t a an nd d e en nd d t ti im me es s, , t to ot ta al l t tr ri ip p t ti im me es s a an nd d t tr ri ip p d de es st ti in na at ti io on n. . T To o a av vo oi id d t th he es se e
e er rr ro or rs s, , D DG GP PS S w wa as s u us se ed d t to o c ca ap pt tu ur re e v ve eh hi ic cl le e- -b ba as se ed d, , d da ai il ly y t tr ra av ve el l i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n s s. .
C Co om mb bi in ne ed d w wi it th h D DG GP PS S s sy ys st te em m t th he e d de es si ig gn n o of f e eq qu ui ip pm me en nt t r re eq qu ui ir re ed d t th he e r re es sp po on nd de en nt ts s t to o
a ac ct ti iv ve el ly y t tu ur rn n t th he e c co om mp pu ut te er r o on n e ea ac ch h t ti im me e t th he ey y m ma ad de e a a v ve eh hi ic cl le e t tr ri ip p, , t th he e G GP PS S
c co om mp po on ne en nt t c co ou ul ld d c ca ap pt tu ur re e t th he e a ac ct tu ua al l t tr ra av ve el l r ra at th he er r t th ha an n t th he e s se el lf f- -r re ep po or rt te ed d t tr ra av ve el l. .
T Th he e G GP PS S c ca ap pt tu ur re es s d da at te e a an nd d t ti im me e, , a an nd d l la at ti it tu ud de e/ /l lo on ng gi it tu ud de e o of f p pa as ss si iv ve e d da at ta a e el le em me en nt ts s
w wi it th hi in n t th he e r re ec co or rd de ed d t ti im me e w wh he en n a a t tr ri ip p c ca an n b be e r re ec co or rd de ed d. . T Th he e a ad dv va an nt ta ag ge e o of f p pa as ss si iv ve e
d da at ta a r re ec co or rd di in ng g r re ed du uc ce es s t th he e b bu ur rd de en n t th he e t tr ra av ve el l t ti im me es s; ; d di is st ta an nc ce es s t th ha at t w we er re e c co ol ll le ec ct te ed d
r re ep pr re es se en nt t t th he e t tr ru ue e p pi ic ct tu ur re e a ab bo ou ut t t th he e l le en ng gt th h a an nd d d du ur ra at ti io on n o of f t th he e t tr ri ip p. . T Th he e u us sa ag ge e o of f
c co om mp pu ut te er r f fo or r c co om mp pu ut te er r- -a as ss si is st te ed d- -s se el lf f- -i in nt te er rv vi ie ew wi in ng g i is s h he el lp pe ed d t to o c ca ap pt tu ur re e d da at ta a
r re eg ga ar rd di in ng g t tr ri ip p p pu ur rp po os se e a an nd d v ve eh hi ic cl le e o oc cc cu up pa an nc cy y. . H Ha av vi in ng g t th he e d da at ta a r re eg ga ar rd di in ng g t th he e t tr ri ip p

182
p pu ur rp po os se e, , t to og ge et th he er r w wi it th h t th he e r ro ou ut te e c ch ho oi ic ce e a an nd d t tr ra av ve el l s sp pe ee ed d, , w wo ou ul ld d p pr ro ov vi id de e p pl la an nn ne er rs s
w wi it th h t th he e i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n t th ha at t c co ou ul ld d b be e u us se ed d i in n e ev va al lu ua at ti in ng g m ma an na ag ge em me en nt t s sy ys st te em ms s. . G GI IS S
c ca an n b be e i in nt te eg gr ra at te ed d w wi it th h G GP PS S. . T Th he e G GP PS S o ou ut tp pu ut t d da at ta a, , a af ft te er r e ex xp po or rt ti in ng g t to o a a G GI IS S c ca an n b be e
v vi ie ew we ed d o on n t th he e m ma ap p. . T Th he e u us se e o of f G GI IS S h he el lp ps s i in n k kn no ow wi in ng g t th he e d de es st ti in na at ti io on n o of f t th he e t tr ri ip p, , a an nd d
a al ls so o i in n k kn no ow wi in ng g t th he e p pa ar rt ti ic cu ul la ar r r ro ou ut te e t th he e d dr ri iv ve er r c ch ho os se en n t to o r re ea ac ch h t th he e d de es st ti in na at ti io on n. . T Th he e
G GP PS S d da at ta a w wa as s d do ow wn nl lo oa ad de ed d a an nd d p pr ro oc ce es ss se ed d u us si in ng g t th he e G GI IS S s so of ft tw wa ar re e f fe ew w s se el le ec ct t p po oi in nt ts s
t th ha at t w we er re e m ma ap pp pe ed d i in n s st ta at ti ic c m mo od de e a an nd d t th he e t tr ri ip p s sh he ee et t i is s p pr re ep pa ar re ed d f fr ro om m t th he e c co ol ll le ec ct te ed d
f fo or rm ma at t. .

2 20 0. . T TR RI IP P S SH HE EE ET T

V Ve eh hi ic cl le e n no o/ /n na am me e/ /d dr ri iv ve er r: : T TN N x xx x A AA A 6 60 03 31 1/ / B Bu us s / / M Mr r. .x xx xx x D Da at te e: : d dd d/ /m mm m/ /y yy y
T Tr ri ip p
n no o
S St ta ar rt ti in ng g D De ep pa ar rt tu ur re e
l lo oc ca at ti io on n
t ti im me e

E En nd d l lo oc ca at ti io on n A Ar rr ri iv va al l
T Tr ra av ve el l t ti im me e
( (s se ec c) )
D Di is st ta an n
c ce e
( (m mi il le es s) )
A Av ve er ra a
g ge e
s sp pe ee ed d
( (m mp ph h) )
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
T To ow wn n h ha al ll l
R Ra ai il lw wa ay y s st ta at ti io on n
P Pe el la am me ed du u
G Ga an na ap pa at th hy y
G Ga an nd dh hi ip pu ur ra am m
R R. .S S. .p pu ur ra am m
G Ga an nd dh hi ip pa ar rk k
8 8. .3 30 0
8 8. .3 35 5
8 8. .5 55 5
9 9. .1 10 0
9 9. .2 20 0
9 9. .3 35 5
9 9. .4 45 5
R Ra ai il lw wa ay y s st ta at ti io on n
P Pe el lu um me ed du u
G Ga an na ap pa at th hy y
G Ga an nd dh hi ip pu ur ra am m
R R. .S S. .p pu ur ra am m
G Ga an nd dh hi ip pa ar rk k
T To ow wn n h ha al ll l
8 8. .3 33 3
8 8. .5 53 3
9 9. .0 09 9
9 9. .1 19 9
9 9. .3 34 4
9 9. .4 41 1
9 9. .5 54 4
1 18 86 6
1 11 10 0
7 7
8 85 56 6
5 51 18 8
8 82 24 4
3 36 68 8
5 52 24 4
0 0. .9 90 0
5 5. .8 84 47 7
3 3. .8 80 07 7
2 2. .3 30 05 5
3 3. .5 54 42 2
1 1. .5 59 97 7
2 2. .1 12 25 5
3 33 3. .8 85 5
3 32 2. .8 87 7
2 27 7. .6 64 4
2 28 8. .8 88 8
2 26 6. .3 38 8
2 26 6. .3 38 8
2 25 5. .1 15 5
A Av ve er ra ag ge e t ti im me e: : 1 1. .2 22 2 h ho ou ur rs s. .
A Av ve er ra ag ge e s sp pe ee ed d t ti im me e: : 2 28 8. .6 62 2 m mp ph h
T To ot ta al l d di is st ta an nc ce e t tr ra av ve el le ed d: : 2 22 2. .1 12 23 3m mi il le es s ( (3 32 2. .3 38 84 4 k km m) ). .

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2 21 1. . T TR RA AF FF FI IC C C CO ON NT TR RO OL L
M Ma an ny y o ot th he er r c co ou un nt tr ri ie es s m mo on ni it to or r o on ng go oi in ng g t tr ra af ff fi ic c a at t c cr ri it ti ic ca al l p po oi in nt ts s i in n t th he e r ro oa ad d n ne et tw wo or rk k
r ro ou un nd d- -t th he e- -c cl lo oc ck k, , c co ou un nt ti in ng g d de ev vi ic ce es s o or r o ot th he er r m me ea an ns s o of f t tr ra af ff fi ic c d da at ta a g ga at th he er ri in ng g, , a an nd d
t th he en n r re el la ay yi in ng g t th hi is s i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n t to o t th he e p pu ub bl li ic c u us si in ng g i it t f fo or r a an na al ly yt ti ic ca al l p pu ur rp po os se es s. . T Tr ra af ff fi ic c
c co on nt tr ro ol l s sy ys st te em ms s a ar re e t th he e m mo os st t d de em ma an nd di in ng g o of f t th he e I In nt te el ll li ig ge en nt t T Tr ra an ns sp po or rt ta at ti io on n S Sy ys st te em ms s. .
T Th he ey y m ma ay y h ha av ve e t to o c co ov ve er r l la ar rg ge e g ge eo og gr ra ap ph hi ic ca al l a ar re ea as s a an nd d i in nt te er rf fa ac ce e w wi it th h a a l la ar rg ge e n nu um mb be er r
o of f d de ev vi ic ce es s, , t th hu us s m ma an na ag gi in ng g d da at ta a a av va ai il la ab bl le e f fr ro om m a a v va ar ri ie et ty y o of f d di is sp pa ar ra at te e s so ou ur rc ce es s. . I In n
o ot th he er r c co ou un nt tr ri ie es s, , r re el la ay yi in ng g t to o t tr ra af ff fi ic c i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n, , g gi iv vi in ng g u up p- -t to o- -d da at te e r re ea al l- -t ti im me e t tr ra af ff fi ic c
i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n t to o t th he e p pu ub bl li ic c, , t to o b be e b br ro oa ad dc ca as st te ed d t to o b be e d di is sp pl la ay ye ed d o on n t th he e I In nt te er rn ne et t. . T Th he ey y
c ca an n c co on nt tr ro ol l h hi ig gh h- -s sp pe ee ed d r ro oa ad d a ac cc ci id de en nt ts s, , w wh hi ic ch h c ca an nn no ot t b be e c co on nt tr ro ol ll le ed d e ev ve en n b by y t th he e
s sp pe ee ed d b br re ea ak ke er rs s a an nd d t th he e t ti im mi in ng gs s o of f t th he e v ve eh hi ic cl le es s c ca an n, , m ma ai in nt ta ai in ne ed d. . T Th he e a av ve er ra ag ge e
n nu um mb be er r o of f a ac cc ci id de en nt ts s i in n a a y ye ea ar r i is s 3 3. .5 5 p pe er rc ce en nt t o of f t th he e t to ot ta al l f fo or r i in n a an ny y c co ou un nt tr ry y b bu ut t
t th he es se e c ca an n b be e r re ed du uc ce ed d b by y t th he e i im mp pl le em me en nt ta at ti io on n o of f t th he es se e t te ec ch hn ni iq qu ue es s. . I In n t th hi is s p pa ap pe er r, ,
r re el le ev va an nt t u up p- -t to o- -d da at te e t tr ra af ff fi ic c, , t tr ra av ve el l i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n f fo or r p pu ub bl li ic c a an nd d p pr ri iv va at te e t tr ra an ns sp po or rt t u us se er rs s
i is s p po os st te ed d e el le ec ct tr ro on ni ic ca al ll ly y o on n t to ou uc ch h s sc cr re ee en n d di is sp pl la ay ys s a at t m ma ai in n p pl la ac ce es s a an nd d a al ls so o o on n t th he e
I In nt te er rn ne et t. .
To control the traffic the datas should be updated for the present condition. If
there is any accident we can use the alternate routes as guide of your GPS. The car
was fitted with GPS and satellite communication technology along with a Web-
based interface/ GSM that allows you to locate your vehicles and communicate
with your drivers anywhere you can access the Internet/ GSM.
2 22 2. . E EV VA AL LU UA AT TI IO ON N
U Us si in ng g G GI IS S a ai id di in ng g r ro oa ad d d de es si ig gn n h ha as s p pr ro ov ve ed d i it ts se el lf f a as s u us se ef fu ul l, , e es sp pe ec ci ia al ll ly y w wh he en n
v vi is su ua al li iz zi in ng g i im mp pa ac ct t o on n t th he e e en nv vi ir ro on nm me en nt t i is s c co on nc ce er rn ne ed d. . U Us si in ng g G GI IS S f fo or r 3 3D D v vi is su ua al li iz za at ti io on n
m ma ay y a al ls so o h he el lp p i in n s so ol lv vi in ng g a al lr re ea ad dy y i in n u us se e f fo or r p pl la an ne es s a an nd d s sh hi ip ps s, , s so om me et th hi in ng g t th ha at t c co ou ul ld d
t tu ur rn n o ou ut t t to o b be e e es sp pe ec ci ia al ll ly y h he el lp pf fu ul l f fo or r e em me er rg ge en nc cy y v ve eh hi ic cl le e d dr ri iv ve er rs s w wh he en n t th he ey y a ar re e s st ti il ll l
n ne ew w t to o a an n a ar re ea a. . I In n a al ll l t th he e m me en nt ti io on ne ed d a ap pp pl li ic ca at ti io on ns s G GI IS S i is s a a t to oo ol l f fo or r v vi is su ua al li iz zi in ng g a an nd d
a an na al ly yz zi in ng g d da at ta a. . L Lo oo ok ki in ng g a at t f fu ut tu ur re e p pr ro os sp pe ec ct ts s, , t th he e p po ot te en nt ti ia al l r ra an ng ge e o of f s su uc ch h
a ap pp pl li ic ca at ti io on ns s, , c co om mb bi in ne ed d w wi it th h 3 3D D v vi is su ua al li iz za at ti io on n, , i is s v vi ir rt tu ua al ll ly y u un nl li im mi it te ed d. . R Ro ou ut te e p pl la an nn ne er rs s
a ar re e v ve er ry y u us se ef fu ul l t to oo ol ls s i in n g ge en ne er ra al l, , b bu ut t t th he ey y h ha av ve e l li im mi it ta at ti io on ns s. . D Da at ta a t th ha at t i is s u us se ed d i in n
r ro ou ut te e- -p pl la an nn ni in ng g s sy ys st te em ms s m mu us st t b be e e ex xt tr re em me el ly y a ac cc cu ur ra at te e a an nd d s sh ho ou ul ld d b be e u up pd da at te ed d. . E Ev ve en n
t th ho ou ug gh h t th he e r ro oa ad d n ne et tw wo or rk k m ma ay y l lo oo ok k f fi in ne e o on n s sc cr re ee en n, , i it t m ma ay y c co on nt ta ai in n f fa al ls se e i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n

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t th ha at t w wi il ll l d di iv ve er rt t t th he e r ro ou ut te e f fr ro om m w wh he er re e i it t s sh ho ou ul ld d g go o, , s su uc ch h a as s s se en nd di in ng g a a v ve eh hi ic cl le e t th he e
w wr ro on ng g w wa ay y d do ow wn n a a o on ne e- -w wa ay y s st tr re ee et t o or r u us si in ng g a a r ro ou ut te e t th ha at t i is s c cl lo os se ed d t to o t th he e p pu ub bl li ic c. .T Th he e
d da at ta a m mu us st t b be e k ke ep pt t u up p- -t to o- -d da at te e w wi it th h t th he e l la at te es st t s st ta at tu us s o of f a an ny y p pa ar rt ti ic cu ul la ar r r ro oa ad d i in n t th he e
n ne et tw wo or rk k. . T Th hu us s, , a a G GI IS S f fo or r r ro ou ut te e p pl la an nn ni in ng g w wi il ll l h ha av ve e t to o c co on nt ta ai in n a a l la ar rg ge e v vo ol lu um me e o of f
a at tt tr ri ib bu ut te e d da at ta a, , d de ep pe en nd di in ng g o on n t th he e s sp pe ec ci if fi ic c a ap pp pl li ic ca at ti io on n n ne ee ed ds s. . U Us se er rs s m ma ay y w wa an nt t t to o
e en nq qu ui ir re e a ab bo ou ut t g gr ra ad di ie en nt ts s, , h he ei ig gh ht t a an nd d w we ei ig gh ht t c co on ns st tr ra ai in nt ts s, , r ro oa ad d w wo or rk ks s, , f fi il ll li in ng g s st ta at ti io on ns s, ,
d de et to ou ur r o op pt ti io on ns s, , h ho ot te el ls s o or r o ot th he er r p po oi in nt ts s o of f i in nt te er re es st t. . I It t c co os st t i is s m mo or re e f fo or r t th he e u us se er r. . R Ro ou ut te e- -
p pl la an nn ni in ng g s sy ys st te em ms s t ty yp pi ic ca al ll ly y e ei it th he er r c ca al lc cu ul la at te e t th he e s sh ho or rt te es st t o or r t th he e f fa as st te es st t j jo ou ur rn ne ey y, , i in n
d do oi in ng g t th hi is s, , t th he e s sy ys st te em m u us se es s a al lg go or ri it th hm ms s f fo or r c ch ho oo os si in ng g a a p pa ar rt ti ic cu ul la ar r r ro ou ut te e. . H Ho ow we ev ve er r, ,
s so om me e e ex xp pe er ri ie en nc ce ed d d dr ri iv ve er rs s m ma ay y n no ot t t ta ak ke e t th he e s sa am me e r ro ou ut te e a as s t th he e s sy ys st te em m c ca al lc cu ul la at te es s. .
R Ro ou ut te e p pl la an nn ne er rs s w wi il ll l o of ft te en n t te en nd d t to o g ge en ne er ra al li iz ze e, , b be ec ca au us se e v va ar ri ia ab bl le es s s su uc ch h a as s t ti im me e o of f d da ay y, ,
w we ea at th he er r c co on nd di it ti io on ns s ( (e e. .g g. . s su un n, , r ra ai in n, , f fo og g, , i ic ce e o or r s sn no ow w) ), , t ty yp pe e o of f c ca ar r u us se ed d o or r d dr ri iv ve er r
b be eh ha av vi io or r a ar re e u us su ua al ll ly y n no ot t i im mp pl le em me en nt te ed d, , e ev ve en n t th ho ou ug gh h t th he ey y l la ay y h he ea av vy y i in nf fl lu ue en nc ce e o on n
d dr ri iv vi in ng g. . S Sy ys st te em ms s m ma ay y a al ls so o l la ac ck k l lo oc ca al l k kn no ow wl le ed dg ge e a a d dr ri iv ve er r h ha as s a ab bo ou ut t a a c ce er rt ta ai in n s st tr re et tc ch h
o of f a a r ro ou ut te e. . G Gi iv ve en n t th he e w we ei ig gh ht t t th ha at t r ro oa ad d t tr ra an ns sp po or rt t h ha as s i in n d di is st tr ri ib bu ut ti in ng g g go oo od ds s a an nd d
p pe er rs so on na al l t tr ra an ns sp po or rt t, , a an nd d g gi iv ve en n t th he e s st te ea ad di il ly y i in nc cr re ea as si in ng g c co om mp pl le ex xi it ty y o of f r ro oa ad d n ne et tw wo or rk ks s, ,
r ro ou ut te e p pl la an nn ne er rs s w wi il ll l u un nd do ou ub bt te ed dl ly y n no ot t c ce ea as se e t to o e ex xi is st t. . A As s f fo or r i in n- -c ca ar r n na av vi ig ga at ti io on n
s sy ys st te em ms s, , i in n o ot th he er r c co ou un nt tr ri ie es s p po os si it ti io on n i is s d di is sp pl la ay ye ed d i in ns si id de e a a m mo ov vi in ng g v ve eh hi ic cl le e i is s r ra at th he er r
r ri ig gi id d, , o on nl ly y a al ll lo ow wi in ng g a a s sc cr re ee en n s sh ho ow wi in ng g a a s si in ng gl le e b bo ol ld d a ar rr ro ow w. . A A f fu ul ll l m ma ap p c ca an n o on nl ly y b be e
d di is sp pl la ay ye ed d w wh he en n t th he e v ve eh hi ic cl le e i is s s st ti il ll l. . V Vo oi ic ce e m me es ss sa ag gi in ng g h ha as s n no o s su uc ch h r re es st tr ri ic ct ti io on ns s. . B Bo ot th h
v vi is su ua al l a an nd d a au ud di io o o ou ut tp pu ut t h ha av ve e a a p po ot te en nt ti ia al l f fo or r d di is st tr ra ac ct ti in ng g t th he e d dr ri iv ve er r, , t th he e u us se e o of f
m mo ob bi il le e p ph ho on ne es s i in n c ca ar rs s, , i in n- -c ca ar r n na av vi ig ga at ti io on n m ma ay y f fa ac ce e t th he e s sa am me e a ar rg gu um me en nt t. . T Tr ra ac ck ki in ng g
s sy ys st te em ms s d de ep pe en nd d o on n G GP PS S f fo or r f fi in nd di in ng g t th he e e ex xa ac ct t l lo oc ca at ti io on n o of f a a v ve eh hi ic cl le e. . M Mo od de er rn n G GP PS S
r re ec ce ei iv ve er rs s h ha av ve e a a r re el li ia ab bl le e a ac cc cu ur ra ac cy y o of f b be et tw we ee en n 5 5 a an nd d 1 15 5 m me et te er rs s i in n g go oo od d c co on nd di it ti io on ns s. .
U Us si in ng g s so o- -c ca al ll le ed d d di if ff fe er re en nt ti ia al l G GP PS S, , t th he e a ac cc cu ur ra ac cy y c ca an n b be e i in nc cr re ea as se ed d t to o a a f fe ew w
c ce en nt ti im me et te er rs s. .

F Fi ig g 9 9. .C Co om mp pa ar ri is so on n o of f A Ac cc cu ur ra ac cy y o of f S Si in ng gl le e p po oi in nt t p po os si it ti io on ni in ng g a an nd d D DG GP PS S p po os si it ti io on ni in ng g

185
23. LAYOUT OF VEHICLE TRACKING


F Fi ig g. . 1 10 0. .L La ay yo ou ut t o of f V Ve eh hi ic cl le e T Tr ra ac ck ki in ng g

A A n ne ew w m me et th ho od d h ha as s b be ee en n d de ev ve el lo op pe ed d f fo or r t th he e o on nl li in ne e v ve eh hi ic cl le e t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g s sy ys st te em m u us si in ng g
G GS SM M o of f v ve eh hi ic cl le es s. . A A t tw wo o- -w wa ay y c co om mm mu un ni ic ca at ti io on n i is s p po os ss si ib bl le e b be et tw we ee en n t th he e c co on nt tr ro ol l r ro oo om m
a an nd d t th he e v ve eh hi ic cl le es s. . T Th he e t tr ri ip p s sh he ee et t g gi iv ve es s a a d de et ta ai il le ed d d da at ta a a ab bo ou ut t t th he e t tr ri ip ps s, , v ve eh hi ic cl le es s a an nd d
d dr ri iv ve er rs s, , w wh hi ic ch h w wi il ll l b be e u us se ef fu ul l i in n m mo on ni it to or ri in ng g t th he e p pe er rf fo or rm ma an nc ce e o of f d dr ri iv ve er rs s a an nd d v ve eh hi ic cl le es s. .
S Si in nc ce e t th he e d de ev ve el lo op pe ed d J Ja av va a s sc cr ri ip pt t i is s w we eb b e en na ab bl le ed d, , v ve eh hi ic cl le es s c ca an n b be e m mo on ni it to or re ed d f fr ro om m a an ny y
p pa ar rt t o of f t th he e g gl lo ob be e. . R Re em mo ot te e m mo on ni it to or ri in ng g s se er rv vi ic ce e f fo or r t th he e v ve eh hi ic cl le e t th ha at t d de et te ec ct ts s
u un na au ut th ho or ri iz ze ed d m mo ov ve em me en nt t o or r a at tt ta ac ck k i in ns st ta an nt tl ly y, , a al le er rt ts s a an n o op pe er ra at to or r t to o t th he e s st ta at tu us s a an nd d
p po os si it ti io on n o of f t th he e v ve eh hi ic cl le e t th ha at t i is s c co on nt ti in nu ua al ll ly y t tr ra ac ck ke ed d b by y a ac ct ti iv va at ti in ng g t th he e v ve eh hi ic cl le e a al la ar rm m
s sy ys st te em m a an nd d e ev ve en n i im mm mo ob bi il li iz ze es s t th he e c ca ar r s st to op pp pi in ng g t th he e t th he ef ft t. . T Th he e r ra an ng ge e o of f p pr ro od du uc ct ts s a an nd d
a ap pp pl li ic ca at ti io on ns s i in n t th he e t tr ra an ns sp po or rt ta at ti io on n s se ec ct to or r i in nd di ic ca at te es s t th ha at t t th he es se e a ar re e t to oo ol ls s t th ha at t a ar re e i in n
h hi ig gh h d de em ma an nd d. . I It t h ha as s b be ee en n e es st ti im ma at te ed d t th ha at t s so om me e 8 80 0% % o of f a al ll l i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n t th ha at t a an ny y
b bu us si in ne es ss s m ma an na ag ge es s h ha as s a a g ge eo og gr ra ap ph hi ic c c co on nt te ex xt t. . I In n t th he e f fi ie el ld d o of f t tr ra an ns sp po or rt ta at ti io on n m mu uc ch h o of f
t th hi is s i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n i is s c co on ns st ta an nt tl ly y m mo ov vi in ng g, , t th hu us s i in nc cr re ea as si in ng g t th he e d de em ma an nd d f fo or r u up p- -t to o- -d da at te e
i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n. .
2 24 4. . C CO ON NC CL LU US SI IO ON N
T Tr ra an ns sp po or rt t t te el le em ma at ti ic cs s m me ea an ns s t th he e l la ar rg ge e- -s sc ca al le e i in nt te eg gr ra at ti io on n a an nd d i im mp pl le em me en nt ta at ti io on n o of f
t te el le ec co om mm mu un ni ic ca at ti io on n a an nd d i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n t te ec ch hn no ol lo og gy y i in n t th he e f fi ie el ld d o of f t tr ra an ns sp po or rt ta at ti io on n . .T To o
i im mp pr ro ov ve es s i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n a ac cc cu ur ra ac cy y o on n t th he e a at tt tr ri ib bu ut te e d da at ta a o of f r ro oa ad d n ne et tw wo or rk ks s a an nd d
a av va ai il la ab bi il li it ty y w we e h ha av ve e u us se ed d D DG GP PS S. . A Ac cc co or rd di in ng g t to o C Co os st t a an nd d b be en ne ef fi it ts s A An na al ly ys si is s o of f t th he e
o op pt ti im mu um m d de es si ig gn n w we e c ca an n u us se e m mo ob bi il le e c co om mm mu un ni ic ca at ti io on ns s ( (G GS SM M) ). . B By y t th hi is s s sy ys st te em m t th he e
c co on nt tr ro ol l o ov ve er r t tr ra af ff fi ic c w wi il ll l b be e e ea as sy y a an nd d e ef ff fe ec ct ti iv ve e b by y t th hi is s o on ne e- -t th hi ir rd d a ab bu un nd da an nt t o oc cc cu ur rr re en nc ce e

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o of f s sp pe ee ed d r re el la at te ed d a ac cc ci id de en nt ts s c ca an n b be e r re ed du uc ce ed d. . B By y c co on nt tr ro ol ll li in ng g v ve eh hi ic cl le e s sp pe ee ed d w we e c ca an n
r re ed du uc ce e a an nd d m ma ai in nt te en na an nc ce e a a c co on ns si id de er ra ab bl le e e ec co on no om my y o of f 3 30 0% %. . U Us se e o of f S Sh ho or rt te es st t p pa at th h
a al lg go or ri it th hm ms s - - S Sa av ve es s f fu ue el l, , s sa av ve es s t ti im me e b by ys se el le ec ct ti in ng g t th he e a al lt te er rn na at ti iv ve e r ro ou ut te es s t to o a av vo oi id d
p po os ss si ib bl le e d de el la ay ys s, , O On nl li in ne e t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g c ca an n r re ed du uc ce e t th he ef ft t i is s w wi id de el ly y p pr ro om mo ot te ed d i in n t th he es se e d da ay ys s
a as s a an n u ul lt ti im ma at te e n na av vi ig ga at ti io on n a an nd d v ve eh hi ic cl le e- -t tr ra ac ck ki in ng g t to oo ol l. . A Ad do op pt ti in ng g G GI IS S t te ec ch hn no ol lo og gy y
i id de en nt ti if fi ie es s w wh he er re e t th he e s se er rv vi ic ce es s a an nd d f fa ac ci il li it ti ie es s a ar re e n ne ee ed d b by y t th he e m ma an na ag ge em me en nt t. . T Th hi is s
i in nt te eg gr ra at te ed d G GI IS S d de ef fi in ni it te el ly y w wi il ll l h he el lp p t th he e m ma an na ag ge em me en nt t o of f t th he e r ro oa ad d n ne et tw wo or rk k b by y t th he e
c co on nc ce er rn ne ed d o or rg ga an ni iz za at ti io on ns s t to o m ma ai in nt ta ai in n a a u us se er r- -f fr ri ie en nd dl ly y r re el la at ti io on n a al lo on ng g t th he e p pe eo op pl le e. . T Th he e
s st tu ud dy y p pr re es se en nt te ed d a ab bo ov ve e h ha as s b be ee en n m ma ad de e o on nl ly y f fo or r a a s se el le ec ct te ed d t ty yp pi ic ca al l b bu us s r ro ou ut te es s. . T Th hi is s
c ca an n b be e c co on nv ve en ni ie en nt tl ly y e ex xt te en nd de ed d t to o t th he e w wh ho ol le e o of f C Co oi im mb ba at to or re e r ro oa ad d n ne et tw wo or rk ks s. . . . I If f t th he e
s sy ys st te em m i is s v ve er ry y a ac cc cu ur ra ac cy y w we e c ca an n u us se e f fo or r m ma ap pp pi in ng g f fo or r r re em mo ot te e p pl la ac ce es s. . T Th he e i in nc cr re ea as se e i in n
u us se e o of f h hi ig gh h s sp pa at ti ia al l a an nd d s sp pe ec ct tr ra al l r re es so ol lu ut ti io on n s sa at te el ll li it te e d da at ta a f fo or r a an na al ly ys si is s c ca an n m ma ak ke e t th he e
w wh ho ol le e j jo ob b m mu uc ch h s si im mp pl le er r. .


R RE EF FE ER RE EN NC CE ES S
1 1. . S Sl la at te er r A Al la an n, , ( (F Fe eb br ru ua ar ry y 2 20 00 02 2) ), , S Sp pe ec ci if fi ic ca at ti io on n f fo or r a a d dy yn na am mi ic c v ve eh hi ic cl le e r ro ou ut ti in ng g a an nd d
s sc ch he ed du ul li in ng g s sy ys st te em m . . I In nt te er rn na at ti io on na al l J Jo ou ur rn na al l o of f T Tr ra an ns sp po or rt t M Ma an na ag ge em me en nt t, , V Vo ol lu um me e
1 1, , I Is ss su ue e 1 1, , P Pa ag ge es s 2 29 9- -4 40 0
2 2. . L La an ng gL La au ur ra a, , T Tr ra an ns sp po or rt ta at ti io on n G GI IS S. . I IS SB BN N 1 1- -8 87 79 91 10 02 2- -4 47 7- -1 1 1 13 32 2 p pa ag ge es s. .
3 3. . S St te ee ed de e- -T Te er rr ry yK Ka ar re en n, , I In nt te eg gr ra at ti in ng g G GI IS S a an nd d t th he e G Gl lo ob ba al l P Po os si it ti io on ni in ng g S Sy ys st te em m. .
4 4. . V Vd da an ni i P P. .M M. . a an nd d G Go oy ya al l R R. .K K. ., , G GP PS S e en na ab bl le e m mo ob bi il le e G GI IS S s se er rv vi ic ce es s. .
5 5. . M Me eh ht ta a P Pa av vi it tr ra a a an nd d A Ag gg ga ar rw wa al lP Pa av vi it tr ra a, , G GP PS S B Ba as se ed d f fl le ee et t m ma an na ag ge em me en nt t s sy ys st te em m. .









187
TRACKING OF STOLEN VEHICLES USING AN ULTRA-
HIGH SPEEDMICROCONTROLLER WITH GPS AND
GSM TECHNOLOGY
L. Mohana Priya
1
, M. Ponmani
2
BMIE Department,
AvinashilingamUniversity,Coimbatore.

ABSTRACT
One of the most challenging problems faced by our modern society is the increasing
phenomenon of car thefts. Reports from police departments around the world
indicate that car theft in some of the countries reaches more than 300,000 cars a
year and the percentage of the cars recovered is not very high. Increasing the
possibility of finding a stolen car is very important to both police and car owners. In
this paper, a vehicle identification system using an embedded wireless
communication system is proposed to address the car theft problem. The proposed
scheme is based on getting information about the exact location of the vehicle using
GPS and GSM technology. The police officer can also receive the same information
and Can also be automatically notified in case of the car is stolen.

1. INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of car theft poses a serious problem to our modern society.
Statistics showed that the number of stolen cars exceeded the boundary of one
million cars per year in the United States for the last few years. In fact, only 14% of
stolen cars are cleared out by arrests each year. The recovery rates in most
countries do not exceed 60% , and the number of reported stolen cars in some
countries reaches more than 300,000 cars a year.
Increasing the recovery rate is of great importance to both car owners and police
officials. People steal cars for different reasons. Some people steal cars in order
to sell them and benefit from their revenues. Such criminals tend to steal late-
model vehicles especially luxury cars. Old model cars are usually targeted for parts.


188
This type of theft is called enterprise theft. Others steal cars for joyriding or the
commissioning of another crime participating in what is so called opportunity theft.
As a result, people started to invent anti-the techniques such as mechanical
barriers on controls, alarms, and immobilizers. Mechanical barriers on control have
to be set by the vehicle driver whenever she/he is leaving the car. This method is
considered to be inconvenient because it requires setting these barriers every time
the driver wants to leave the car and dismantling them whenever she/he is back
again. On the other hand, car alarms do not require such physical effort.

However, nowadays people consider these alarms as noise sources and when one of
these alarms goes on people start to talk louder! It is the immobilizers, which are
the most efficient among these theft deterrents. Immobilizers cut vital circuitries in
the car such as the starter, ignition, and fuel supply, and in order to disable this
system the driver has to enter a code or use a special key. The question now is
what if the car is already stolen. We need a system to relocate the position of the
stolen car. Here the tracking of location is achieved in mobile communication
environment with the help of Global Positioning System (GPS) and Global
Systems for Mobile communication (GSM) technology.

2. PROPOSED SYSTEM DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION
The main idea of the proposed system is to have all cars registered with the police
department such that each has a unique identification number (identity code)
associated with the vehicle information such as make, model, color, plate number,
owner, etc. Installing a device which is composed of GPS receiver, GSM modem and
a microcontroller in a hidden place in the car. A block diagram of the system is
shown in Figure1. If the vehicle is theft then the Owner of the vehicle can send
message to the SIM card that is located in the GSM modem inside the device.
Using GPS receiver and an Ultra-High speed microcontroller the device tracks its
exact location and it will transmit the information using GSM technology to the
owner of the vehicle. The proposed system block diagram is shown in the Figure 1:




189




Fig. 1 System Block Diagram

In this system GPS receiver and GSM modem are directly connected to the micro-
controller. The GPS receiver Transmit its location with latitude and longitude co-
ordinates The firmware coding in the micro-controller can read the SMS (Short
Message Service) from GSM modem which is send by another GSM modem or
mobile. Initially it analyzes the mobile number and the message which is received
by GSM. If the number and the password are correct means, the controller analyzes
the location from the database with the help of GPS. Finally the controller will
send the tracked location by SMS to the mobile numbers including Owners and to t
he Police numbers that is stored in the SIM card with the help of GPS.

2.1. Tracking Scenario

The owner can send message to the SIM card located in the hidden devices in the
vehicle will compare the mobile number and message which is received by the GSM
modem. If the number and the password are correct means, the controller will
analyze the location from the database with the help of GPS. Finally, the controller
sends the tracked location by SMS to the mobile numbers with the help of GSM.



190
2.2. Structure of GSM Network














Fig. 2. Structure of GSM Network

GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by
searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate in four different
frequency ranges. Most GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands.
Some countries in the Americas (including Canada and the United States) use the
850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands because the 900 and 1800 MHz frequency bands
were already allocated. The structure of the GSM network as shown in the Fig. 2.
The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries,
notably Scandinavia, where these frequencies were previously used for first-
generation systems.

In the 900 MHz band the uplink frequency band is 890915 MHz, and the
downlink frequency band is 935 960 MHz. This 25 MHz bandwidth is subdivided
into 124 carrier frequency channels, each spaced 200 kHz apart. Time division
multiplexing is used to allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per
radio frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots (giving eight burst periods)
grouped into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use alternate frames
in the same timeslot. The channel data rate is 270.833kbit/s, and the frame
duration is 4.615 ms.

191
The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in GSM
850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900.

There are four different cell sizes in a GSM networkmacro, micro, Pico and
umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the
implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base
station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level.
Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are
typically used in urban areas. Pico cells are small cells whose coverage diameter is
a few dozen meters; they are mainly used indoors. Umbrella cells are used to cover
shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.

Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain and
propagation conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of
kilometers. The longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical use is
35 kilometers (22 mi) . There are also several implementations of the concept of an
extended cell, where the cell radius could be double or even more, depending on
the antenna system, the type of terrain and the timing advance.

Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor
Pico cell base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed
through power splitters, to deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors to
the separate indoor distributed antenna system.

These are typically deployed when a lot of call capacity is needed indoors, for
example in shopping centers or airports. However, this is not a prerequisite, since
indoor coverage is also provided
by in-building penetration of the radio signals from nearby cells. The modulation
used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a kind of continuous-
phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated onto the carrier
is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed to a frequency
modulator, which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring channels
(adjacent channel interference).

2.3. Global Positioning System


192
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the only fully functional Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS). Utilizing a constellation of at least 24 Medium Earth Orbit
satellites that transmit precise microwave signals, the system enables a GPS
receiver to determine its location, speed, direction, and time. GPS is officially
named NAVSTAR GPS

2.3.1Operation of GPS Receiver
A typical GPS receiver calculates its position using the signals from four or more
GPS satellites. Four satellites are needed since the process needs a very accurate
local time, more accurate than any normal clock can provide, so the receiver
internally solves for time as well as position. In other words, the receiver uses four
measurements to solve for 4 variables - x, y, z, and t. These values are then turned
into more user-friendly forms, such as latitude/longitude or location on a map, and
then displayed to the user.
Each GPS satellite has an atomic clock, and continually transmits messages
containing the current time at the start of the message, parameters to calculate the
location of the satellite (the ephemeris),and the general system health (the
almanac). The signals travel at a known speed - thespeed of light through outer
space, and slightly slower through the atmosphere.
The receiver uses the arrival time to compute the Distance to each satellite, from
which it determines the Position of the receiver using geometry and trigonometry
(tri-lateration). Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer
may be needed in some special cases.
For example, if the local time is known very precisely (to atomic clock accuracy), or
one variable is already known (for example, a sea-going ship knows its altitude is
0), a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. Also, in practice,
receivers use additional includes (Doppler of satellite signals, last known position,
dead reckoning, inertial navigation, and so on) to give degraded answers when less
than four satellites are visible.
2.3.2System Segmentation
The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment
(SS), a control segment (CS), and a user segment (US).

193
2.3.2.1 Space Segment






Fig. 3.Space Segment (Satellites)

A visual example of the GPS constellation in motion with the Earth rotating. Notice
how the number of satellites in view from a given point on the Earth's surface, in
this example at 45N, changes with time. The space segment (SS) comprises the
orbiting GPS satellites or Space Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance The GPS design
originally called for 24 SVs, 8 each in three circular orbital planes, but this was
modified to 6 planes with 4 satellites each.

The orbital planes are centered on the Earth, not rotating with respect to the
distant stars. The six planes have approximately 55 inclination (tilt relative to
Earth's equator) and are separated by 60 right ascension of the ascending node
(angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection).

The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight
from almost everywhere on Earth's surface. Orbiting at an altitude of approximately
20,200 kilometers (12,600 miles or 10,900 nautical miles; orbital radius of 26,600
km (16,500 mi or 14,400 NM)), each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal
day.

The ground track of each satellite therefore repeats each (sidereal) day. This was
very helpful during development, since even with just 4 satellites, correct alignment
means all 4 are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military
operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat
zones. As of September 2007, there are 31 actively broadcasting satellites in the

194
GPS constellation. The additional satellites improve the precision of GPS receiver
calculations by providing redundant measurements.

With the increased number of satellites, the constellation was changed to a non-
uniform arrangement. Such an arrangement was shown to improve reliability and
availability of the system, relative to a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail.

2.3.2.2 Control Segment
The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by US Air Force monitoring stations in
Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Colorado Springs,
Colorado, along with monitor stations operated by the National Geospatial-
Intelligence Agency (NGA). The tracking information is sent to the Air Force Space
Command's master control station at Schriever Air Force Base in Colorado
Springs, which is operated by the 2d Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the
United States Air Force (USAF). 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with a
navigational update (using the ground antennas at Ascension Island, Diego Garcia,
Kwajalein, and Colorado Springs).
These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few
nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal
orbital model. The updates are created by a Kalman filter which uses inputs from
the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other
inputs.
Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards. So to change the orbit of a
satellite, the satellite must be marked 'unhealthy', so receivers will not use it in
their calculation. Then the maneuver can be carried out, and the resulting orbit
tracked from the ground. Then the new ephemeris is uploaded and the satellite
marked healthy again. Even if just one satellite is maneuvered at a time, this
implies at least five satellites must be visible to be sure of getting data from four.

2.3.2.3 User Segment


Fig. 4. User Segment

195
The user's GPS receiver is the user segment (US) of the GPS system. In general,
GPS receivers are composed of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by
the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly-stable clock (often a crystal
oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and speed
information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels:
this signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously.

Originally limited to four or five, this has progressively increased over the years so
that, as of 2006, receivers typically have between twelve and twenty channels.

GPS receivers may include an input for differential corrections, using the RTCM
SC-104 format. This is typically in the form of a RS-232 port at 4,800 bit/s speed.
Data is actually sent at a much lower rate, which limits the accuracy of the signal
sent using RTCM.

Receivers with internal DGPS receivers can outperform those using external RTCM
data. As of 2006, even low-cost units commonly include Wide Area Augmentation
System (WAAS) receivers.

Many GPS receivers can relay position data to a PC or other device using the NMEA
0183 protocol. NMEA 2000 is a newer and less widely adopted protocol. Both are
proprietary and controlled by the US-based National Marine Electronics
Association. References to the NMEA protocols have been compiled from public
records, allowing open source tools like gpsd to read the protocol without violating
intellectual property laws. Other proprietary protocols exist as well, such as the
SiRF and MTK protocols. Receivers can interface with other devices using methods
including a serial connection, USB or Bluetooth.

3. PROTOTYPE IMPLEMENTATION
An experimental system has been implemented to verify the operation of the
proposed system as shown in Figure 6. It consists of a GPS Receiver, GSM modem
and a microcontroller with two serial ports. GPS Receiver analyzes the exact
location of the vehicle and it sends the Location information to the SIM that is
located inside the GSM modem.

196
The only instance when we are going to have a response or an acknowledgment is in
case of the presence of a stolen car, which is supposed to be not often. The main
advantage of this type of medium access is that it does not require any coordination
between the nodes in the network and hence less complexity.







Fig. 5. Prototype Implementation
In the above fig 5 shows the prototype implementation. Here an Ultra High speed
microcontroller 89C429 is used. It is an enhanced version of 8051 controller. It is
12 times faster than the original and it can perform 33 Million Instructions Per
Second (MIPS).

4. DISCUSSION AND ENHANCEMENTS

The proposed scheme can be used for any car even it is not stolen. This leads to
more security but some people may dislike the idea that someone may find their
whereabouts even if they did not any criminal act. This is a real privacy concern.

5. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, an embedded wireless communication system for recovering stolen
cars is proposed and implemented. The system is based on GPS and GSM
technology. If a car is stolen, it will respond to the owner and to the police. This will
lead to the location of the stolen car can be easily identified by the police officer.
The proposed scheme is quite attractive since there is no major cost of installation
or maintenance and can be absorbed by the police department.
REFERENCES
1. Insurance Information Institute, "Hot Topics and Issues Updates: Auto Theft,"
March 2005, http://www.iii.org/media/hottopics/insurance/test4/.

2. Bend Oregon, Facts and Figures about Vehicle Theft,
"http://www.bend.or.us/police/carfigures.htm.
GSM
MODEM
GPS
RECIEVER
Dallas
Microcontroll
er 89C420
serial ports
LCD

197

3. Paul Williams, "Tracking stolen vehicles: Boomerang vehicle tracking
system,"http://www.canadiandriver.com/articles/pw/boomeran.htm.

4. Dallas semiconductor based on 8051 microcontroller
http://www.alldatasheet.com/datasheet- pdf/pdf/58645/DALLAS/DS89C420.

5. Stolen Vehicle tracking http://www.wirelesscar.com/Page.as























198
PIANO KEY WEIR
Aniket Kanchan
1
, Aditya Karan
1

1
Singhad College of Engineering, Pune, India


ABSTRACT

Ongoing efforts to enhance safety (revision of extreme floods in future construction
zones notably in Asia) increase significantly the discharge requirements of existing
or new dams. This leads to considerable cost overruns if the conventional solutions
are employed, such as fully gated spillways (which are prone to complete
obstruction or ill-adapted operation); or long uncontrolled spillways with low
specific flow rates. Most existing free-flow spillways have a standardized shape
(ogee weir) and are placed upon concrete gravity dam structures. Their drawback is
their low specific flow which is (in m3/s/m) close to 2.2 h 1.5 (h being the nappe
depth in meters). Consequently, the loss of live storage corresponding to the
maximum nappe depth may be 20% to 50%, compared with a gated reservoir, even
if using longer spillways than with gates. It is thus very advantageous to increase
the specific flow as much as possible. A new low cost solution of free flow spillway
in form of the Piano Key Weir multiplies the specific flow by 2 to 4 and may be the
best solution to these problems for most dams. It applies also for reducing the cost
and / or increasing the storage of new dams. This paper deals with introduction of
new concepts and their design and application.

1. INTRODUCTION

There are 50,000 large dams (higher than 15m or with storage over 3 hm3). Their
total storage is over 6,500 km
3
. Over 75% of this storage is devoted to hydropower
although; hydropower large dams are less than 10,000.
Over 30,000 large dams and hundreds of thousands small ones are devoted
essentially to storage for irrigation and to a smaller extent for drinkable or
industrial water. The great majority is in countries with a rainy season of few
months; many are essentially used for storage of most of the flow of the rainy
season to be used along the dry season. Most irrigation dams have or may have an
important impact on flood mitigation but, their spillway has usually been designed
for optimizing the storage and not for improving the flood mitigation. It may be

199
advisable in the future to take greater care of this possibility in the design,
upgrading and management of reservoirs. Few thousands of irrigation dams
(mainly large ones) are concrete dams. There have been very few relevant failures
after first filling and no one by floods for dams higher than 30 m. One thousand are
masonry dams subject to ageing by leakage. The risk of failure the dam body of
masonry gravity dam may thus, be serious in case of reservoir level increase and
such a failure is instantaneous and difficult to anticipate exactly. Most failures
were caused by undersized spillways but, the main risk for gated dams is the total
jamming of gates; this risk has been often over-looked.

2. FURTHER NEEDS

2.1. Need of Extra Storage
Presently, the total storage in the world dams for irrigation and drinkable or
industrialized water is in the range of 1000 km
3
. The needs will increase along the
21
st
century for meeting unsatisfied needs, increase of population especially in
areas needing irrigation and reduction of storage by siltation but the most
important extra need may be linked with the climatic changes; it is quite sure that
the average temperature will increase by some degrees concrete dams. There have
been very few relevant failures after first filling and no one by floods for dams
higher than 30 m. One thousand are masonry dams subject to ageing by leakage.

2.2. Increase in Spillways Capacity

The climatic changes will also probably increase the value of extreme floods in most
world areas. This increase cannot presently be evaluated precisely but it could well
be between 10 and 50% in most areas and possibly more in the northern part of
northern hemisphere. A substantial increase of the spillway capacity of most
existing dams may this be advisable within 20 to 50 years.

2.3. Extra Need of Flood Mitigation

The average storage of most irrigation reservoirs is in the range of 100,000 to
500,000 m
3
per km
2
of catchment area, i.e. much over the necessary volume for
floods mitigation. But, the climatic changes will modify the present optimization.
An increase by 10 to 50 % of the peak flow and volume of exceptional floods will
multiply by 2 to 10 the occurrence of floods damages for most world areas. The

200
utilization of most existing and new dams for floods mitigation may well is justified
within 20 to 50 years. This may as well apply to large rivers as to small or medium
reservoirs upstream of populated areas. This would not prevent the increase of
storage or of spillage capacity.

3. PIANO KEY WEIR

A totally different design has been studied for five years by Hydro coop (a nonprofit
making international association) and this has been supported by more than 50
hydraulic tests. The target is a structure which:
1. Can be placed on existing or new gravity dam sections.
2. Will allow for specific flows of up to 100m
3
/s/m.
3. Can multiply at least by four the flow of ogee weir and
4. Is structurally simple and easy to build with the local resources of all countries.

Preliminary model tests were done in 1999 at the LNH laboratory in France and in
2002 at Roorkee University in India and Biskra University in Algeria. Some shapes
were then selected and are based on:
1. A rectangular layout somewhat similar to the shapes of piano keys which
explains the name Piano Keys weir.
2. An inclined bottom of the upstream and downstream part
3. A reduced width of the elements.
Many detailed tests were then done in 2003 on selected shapes at Biskra University
and some tests using very wide flume at LNH. These detailed tests provided the
basis for optimizing the flow increases according to the ratios between length,
depth, width and shape of the elements and particularly according to the ratio N
(ratio of length of walls to the length of spillway). The impact of various overhangs
has also been studied. Particular attention has been paid to the structural design
and construction facilities for selecting the most attractive solutions.

4. STANDARD DESIGN

Main Features of Standard Design:
P.K. Weirs may have various shapes to fit with site conditions where they have to
be built and operated. The possible options are:

201
1. The value of the ratio N between the total length of the walls and the spillway
length measured from right bank to left bank.
2. The value of the ratio between the width of the inlet and outlet cells.
3. The value of the ratio between the length of the upstream and downstream
overhangs.
4. The slopes of these overhangs.
5. The possible profiling of the walls under the upstream overhangs to facilitate the
flow entrance into the inlets cells.
6. The possible partial filling of the bottom of the cells to decrease the overall
height of the PKW.

The tests already performed have shown that:
1. To get a good ratio between efficiency and price of PKW, the N ratio should be
between 4 and 7.
2. To get the maximum flow, inlets should be larger than outlets and a ratio of 1.2
would be close to the optimum.
3. The slope of the overhangs should not be too small and a minimum 2/1 slope
has to be kept.
4. The partial filing of the downstream extremity of the outlet cells has practically
no incidence on the discharge capacity of PKW.
Having in mind the above considerations, the importance to facilitate the
construction and to reduce the costs, and the most probable conditions of
utilization of PKW, some kind of standard design may be considered with the
following characteristics:

1. Overhangs are symmetrical with a 2/1 slope.
2. Width b (measured from upstream to downstream) at the bottom of PKW is half
of the width a at the top, so that the length of each overhang is a/4.
3. The depth H of the PKW (maximum walls height which has the main incidence
on the discharge capacity) is a/4.
4. Inlets cells are 20% larger than outlets cells (respective widths being 1.2e and e).
5. Ratio N should be 6, so that a = 5.5e and e = 8/11H, all dimensions of the
standard design being in proportion of H

5. CONCLUSION


202
These non-fuse spillways make it possible to triple free sill outflow for a given level.
This means dividing by 3 the length of the spillway or by 2 the depth of the nappe
and the losses in storage. These spillways consist of reinforced concrete or steel
walls, with a developed length that is 2 to 3 times that of the spillway. P.K. Weirs
have an innovative shape, are more efficient, and are designed for installation on
existing or new free-sill crests. They have been improved through testing of models
in 5 countries (France, China, India, Algeria and Vietnam). This solution is not
patented and can be easily tested and implemented by users. P.K. Weirs represent
a cost-effective method for improving most existing or planned dams, for spillways
ranging from tens of m3/s to tens of thousands of m3/s, since: the useful storage
capacity of many free-sill dams can be increased by about 20% at a price per m3 of
water capacity that is lower than that of a new dam. Therefore, an increase of tens
of billions of m
3
is possible worldwide.

1. The outflow of a free-sill spillway can be doubled for a same reservoir level,
which decreases the probability of dam flooding by a factor in the range of 100.
Spillways with high flow rates can be added to existing undersized gated
spillways.
2. The cost of new dams can be significantly lowered while still planning for
extreme floods.
3. Combining these solutions with gates can also, in a number of instances,
provide even greater benefits, notably by facilitating flood reduction. In addition
to their attractive cost considerations, these solutions also effectively address
concerns with regard to the environment and climate change.

REFERENCES
1. http:/www.hydrocoop.org
2. http:/www.vncold.vn
3. http:/www.springerlink.com
4. http:/www.businessstandard.com






203
CIVIL PLANNING FOR A CLOSED-KNIT SOCIETY:
RESIDENTIAL PLANNING FOR A DYNAMIC, VIBRANT AND
CLOSED-KNIT COMMUNITY
ASEEM KUMAR
Undergraduate Part II Student, Department of Civil Engineering
Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University

ABSTRACT
What is the formula of planning a residential area which results in a creation of a
bustling, buzzing, smart, urban and suave society where there is no room for
abnormalities like two people meeting at a party later realizing they live right next
door (!)? In short a much better connected and spirited neighborhood rather than
the bland concretized forest or vast low population localities where its not really
safe to go out after 8 in the evening; and to create room and conditions for better
and effective social interaction in todays fast paced society.
This paper effectively emphasizes the effects on vital sociological effects through
the proposed system of residential area planning in order to
1. Create a society of convenience where everything in need is within a stones
throw away.
2. Create a planned residential space which automatically increases social
interaction and give way to a closed-knit community leading to a healthy
lifestyle and better peripheral* security.
3. Planning the residential area to create social nucleation sites that creates a
sense of mutual awareness amongst the population that really cuts against the
solitary lifestyle of a fast paced society.
To plan the residential area on classical grid ideas, yet placing of dwelling and
commercial spaces such that every place is frequented by the population from every
corner of the society which is a very important criteria for development of a
community. This is in context to the very important definition of the term
Community
a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to
one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members needs will be
met through their commitment to be together
[1]


204
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Need

It has been noted an increasing trend in the United States that less no. of citizen
contact with one another and more time spent in cars commuting or at home
watching television.
[2]
Suburban residential communities that rely heavily upon automobile use show an
accompanying decrease in the amount of neighbourhood social ties
[3]
.
Todays planners and builders especially in the Western Society have
overwhelmingly acknowledged the need for evolving the traditional residential
planning to account for the sociological and psychological harmony of the
population.
Master planned communities are becoming the dominant form of new large-scale
housing development in Australia. A characteristic of these developments is the
focus on community as a major promotional feature. This resonates well with
buyers in a climate in which community (and social capital) has become a catch-
cry of governments and the private sector for a whole range of benefits
[4]

Knowing people in your street and from your community and finding common
interests with them is an essential element in building a communitys social
capital. Most people want to identify with a place and with a community that they
can take pride in. Everything we do in our urban design place making activities is
designed to achieve this end
[5].
Informal social interactions are an important
component in the formation of neighbourhood social ties, which strengthen sense
of community among residents
[6].
Having a sense of privacy as well as participation
in local activities contributes to sense of community in suburban neighbourhoods

[7]
.


In India itself the Housing Colonies and Real Estates Developers have built some
spectacular examples of the residential building design and living comfort but have
not overtly emphasized on the significance of comparative location of community
centres, amenities provider, and recreation facilities to achieve the goals as
aforesaid in the abstract.



205
1.2 Planning Principles
This paper explains the principals and concept for achieving such a ideal
residential space with the following planning principles.
1. The ideal residential area is never made from scratch and as realized can never
be wholly planned but actually evolves over time. Also this type of planning is
tailored to medium-density residential area. It is thought that for a low
residential area or for the matter space teeming with high-rises the
demographics becomes sufficiently different.
2. The first step in this process is Outer Planning or Overview Planning which
takes into account the shape and size of the area in question. The pattern of
connecting streets, plot size for construction, and allotment of recreational
areas.
3. The second step is the most vital of all processes its called classification and
categorizing. This is categorization of all possible types of constructible
buildings specific to the need of the residential area.
4. The third step is placement or allotment of the right type of building to the right
place. Needless to say this is the most vital process needing absolutely careful
planning, the lack of which can make all the difference between a bad
residential area and good residential area.
5. The fourth step is on sociological lines establishment of a firm authority over
the residential area that can legally enforce local laws and creation of a cultural
center for community entertainment.
All the four steps should result in creation of
1. Open space with privacy intact for the residents. They should have sufficient
access to the natural elements, i.e. air, sunlight etc.

2. A feeling of compactness of population without any congestion. Thats why over
30% of the available plots is for G+6 constructions, 40% for G+3/4 construction
and rest for private bungalows and other things. This is because the planned
residential area is supposed to be medium population density area.
2. CONCEPT OF SOCIAL NUCLEATION SITES (SNS)
This is the central theme of the whole paper. Just as nucleation is a physical term
which means gathering of molecules or bubbles at a particular site ; social
nucleation means specific constructions and allowance for street vendors, stalls at

206
strategic locations where people from all over the area may gather for walks,
recreation , discussion etc.

This can be created in many ways careful planning of the main street, placement
of supermarkets and departmental stores and other apparel stores side by side,
encouragement of small and private businesses to flourish in the neighborhood.

Placing major frequented shops right across each other like groceries and
apparels the basic aim being enabling people from different locations to frequent
certain places regularly greatly increasing social interaction.

Fig 1.Depiction of flow of population facilitating social interaction

Effectiveness of the SNS can be guaranteed by ensuring a favorable community
spirit in places where majority of the people are from the same social strata.




207
3. OVERVIEW / OUTER PLANNING
The plan of the whole residential is based on the classic right angle grid principle
as it is
1. Time tested as exemplified by many modern cities like New York and
somewhat BHU campus too!
2. Convenience of travel and easy to remember routes.
3. Facilitates easy creation of Social Nucleation Sites


Fig 2. Indicative diagram of the primary planning of the residential area.






208


3.1 Organization of streets and avenues

There will be one main street cutting across the residential area, and 2 parallel sub
main roads. Fore-lanes and back-lanes will cut these roads at right angle forming
the dominant grid pattern.

Fore-lane is always at the front of a building it is dotted with small/medium shops
which can be anything from local dairy to grocery or apparels. All buildings front
gate opens to it.

However its taken care of that all garages, car parks should be accommodated in
the back lane to keep the fore-lane just for pedestrians.

This is done mainly to improve convenience and easy access to daily needs but also
open new vistas for SNS and more social interaction and mutual awareness by
knowing people from the same locality, a type of background security is already
boosted; because now residents have mutual acquaintance of each other. In these
circumstances, it is highly probable that any outsider is easily identified.

In the long run, crime rates in such residential areas remain abysmally low even
less than the posh areas where supposedly better security can be afforded, but less
number of SNS and Social Interaction in such low-density neighborhoods lead to a
higher crime-rate.


3.2 Organization of Main Street /Main Avenue
Main street is planned only to allow medium-light traffic. There are sidewalks
(footpaths) on each side of the road taken approx. 5 m wide( to accommodate 2
medium sized car side by side comfortably). Beyond the sidewalks there is green
plantation and space for roadside stalls which is another important promulgator of
SNS.



209




Fig. 3. Depiction of setup of things on the main street (indicative diagram)


Front part of buildings on both sides of the main street is supposed to be occupied
by merchants, departmental stores (Wal-Mart, Reliance Fresh etc.) , medical stores,
coffee houses, restaurants , ATMs and other daily lifestyle use.
It should be noted luxury/signature stores are not recommended because they do
not exactly fit into such residential areas.


3.3 Location of the Residential Area
One of the most important criteria for the area is have all the daily and basic needs
along with all electrical appliances and repair facilities in it. Therefore the area even
if a bit secluded from the city (that is to say with excellent connectivity by way of
road or rail-metro /subway) is supposed to be blessing as it affords a way out from
the hustle and crowd of the city.

210
Fig. 4. Placing the township a bit away from the city.
4. CLASSIFICATION CATEGORIZING & POSITIONING
This is the most important process of setting up the residential area that is
profiling of all available plots to be constructed or to be allowed buildings according
to commercial/ non-commercial, heights etc. so that effective placement or location
of proper type of building to proper position in the residential area.

4.1 Economic Classification
1. Commercial (C) and Non-Commercial (NC)
2. Commercial: Types Shops, Retail, Service Providers etc.
3. Non-Commercial: - Houses (Flats) ;Bungalows ; ATMS Parking Lots
4. Healthcare: Hospitals, Dispensaries, Medical Stores (M)
5. Economic and Education: Banks, public schools (E)

4.2 Height Classification
1. HA G+6 storey tall buildings NC/C
2. HB G+3 storey NC/C
3. HC 1-2 floor buildings - bungalows, banks etc.

211

Fig. 5. A depiction of segregation and categorization of plots of a sample block.

4.3 Advantages of such categorizing and selection of location

1. When the total available plots are coded and pre-allotted to different forms of
construction, it automatically establishes regulation. Now the entire residential
area need not be built by a single developer under stringent guidelines. Any
developer can select any one of the plot according to the building requirements
and continue to build on that plot as per the guideline pertaining to that
particular plot.

2. This gives better control to the Residential Area Authority to better exercise its
discretion in planning matters, control haphazard encroachment of area and
most importantly:

3. Similar access of natural elements to all the available plots is ensured by
ensuring that a HA plot not completely surrounded by other HA plots or that a
HC plot by buildings such that there is proper access of elements in all the
areas.

212

4. This evidently eliminates the seeds of disputes and personal preferences which
is undoubtedly vital for creation of a healthy society and a closed-knit
community.

5. SUMMARY

1. Allotment of Area to be planned for residential purposes.
2. Planning based on grid system
3. Extensive planning of construction projects.
4. Segregation and categorizing of plots.
5. Extensive planning keeping in mind development of SNS.
6. Finally, letting different developers choose their choice of plot and build on them
according to the particular guidelines of the plot.

6. CONCLUSION

Utilization of land and creation of better societies should be the goal of present
developers. For a long time, efforts were on to understand the place of civil
engineering structures in the society; but now it must be on the effects of them on
the society and social life. From the above discussion it is clear that a little more
perspective on sociology while planning a residential habitat for people can go
along way towards actually making a difference in the life of people. That is most
vital today in the chaos of fast-paced lifestyles we lead today. Credence must be
given to new efforts in these fields and to the development and research on new
terms such as SNS must be encouraged.

7. REFERENCES

[1] (McMillan & Chavis 1986:9).
[2] Beatley and Manning (1997) Science Direct - Landscape and Urban Planning
Volume 69, Issues 2-3, 15 August 2004, Pages 245-253The Social Aspects of
Landscape Change: Protecting Open Space Under the Pressure of Development)
[3]

(Freeman, 2001)
[4] Housing, Theory and Society, Vol. 26, No. 2, 122142, 2009
[5] (Delfin Lend Lease 2004:12)
[6] (McMillan and Chavis, 1986)
[7] (Wilson and Baldassare, 1996).

213
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF LARGE AMPLITUDE
FREE FLEXURAL VIBRATION OF ISOTROPIC PLATES
A. K. Mishra, M. R. Barik
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,
Kharagpur

ABSTRACT
Susceptibility to fracture of materials due to vibration is determined from stress
and frequency. Maximum amplitude of the vibration must be in the limited for the
safety of the structure. Hence vibration analysis has become very important in
designing a structure. Also the response of the structure changes when the
amplitude of vibration is large. The present study analyses some rectangular &
skew plates for their non-linear free vibration frequencies by FEM.

1. INTRODUCTION

Non-linearity in structural mechanics can arise in many ways. The generalized
Hookes law is not valid if material stress-strain behavior is non-linear. This type of
non-linearity is generally known as the material or physical non-linearity.
Alternatively, problems involving deformations that are large are called
geometrically non-linear problems. Deformation of an elastic body can also be of a
magnitude that does not overstrain the material or produce stretching under large
deformations and thus lead to curvature-displacement non-linearity. Since this is
deformation dependent it is also classified as a geometric non-linearity.
In the current investigation the main objective is to find out the non-linear
frequency ratios of free un-damped vibration of plates. Finite element method has
been adopted for the current analysis. An iso-parametric quadratic plate bending
element has been used. It also considers the shear deformation of the plate. Hence
the formulation is applicable to both thin as well as thick plates. Consistent mass
matrix has been used.
As the higher order terms in the strain-displacement relations are not known, in
order to obtain the solution for non-linear free vibration problem an iterative

214
procedure is adopted using linear strain-displacement relations for the first
iteration. For the successive iterations the higher order terms of the strain-
displacement relations have been evaluated from the scaled eigenvectors
corresponding to the given amplitude at a prescribed point of the previous
iterations. The iteration process is continued until required convergence is reached.
The large amplitude vibration of plates and shells has received considerable
attention in recent years because of great importance and interest attached to the
structures of low flexural rigidity. As a result of which large amplitude vibrations of
plates of various geometries have received much attention. In the area of non-linear
vibration of plates of various shapes, rectangular plates have been studied more
frequently than others. Most of the work is based on the governing equations in
terms of stress function and lateral displacement. The governing non-linear
equations of motion can be suitably modified to include the effects of several
complicating factors such as transverse shear, in-plane forces and the like.
Rao et al. [14] have studied the large amplitude vibration of rectangular plates with
and without stiffeners. They have taken the shear deformation of the plate and the
stiffeners into due consideration in their formulation. Also the formulation
considers the in-plane inertia of the plate.
Large amplitude free flexural vibration analysis of composite stiffened plates have
been carried out by Goswami & Kant [7] using a C nine-noded Lagrangian element.
The element is based on the first order shear deformation theory. The large
deformation effect of the stiffened plated structures has been taken care by the
dynamic version of von Karmans field equations. The non-linear equations
obtained have been solved by the direct iteration technique using the linear mode
shapes as the starting vectors.

A nine-node iso-parametric plate-bending element has been used by Pandit et al.
[12] for the analysis of free un-damped vibration of isotropic and fiber reinforced
laminated composite plates. The effect of shear deformation is incorporated in the
formulation by considering the first-order shear deformation theory for the
analysis. An effective mass lumping scheme with rotary inertia has been
recommended. Two types of mass lumping schemes have been formed. In one
lumping scheme rotary inertia has also been introduced.


215
Large-amplitude free vibration analysis of simply supported thin isotropic skew
plates has been presented by Das et al. [5]. In this paper the large deformation has
been imparted statically by subjecting the plate under uniform transverse pressure.
The mathematical formulation is based on the variational principle in which the
displacement fields are assumed as a combination of orthogonal polynomial or
transcendental functions, each satisfying the corresponding boundary conditions of
the plate. The large-amplitude dynamic problem has been addressed by solving the
corresponding static problem first, and subsequently with the resultant
displacement field, the problem is formulated. The vibration frequencies are
obtained from the solution of a standard Eigen value problem. Entire
computational work has been carried out in a normalized square domain obtained
through an appropriate domain mapping technique.

2. FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION

The equations of motion for free un-damped vibration of an elastic system
undergoing large displacements can be expressed in the following matrix form,
| |{ } | |{ } { } 0 = +
- -
o o M K
in which | | K and | | M are overall stiffness and mass matrices and { } o is the
displacement vector.

The virtual work equation in Lagrangian coordinate system is
{ } { } { } { } { } 0 =
}
R d dv d
T
V
T
o o c

The finite element approximation to the above equation is
| |{ } { } { } 0 = R K
S
o
Where | |
S
K =

216
| | | | | | | | | || | | | | | | | | | | || | dv B D B B D B B D B B D B
V
NL
T
NL NL
T
L L
T
NL L
T
L
}
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
2
1
2
1


Considering the stress matrices the linear and non-linear stiffness matrices may be
written as

| | | |
0
K K
L
=

and

| | | | | || | | | | | | | | | | | | | dv B D B B D B B D B K
V
NL
T
NL NL
T
L L
T
NL NL
}
|
.
|

\
|
+ + = =
2
1
2
1

The consistent mass matrix is given by

| |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
12
0 0 0 0
0
12
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
3
3
h
h
h
h
h
m
P

By assembling the finite elements and applying the kinematic boundary conditions,
the equations of motion for the linear free vibration of a given plate may be written
as

for linear vibration
for non-linear vibration

The solution to the above is obtained by using any iterative process.


| |{ } | |{ }
0 0
2
| |
L L
K M w =
| |{ } | | | | ( ){ }
I NL L I NL
K K M | | = + =
2

217
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The non-linear frequency ratios
( )
L NL
= =
of a simply supported square plate for the
fundamental mode with amplitude to thickness ratios
( )
h
C varying from 0.2 to 1.0
is presented in Table 1. The results compare well with those of Goswami et al. [7],
Ganapathy et al. [6] & Rao et al. [14].

Table 1 Non-linear Frequency ratios
( )
L NL
= =
for square plate (SSSS)

h
C

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Present 1.0268 1.0995 1.2116 1.3545 1.5249
Goswami et al. 1.0263 1.1012 1.2165 1.3629 1.5325
Ganapathy et al. 1.02504 1.10021 1.20803 1.35074 1.51347
Rao et al. 1.0261 1.1009 1.2162 1.3624 1.5314

Table 2 presents the non-linear frequency ratios for the fundamental mode for
CCCC, SSCC, SCSC boundary conditions for a square plate for amplitude ratio
( )
h
C
values ranging from 0.2 to 1.0. The results have been compared with those of Rao
et al. [13], Mei [10] and Yamaki [21].

It can be seen that the values of the references are on the lower side. This is
because of the different techniques chosen by them for the solution of the nonlinear
equations. Their formulations have been based on appropriate linearization of the
non-linear strain-displacement relations. They have also neglected the in-plane
deformation terms. In the present investigation, the in-plane deformation terms
have been considered and no approximating procedure is used. Hence the present
results may be deemed as more accurate.


218


Table 2 Non-linear Frequency ratios
( )
L NL
= =
for square plate with various boundary
conditions

h
C

Boundary
conditions
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Present 1.0098 1.0370 1.0812 1.1386 1.2099
CCCC
Rao et al. 1.007 1.0276 1.0608 1.1047 1.1578
Mei 1.0062 1.0256 1.0564 1.0969 1.1429
Yamaki 1.0085 1.0292 1.0661 1.1136 1.1674
Present 1.0183 1.0689 1.1480 1.2473 1.3608
SSCC Rao et al. 1.0139 1.0541 1.1169 1.1977 1.2918
Mei 1.0138 1.0527 1.1119 1.1855 1.2705
Present 1.0137 1.0518 1.1135 1.1928 1.2896
SCSC Rao et al. 1.0097 1.0381 1.0838 1.1443 1.2174
Mei 1.0097 1.0380 1.0833 1.1429 1.2143

3.1 Effect of Poissons Ratio( ) u

Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 depict the effects of Poissons ratio ( ) u on the non-linear frequency
ratio
( )
L NL
= =
for a square plate with SSSS and CCCC boundary conditions
respectively. From the graphs it can be seen that there is an increase in the
frequency ratio with an increase of the Poissons ratio at each amplitude levels. For
a single material (i. e. constant Poissons ratio) the higher the amplitude level the
higher is the frequency ratio.

219


Fig. 1 Variation of non-linear Frequency ratio
( )
L NL
= =
with
Poissons ratio of a square plate (SSSS) for the fundamental mode

Fig. 2 Variation of non-linear Frequency ratio
( )
L NL
= =
with
Poissons ratio of a square plate (CCCC) for the fundamental mode

3.2 Effect of Thickness Parameter
( ) h a


Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 show the variations of non-linear frequency ratio
( )
L NL
= =
due to a
change in the thickness parameter
( ) h a
for square plates with different boundaries.
Fig. 3 is for a square plate simply supported on all sides. Fig. 4 gives the variation
for the plate when it is clamped on all edges. It can be seen from all the graphs that
the non-linear frequency ratio
( )
L NL
= =
remains almost constant despite a change in
the thickness parameter
( ) h a
.


Fig. 3 Variation of non-linear Frequency ratio
( )
L NL
= =
with
thickness parameter
( ) h a
of a square plate (SSSS) for the
fundamental mode

Fig. 4 Variation of non-linear Frequency ratio
( )
L NL
= =
with
thickness parameter
( ) h a
of a square plate (CCCC) for the
fundamental mode

220
4. CONCLUSION

It has been observed that the Poissons ratio of the plate elevates the degree of non-
linearity. The non-linear frequency ratio is found to be higher for skew plates than
the rectangular ones. More constrain boundaries tend to raise the non-linear
frequency of vibration for a definite plate. The thickness parameter has no
significant effect on the degree of non-linearity. The aspect ratio also shifts the non-
linear frequency towards the higher side.

REFERENCES

[1] Bathe K. J. Finite Element Procedures, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India, (1996)
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Fundamental Mode Shape. Computers and Structures, 81, (2003): p. 20292043
[3] Benamar R., Bennouna M. K. K. & White R. G., The Effects of Large Vibrations Amplitudes On
The Fundamental Mode Shape of A Fully Clamped, Symmetrically Laminated Rectangular
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74960
[4] Corr R. B. & Jennings A., A Simultaneous Iteration Algorithm for Symmetric Eigenvalue
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[5] Das D., Sahoo P. & Saha K., Large-amplitude Dynamic Analysis of Simply Supported Skew
Plates by Variational Method. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 313, (2008): p. 246-267
[6] Ganapathy M., Vardhan T. K. & Sarma B. S., Non-linear Flexural Vibrations of Laminated
Orthotropic Plates. Computers and Structures, 39(6), (1991): p. 685-688
[7] Goswami Sanjib & Kant Tarun, Large Amplitude Vibration of Polymer Composite Stiffened
Laminates by Finite Element Method. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 18,
(1999): p. 421-436
[8] Harras B., Benamar R. & White R. G., Geometrically Non-linear Free Vibration of Fully Clamped
Symmetrically Laminated Rectangular Composite Plates. Journal of Sound and Vibration,
251(4), (2002): p. 579-619
[9] Hinton E. & Owen D. R. J. Finite Element Software for Plates and Shells, Swansea, U.K.:
Pineridge Press Limited, (1984)

221
[10] Mei Chuh, Large Amplitude Free Flexural Vibrations of Beams and Plates. Computers and
Structures, 6, (1976): p. 163-167
[11] Mukhopadhyay M. & Seikh Abdul Hamid. Matrix and Finite Element Analyses of Structures,
Delhi: Gopal JeeEnterprises, (2004)
[12] Pandit M. K., Haldar S. & Mukhopadhyay M., Free Vibration Analysis of Laminated Composite
Rectangular Plate Using Finite Element Method. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites,
26, (2007): p. 69-80
[13] Rao G.. Venkateswara, Raju I. S. & Raju K. Kanak, A Finite Element Formulation for Large
Amplitude Flexural Vibrations of Thin Rectangular Plates. Computers & Structures, 6, (1976):
p. 163-167
[14] Rao S. R. et al., Large Amplitude Finite Element Vibration of Plates/Stiffened Plates, Journal of
the Acoustical Society of America, 93(6), (1993): p. 3250-3257
[15] Ray A. K., Banerjee B. & Bhattacharjee B., Large Amplitude Free Vibrations of Skew Plates
Including Transverse Shear Deformation and Rotatory Inertia- A new approach. Journal of
Sound and Vibration, 180(4), (1995): p. 669-681
[16] Saha K. N., Mishra D., Ghosal S. & Pohit G., Nonlinear Free Vibration Analysis of Square Plates
With Various Boundary Conditions. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 287, (2005): p. 1031-
1044
[17] Sarma M. S., Rao A. Venkateshwar, Pillai S. R. R. & Rao B. Nageswara, Large Amplitude
Vibrations of Laminated Hybrid Composite Plates. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 159(3),
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[18] Sathyamoorthy M. & Pandalal K. A. V., Large Amplitude Vibrations of Certain Deformable
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[20] Sathyamoorthy M., Non-linear Vibration of Analysis of Plates: A review and survey of current
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(1977)



222
WITH BEST COMPLIMENTS
From
NIRMAAN11
To
Our alumni






mit Goel









Mr. Bhushan Akerkar
1985 Batch
Chief Information Officer
Aditya Birla Group
HINDALCO Industries

Mr. Atul Gupta
1985 Batch

Mr. Dileep Kulkarni (MD)
1985 Batch
Dileep Kulkarni Associates
Belgaum Karnataka,
Bengaluru, Mumbai

Mr. Amit Goel
1985 Batch

Mr. Purnesh Kumar
2004 Batch
Assistant Executive Engineer
CPWD

223
WITH BEST COMPLIMENTS
From
NIRMAAN11
To

JAYPEE CEMENT



Larsen & Toubro


NKG Infrastructure



224