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Technical Report Writing: Chemical Engineering Department
Technical Report Writing: Chemical Engineering Department
Table of contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................. 1 1.1. Types of Technical Reports ............................................................... 2 1.1.1. Technical-background report ...................................................... 2 1.1.2. Instructions .................................................................................. 2 1.1.3. Feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation reports ................. 2 1.1.4. Primary research report ............................................................... 2 1.1.5. Technical specifications .............................................................. 3 1.1.6. Report-length proposal ................................................................ 3 1.1.7. Business proposed ....................................................................... 3 1.2. Audience and Situation in Technical Reports .................................... 3 1.3. Topics for Technical Reports ............................................................. 4 1.3.1. Editorializing ............................................................................... 4 1.3.2. Fuzzy topics................................................................................. 4 1.3.3. Tough technical topics ................................................................ 4 1.4. General Characteristics of Technical Reports.................................... 4 1.4.1. Graphics ...................................................................................... 4 1.4.2. Accurate detail............................................................................. 4 1.4.3. Information sources ..................................................................... 4 1.4.4. Documentation ............................................................................ 5 1.4.5. Realistic audience and situation .................................................. 5 1.4.6. Headings and lists ....................................................................... 5 1.4.7. Special format ............................................................................. 5 1.4.8. Production ................................................................................... 5 1.4.9. Length.......................................................................................... 5 1.4.10. Technical content ...................................................................... 5 2. Visual Elements ...................................................................................... 6 2.1. Making a visual aid truly visual ......................................................... 6 2.2. Deciding when to use a visual aid ...................................................... 7 2.3. Selecting the best type of visual aid in a given situation ................... 7 2.3.1. Conventions of Visual Perception............................................... 8 2.3.2. Some types of visual aids and their uses ..................................... 8 2.4. Designing the visual aid ................................................................... 14 2.4.1. Making a visual aid relevant ..................................................... 14
2.4.2. Making a visual aid clear .......................................................... 16 2.5. Integrating the Visual Aid into the Test ........................................... 18 2.5.1. Positioning ................................................................................. 18 2.5.2. Printing ...................................................................................... 19 2.6. Formatting Contentions that Make Reading Easier ......................... 19 3. The technical Report ............................................................................. 22 3.1. Types of Reports .............................................................................. 22 3.2. Organization of reports .................................................................... 24 3.2.1. Organization of a design report ................................................. 24 3.3. Preparing the report .......................................................................... 27 3.4. Presenting the results........................................................................ 27 3.4.1. Subheadings and Paragraphs ..................................................... 28 3.4.2. Tables ........................................................................................ 28 3.4.3. Graphs ....................................................................................... 28 3.4.4. Illustrations ................................................................................ 29 3.4.5. References to Literature ............................................................ 29 3.4.6. Sample Calculations .................................................................. 30 3.4.7. Mechanical Details .................................................................... 31 4. Oral Presentations ................................................................................. 32 4.1. Topic and Situation for the Oral Presentation.................................. 32 4.2. Contents and Requirements for the Oral Presentation ..................... 33 4.3. Preparing for the Oral Report........................................................... 34 4.4. Delivering an Oral Presentation ....................................................... 34 4.5. Planning and Preparing Visuals for Oral Presentations ................... 35 4.5.1. Tips for the preparation off the visuals ..................................... 36 5. Making Your Writing Readable............................................................ 37 5.1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 37 5.2. Information selection ....................................................................... 37 5.2.1. Establish your Topic and Purpose ............................................. 37 5.2.2. Use Keywords Prominently ...................................................... 38 5.2.3. Explain Important Concepts when Writing for Nonspecialist Readers ................................................................................................ 38 5.2.4. Use Standard Terminology when Writing for Specialist Readers ............................................................................................... 39 5.2.5. Structure your Text to Emphasize Important Information ........ 40
5.2.6. Construct Well Designed Paragraphs ....................................... 40 5.2.7. Field-Test Your Writing ............................................................ 41 5.3. Information ordering ........................................................................ 41 5.3.1. Optimal Ordering of Noun Phrases ........................................... 42 5.4. Editing For Emphasis ....................................................................... 45 5.4.1. Combine Closely Related Sentences......................................... 46 5.4.2. Be Concise................................................................................. 49 6. Project Proposal .................................................................................... 52 6.1. The contents of project proposal can be structured as follows: ....... 52 6.2. NATURE OF THE REPORTS: ....................................................... 52 6.3. Technical-industrial project proposals: ............................................ 53 7. Checklist for the Technical Report ....................................................... 54
1. INTRODUCTION
The major focus of many technical writing courses is the technical report. Just about everything you study, everything you write is geared toward preparing you to write this final report. The early, short assignment involving instructions or descriptions and the like give you practice using headings, lists, notices, and graphics; in handling numbers and abbreviations; and of course in producing good, clear, well-organized writing. For many students, the technical report is the longest document they've ever written. It normally involves some research; often the information comes not only from published sources in the library, but also sources outside the library, including nonpublished things such as interviews, correspondence, and video tapes. It may also be the fanciest document: it uses binding and covers and has special elements such as a table contents, title page, and graphics. As you think about what you want to write about for this project, don't shy away from topics you are curious about or interested in, but don't know much about. You don't need to do exhaustive research; normally, you can pull together information for an excellent report from several books and a half-dozen articles. Your real focus is the writing: how well adapted to a specific audience it is, how clear and readable it is, how it flows, how it's organized, how much detail it provides. You are also focused on format: how well you use headings, lists, notices; how well you incorporate graphics; how well you handle the front- and back-matter elements; and how nice a job you do of turning out the final copy of the report. You don't need to be a trained graphic designer to produce a fine-looking report. Basic word-processing skills and a decent printer and access to nice (but inexpensive) binding are all you need. Plan on doing a first-rate job on the report; remember that past students have shown prospective employers their reports and have benefited by doing so. If you are planning a technical report, your job in this unit then is define the following: Report topic: Decide what subject you are going to write on; narrow it as much as possible. Report audience: Define a specific person or group of people for whom you are going to write the report. Define the circumstances in which this report is needed. Report purpose: Define what the report will accomplishwhat needs of the audience it is going to fufill. Report type: Decide on the type of reportfor example, technical background report, feasibility report, instructions, or some other. You can do these in any order: for some people, it helps to start by defining an audience or a report type first. For others, beginning by picking a topic is more stimulating. Once you have defined these elements, you can start testing your report-project ideas by asking yourself these questions: Is there hard, specific, factual data for this topic? Will there be at least one or two graphics? Is there some realistic need for this report?
1.1.2. Instructions
These are probably the most familiar of all the types of reports. Students often write backup procedures for the jobs they do at their work. Others write short user manuals for an appliance, equipment, or program. If there is too much to write about, they write about some smaller segmentfor example, instead of instructions on using all of MS-Word, just a guide on writing macros in MS-Word.
1.3.1. Editorializing
For the report project, avoid editorial topics. For example, don't attempt to write a technical report on the pro's and con's of gun control, abortion, marijuana, and the like. You can, however, develop these topics: for example, describe the chemical, physiological aspects of marijuana or the medical techniques for abortion or the developmental stages of the fetus. These get into substantial technical areas. But avoid editorializingthere are other courses where you can do this.
1.4.1. Graphics
The report should have graphics. Graphics include all kinds of possibilities, as a later chapter in this book will show. If you can't think of any graphics for your report project, you may not have a good topic. Get in touch with your instructor, who can help you brainstorm for graphics.
1.4.4. Documentation
When you use borrowed information in your technical report, be sure to cite your sources. The style of citing your sources (also called "documenting" your sources). One style commonly used in science and engineering is called the number system.
1.4.8. Production
The technical report should be typed or printed out neatly. If graphics are taped in, the whole report must be photocopied, and the photocopy handed in (not the original with the taped-in graphics). The report must be bound in some way.
1.4.9. Length
The report should be at least 8 1.5 spaced typed or printed pages (using 3/4 -inch margins), counting from introduction to conclusion. This is a minimum; a report of this length is rather skimpy. There is no real maximum length, other than what your time, energy, and stamina can handle. But remember that sheer weight does not equal quality (or better grade). If you get into a bind with a report project that would take too many pages, contact your instructorthere are numerous tricks we can use to cut it down to size.
2. Visual Elements
There are times when words alone are not the best way to transfer information or points of view. Also, sometimes words need to be combined with visual aids, formatting (the use of white space and indenting), or other visual elements. For example, appropriate formatting can make a technical report much easier to read, so much easier that the formatting becomes necessary given the limitations on the time and attention of an audience. The same can often be said of other visual elements, such as drawings, figures, charts, or graphs, which can quickly summarize an important point or present it in a different way. It is known that you can increase the strength and memorability of a message simply by repeating it or, even better, by repeating it in a different form. Thus, when a visual presentation is added to a verbal one, the combination can produce a much stronger and more easily remembered message than either presentation alone. Further, a visual aid can present a compact summary of the main points of a verbal text. (Have you ever heard the expression "a picture is worth a thousand words"?) Finally, a visual element can often summarize in a more memorable form than words alone can. Given these advantages of visual aids, a communicator ought to be able to use them effectively. This involves knowing 1. How to make a visual aid effective 2. When to use the visual aid 3. How to select the best type of visual element in a given situation (e.g., pie chart, bar graph, line graph) 4. How to integrate the visual aid into the text
Table 2-1 Proportion of occupational groups who would choose similar work again
Professional occupation Ubran university professors Mathematicians Physicists Biologists Chemists Lawyers School superintendents Journalists White-collar workers percent 93 91 89 89 86 85 84 82 43 skilled trades occupations Skilled printers Paper workers Skilled auto workers Skilled steel workers Textile workers Unskilled steel workers Unskilled steel workers percent 52 42 41 40 31 31 21
Table 2-2 Alternate arrangement for proportion of occupational groups who would choose similar work again
Professional occupation Ubran university professors Mathematicians Physicists Biologists Chemists Lawyers School superintendents Journalists White-collar workers skilled trades occupations Skilled printers Paper workers Skilled auto workers Skilled steel workers Textile workers Unskilled steel workers Unskilled steel workers percent 93 91 89 89 86 85 84 82 43 percent 52 42 41 40 31 31 21
are like most writers, you probably choose one type of visual aid over another simply because it is the first thing you think of using. The purpose of this section is to sketch out some better or more conscious reasons for choosing. The section will first identify some conventions of visual perception and then examine several common types of visual -aids to see what they do and do not show well.
Second, we expect things to proceed from top to bottom, and, third, we expect things in the center to be more important than things on the periphery. Fourth, we expect things in the foreground to be more important than things in the background; fifth, large things to be more important than small things; and sixth, thick things to be more important than thin things. Note that writing that, is larger, thicker, or bolder than the surrounding type is usually more important: a heading, a title, or an especially important word in a passage. Seventh, we expect areas containing a lot of activity and information to contain the most important information. Eighth, we expect that things having the same size, shape, location, or color are somehow related to each other. Lastly, ninth, we see things as standing out if they contrast with their surroundings because of line thickness, type face, or color.
LINEGRAPHS Line graphs, show well continuity and direction as opposed to individual or discrete points, direction as opposed to volume, and the importance of a nodal point, if there is one. These characteristics are illustrated in Figure2-3. Line graphs do not show well them importance of one particular point which falls of a node, the relationship of many lines, or the inter section of three or more lines, lf its important to be able to trace each line on a graph, you should probably not put more than three or four on a single graph, especially if they intersect frequently, or you may produce a graph as hard to follow as the one in Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-3 River flow before (1963) and Figure 2-4 Reference of families for girls after (1977) construction of Aswan High versus boys in six countries Dam on the Nile River
BAR GRAPHS Bar graphs show relatively well the discreteness or separateness of points as opposed to their continuity, volume as opposed to direction, the relationships among more than three or four items at a time, the contrast between large and small numbers, and the similarities and differences between similar numbers. These characteristics are evident in the variant of the bar graph presented in Figure 2-5 and in Figure 2-6. Bar graphs can be arranged with either horizontal (Figure 2-5) or vertical bars (Figure 2-6), depending on the type of information they represent. The bars are normally separated by spaces.
A histogram looks like a bar chart, but functionally it is similar to a graph because it deals with two continuous variables (functions that can be shown on a scale' to be decreasing or increasing). It is usually plotted like a bar chart, as shown in Figure 2-7. The chief visible difference between a histogram and a bar chart is that there are no spaces between the bars of a histogram.
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Figure 2-8 Surface chart adds thermal data to hydro data to show total energy resources Like a graph, a surface chart has two continuous variables that form the scales against which the curves are plotted. But unlike a graph, individual curves cannot be read directly from the scales. The uppermost curve is achieved as follows: 1. The curve containing the most import-ant or largest quantity of data is drawn first, in the normal way. This is the Hydro curve in Figure 2-8. 2. The next curve is drawn in above the first curve, using the first curve as a base (i.e. zero) and adding the second set of data to it. For example, the energy resources shown as being available in 1980 are: Hydro 15,000 MW Thermal 7,000 MW In Figure 2-8, the lower curve for 1980 is plotted at 15,000 MW. The 1980 data for the next curve is 7,000 MW, which is added to the first set of data so that the second curve indicates a total of 22,000 MW. (If there is a third set of data, it is added on in the same way). PIE DIAGRAMS Pie diagrams show relatively well the relationship among three or four items which total 100 percent, the contrast between large and small percentages, and the similarities between relatively similar percentage (they show that well that 27 percent and 29 percent are about equal). Pie diagrams do not show well the small differences between two similar percentages (you can not usually see the differences between 27 and 29 percent). They also do not show well absolute values (unless you label the parts of the pie) or the relationship among more than five or six parts; with too many parts it is hard to see relationships of part to part and part to whole. These strengths and weakness is illustrated in figure 2-9.
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Figure 2-9 Distribution of fatalities in 181 fatal car-truck crashers TABLES Tables are convenient for presenting lots of data and for giving absolute values where precision is very important. However, since they present items one at a time in columns, they emphasize the discrete rather than the continuous and make it very difficult to show trends or direction in. the data. Tables are not predominantly visual: the reader's mind must translate each number into a relationship with each other number, as already described in the job satisfaction example at the beginning of this chapter. Thus, for maximum visual impact, tables should probably be a last choice as a visual aid and used only when it is important to provide a great deal of information with precision in a very small space. PHOTOGRAPHS Photographs are useful when you do not have the time, the money, or the expertise to produce a complicated line drawing; when you are trying to produce immediate visual recognition of an item; when you are emphasizing the item's external appearance (as opposed to its internal structure or a cross section); and when you are not concerned with eliminating the abundant detail a photograph provides. While photographs can be air-brushed to eliminate some undesired detail, they still are not preferred when you need to focus on some one aspect by eliminating a lot of detail and when you have the time and resources to produce a good line drawing.
LINE DRAWINGS
The term line drawing includes several types of drawings which focus on external appearance, physical shape, function, or relationship. These include "simplified photos," maps (see Figure 210), anatomical drawings, parts charts, and drawings of models (such as atomic or molecular models as seen in Figure 2-11) or objects from any field of science or engineering. Also included are flow charts, organizational charts, schematic charts, block diagrams, as seen in Figure 2-12, architectural plans, and blueprints. While there are many types of line drawings, all of them share certain functions. They allow you to show things which you can't normally see in a photograph because of size, location, or excessive detail. They also allow you to easily highlight a particular shape, part, or function.
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Figure 2-17 Annual energy savings from solar energy, version 5 First let us consider the bar graphs. Among the bar graphs, Figure 2-13 presents the most information in the smallest space and the clearest vision of total growth; however, in comparison to the other charts, it obscures the comparisons between items in the same year and between the same item in different years. Figure 2-14 obscures the total growth but makes the comparisons already mentioned much clearer, especially between the same item in different years. On the other hand, Figure 2-15 clarifies the comparison between items in the same year but obscures comparisons between years. The line graphs in Figures 2-16 and2-17 have the same strengths and weaknesses as their respective bar graph counterparts, but in addition they also bring out more strongly the idea of direction and rate of change. So how do you choose one (or two) from among the group? You pick the one which best matches the focus you wish to take in your report or talk. If you are not much concerned about total growth but want to focus on the contribution of each area for savings, then you would probably choose Figure2-14. If you are interested in the growth of the contribution of each area, you would probably choose Figure 2-16. If you are primarily interested in the increase in total savings, you would probably choose Figure 2-13 or 2-17.
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message (you should note that version d is typical of most student reports, which are done quickly checked mainly for accuracy rather than readability).
Figure 2-18 The necessity of labels, headings and titles in visual aids
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2.5.1. Positioning
Try to always put the visual aid after you have mentioned it and not are reverse: in other words, do not put a visual aid in a spot within the text. Before pointing out to it, for example do not put a figure in the text, and then point to it. Note that all illustrations in the present notes are referred to first, then they are inserted into the text. You must not only refer to every illustration in a report, but a real effort must be made to keep the illustration on the same page as the description it supports. This can become problem if the description is long. However, a reader who has to keep flipping back and forth between the text and illustrations will soon tire, and the reason for including the illustrations will be defeated. When reports are typed on only one side of the paper, full page illustrations can become an embarrassment. Try to limit the size of the illustrations so they can be placed beside, above or below the words, and lien to make sure that they are correctly placed. Horizontal full page illustrations may be inserted sideways on a page (landscape), but must always be positioned so that they are read from the right, see Figure 2-19. This holds true whether they are placed on a left- or right-hand page.
Figure 2-19 Page-size horizontal drawings should be positioned so they can read from the right
When an illustration is too large to fit on a normal page, or is going to be referred to frequently, you should consider printing it on a foldout sheet and inserting it at the back of the report. If the illustration is printed only on the extension panels of the foldout, the page can be left opened out for continual reference while the report is being read, see Figure 2-20. This technique is particularly suitable for circuit diagrams, plant layouts and flow charts.
Technical Reports Writing (HS x12)
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Figure 2-20 large illustrations can be placed on a fold out sheet at rear of report
2.5.2. Printing
Always discuss printing methods with the person who will be making copies of your report before you start making reproduction copy. Certain reproduction equipment cannot handle some sizes, materials and colors. For example, heavy blacks and light blues may not reproduce well on some electrostatic copiers, light browns cannot be copied by other types of equipment, and photographs can be reproduced clearly by very few.
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To get a good idea of how helpful these simple formatting considerations can be, look at the unformatted version of the Discussion section of the report, presented in Figure 2-22. Do you agree that it is much more difficult to read? Do you agree that formatting makes the version in Figure 221 more functional, that is, easier to read and understand?
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Figure 3-1 Example of form for an informal summarizing report on factory manufacturing cost.
Figure 3-2 Example of form for an informal summarizing report on capital investment.
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Figure 3-3 Example of form for an informal summarizing report on income and return.
B. Previous work Discusses important results obtained from literature surveys and other previous work C. Discussion Outlines method of attack on project and gives design basis Includes graphs, tables, and figures that are essential for understanding the discussion Discusses technical matters of importance Indicates assumptions made and their justification Indicates possible sources of error Gives a general discussion of results and proposed design D. Final recommended design with appropriate data Drawings of proposed design a. Qualitative flow sheets b. Quantitative flow sheets c. Combined-detail flow sheets Tables listing equipment and specifications Tables giving material and energy balances Process economics including costs, profits, and return on investment E. Conclusions and recommendations Presented in more detail than in Summary F. Acknowledgment Acknowledges important assistance of others who are not listed as preparing the report G. Table of nomenclature Sample units should be shown H. References to literature (bibliography) Gives complete identification of literature sources referred to in the report I. Appendix i. Sample calculations One example should be presented and explained clearly for each type of calculation ii. Derivation of equations essential to understanding the report but not presented in detail in the main body of the report iii. Tables of data employed with reference to source iv. Results of laboratory tests 1. If laboratory tests were used to obtain design data, the experimental data, apparatus and procedure description, and interpretation of the results may be included as a special appendix to the design report. 3.2.1.1. Letter of Transmittal The purpose of a letter of transmittal is to refer to the original instructions or developments that have made the report necessary. The letter should be brief, but it can call the readers attention to certain pertinent sections of the report or give definite results which are particularly important. The writer should express any personal opinions in the letter of transmittal rather than in the report itself. Personal pronouns and an informal business style of writing may be used. Technical Reports Writing (HS x12) 25 First year Chemical Engineering Department Spring 2009
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3.2.1.2. Title Page and Table of Contents In addition to the title of the report, a title page usually indicates other basic information, such as the name and organization of the person (or persons) submitting the report and the date of submittal. A table of contents may not be necessary for a short report of only six or eight pages, but, for longer reports, it is a convenient guide for the reader and indicates the scope of the report. The titles and subheadings in the written text should be shown, as well as the appropriate page numbers. Indentations can be used to indicate the relationships of the various subheadings. A list of tables, figures, and graphs should be presented separately at the end of the table of contents. 3.2.1.3. Summary The summary is probably the most important part of a report, since it is referred to most frequently and is often the only part of the report that is read. Its purpose is to give the reader the entire contents of the report in one or two pages. It covers all phases of the design project, but it does not go into detail on any particular phase. All statements must be concise and give a minimum of general qualitative information. The aim of the summary is to present precise quantitative information and final conclusions with no unnecessary details. The following outline shows what should be included in a summary: 1. A statement introducing the reader to the subject matter 2. What was done and what the report covers 3. How the final results were obtained 4. The important results including quantitative information, major conclusions, and recommendations An ideal summary can be completed on one typewritten page. If the summary must be longer than two pages, it may be advisable to precede the summary by an abstract, which merely indicates the subject matter, what was done, and a brief statement of the major results. 3.2.1.4. Body of the Report The first section in the body of the report is the introduction. It states the purpose and scope of the report and indicates why the design project originally appeared to be feasible or necessary. The relationship of the information presented in the report to other phases of the companys operations can be covered, and the effects of future developments may be worthy of mention. References to previous work can be discussed in the introduction, or a separate section can be presented dealing with literature-survey results and other previous work. A description of the methods used for developing the proposed design is presented in the next section under the heading of disczmion. Here the writer shows the reader the methods used in reaching the final conclusions. The validity of the methods must be made apparent, but the writer should not present an annoying or distracting amount of detail. Any assumptions or limitations on the results should be discussed in this section. The next section presents the recommended design, complete with figures and tables giving all necessary qualitative and quantitative data. An analysis of the cost and profit potential of the proposed process should accompany the description of the recommended design.
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The body of a design report often includes a section giving a detailed discussion of all conclusions and recommendations. When applicable, sections covering acknowledgment, table of nomenclature, and literature references may be added. 3.2.1.5. Appendix In order to make the written part of a report more readable, the details of calculation methods, experimental data, reference data, certain types of derivations, and similar items are often included as separate appendixes to the report. This information is thus available to anyone who wishes to make a complete check on the work, yet the descriptive part of the report is not made ineffective because of excess information.
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3.4.2. Tables
The effective use of tables can save many words, especially if quantitative results are involved. Tables are included in the body of the report only if they are essential to the understanding of the written text. Any type of tabulated data that is not directly related to the discussion should be located in the appendix. Every table requires a title, and the headings for each column should be self-explanatory. If numbers are used, the correct units must be shown in the column heading or with the first number in the column. A table should never be presented on two pages unless the amount of data makes a break absolutely necessary.
3.4.3. Graphs
In comparison with tables, which present definite numerical values, graphs serve to show trends or comparisons. The interpretation of results is often simplified for the reader if the tabulated information is presented in graphical form. If possible, the experimental or calculated points on which a curve is based should be shown on the plot. These points can be represented by large dots, small circles, squares, triangles, or some other identifying symbol. The most probable smooth curve can be drawn on the basis of the plotted points, or a broken line connecting each point may be more appropriate. In any case, the curve should not extend through the open symbols representing the data points. If extrapolation or interpolation of the curve is doubtful, the uncertain region can be designated by a dotted or dashed line. The ordinate and the abscissa must be labeled clearly, and any nomenclature used should be defined on the graph or in the body of the report. If numerical values are presented, the appropriate units are shown immediately after the labels on the ordinate and abscissa. Restrictions on the plotted information should be indicated on the graph itself or with the title. The title of the graph must be explicit but not obvious. For example, a log-log plot of temperature versus the vapor pressure of pure glycerol should not be entitled Log-Log Plot of Temperature versus Vapor Pressure for Pure Glycerol. A much better title, although still somewhat obvious, would be Effect of Temperature on Vapor Pressure of Pure Glycerol. Some additional suggestions for the preparation of graphs follow:
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1. The independent or controlled variable should be plotted as the abscissa, and the variable that is being determined should be plotted as the ordinate. 2. Permit sufficient space between grid elements to prevent a cluttered appearance (ordinarily, two to four grid lines per inch are adequate). 3. Use coordinate scales that give good proportionment of the curve over the entire plot, but do not distort the apparent accuracy of the results. 4. The values assigned to the grids should permit easy and convenient interpolation. 5. If possible, the label on the vertical axis should be placed in a horizontal position to permit easier reading. 6. Unless families of curves are involved, it is advisable to limit the number of curves on any one plot to three or less. 7. The curve should be drawn as the heaviest line on the plot, and the coordinate axes should be heavier than the grid lines.
3.4.4. Illustrations
Flow diagrams, photographs, line drawings of equipment, and other types of illustrations may be a necessary part of a report. They can be inserted in the body of the text or included in the appendix. Complete flow diagrams, prepared on oversize paper, and other large drawings are often folded and inserted in an envelope at the end of the report.
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Gregg, D. W., and T. F. Edgar, AKhE J., 24753-781 (1978). 2. For single publications, as books, theses, or pamphlets: (a) authors names, followed by initials, (b) title (in quotation marks), (c) edition (if more than one has appeared), (d) volume (if there is more than one), (e) publisher, (f) place of publication, and (g) year of publication. The chapter or page number is often listed just before the publishers name. Titles of theses are often omitted. Peters, M. S., Elementary Chemical Engineering, 2d ed., p. 280, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1984. Heaney, M., PhD. Thesis in Chem. Eng., Univ. of Colorado, Boulder, CO. 1988. 3. For unknown or unnamed authors: (a) alphabetize by the journal or organization publishing the information. Chem. Eng., 9.5(13):26 (1988). 4. For patents: (a) patentees names, followed by initials, and assignee (if any) in parentheses, (b) country granting patent and number, and (c) date issued (in parentheses). Fenske, E. R. (to Universal Oil Products Co.), U.S. Patent 3,249,650 (May 3, 1986). 5. For unpublished information: (a) in press means formally accepted for publication by the indicated journal or publisher; (b) the use of private communication and unpublished data is not recommended unless absolutely necessary, because the reader may find it impossible to locate the original material. Morari, M., Chem. Eng. Progr., in press (1988).
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4. ORAL PRESENTATIONS
One of the assignments in this technical writing course is to prepare and deliver an oral presentation. You might wonder what an oral report is doing in a writing class. Employers look for course work and experience in preparing written documents, but they also look for some experience in oral presentation as well.
Instructional purpose: An oral report can be primarily instructional. Your task might be to train new employees to use certain equipment or to perform certain routine tasks. Persuasive purpose: An oral report can be primarily persuasive. You might want to convince members of local civic organizations to support a city-wide recycling program. You might appear before city council to persuade its members to reserve certain city-owned lands for park areas, softball and baseball parks, or community gardens. 32
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posture are okay. For example, don't slouch on the podium or against the wall, and avoid fidgeting with your hands. A verbal crutches- As for speaking style, consider slowing your tempo a bit-a common tendency is to get nervous and talk too fast. Also, be aware of how much you say things like "uh," "you know," and "okay."eehhh" and other lands of nervous verbal habits. Instead of saying "uh" or "you know" every three seconds, just don't say anything at all. In the days before your oral presentation, exercise speaking without these verbal crutches. The silence that replaces them is not a bad thing- -it gives listeners time to process what you are saying Never read directly from prepared text, there is nothing more deadly to an audience Make frequent eye contact with your audience throughout the talk Do not stare at your notes or at the screen. Do not direct your talk to one or two individuals, leaving the rest of the audience isolated Sound enthusiastic about your subject, or at least interested in it If you seem bored by your material, you can be guaranteed your audience will follow the lead!
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As for the content of your visuals consider these ideas: Outline of your talk, report, or both If you are at a loss for visuals to use in your oral presentation, or if your presentation is complex, have an outline of it that you can show at various points during your talk. Drawing or diagram of key objects-If you describe or refer to any objects during your talk, try to get visuals of them so that you can point to different components or features. Tables charts, graphsIf you discuss statistical data, present it in some form or table, chart, or graph. Many members of your audience may have trouble "hearing" such data as opposed to seeing it. Key terms and definitions A good idea for visuals (especially when you can't think of any others) is to set up a two-column list of key terms you use during your oral presentation with their definitions in the second column. Key concepts or points similarly, you can list your key points and show them in visuals. (Outlines, key terms, and main points are all good, legitimate ways of incorporating visuals into oral presentations when you can't think of any others.) During your actual oral report, make sure to discuss your visuals, refer to them, guide your listeners through the key points in your visuals. It's a big problem just to throw a visual up on the screen and never even refer to it.
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are fundamentally problem-oriented, and so as discussed in chapter 6. a good problem statement usually has important orientation value.
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text as a whole It will provide some of the given information that a specialist reader would automatically and implicitly associate with that particular concept but which a nonspecialist reader would not. There are several ways to illustrate and explain unfamiliar concepts for the nonspecialist reader. Visual aids, of course, should be used whenever the concept is suited to visual presentation. Often, however, a concept is too abstract to be presented visually In such cases; specific examples of the concept are usually the most powerful means you can use to help the nonspecialist reader. Analogies help explaining an unfamiliar concept b} showing that it is similar in certain ways to a familiar concept: they are useful in situations where the concept is so unfamiliar that you simply cannot think of any ordinary examples of it. Paraphrases, on the other hand, are useful in precisely the opposite situation: where the concept is familiar to the reader but only if restated in more recognizable terms. Paraphrases have a distinct advantage over examples and analogies in that they usually take up less space: sometimes even a one-word paraphrase will accomplish the purpose. Definitions, of course are a familiar way of explicating new concepts. Here is an example of an extended definition, explaining what the technical term "Remark Coefficient" means: The Remark Coefficient In the production of powdered detergents, spray drying is the icchn que used to evaporate the solvent from the liquid reaction mixture and physically form the finished powder product. In spray drying, the liquid is sprayed into the top of a tall tower and allowed to fall freely in the bottom of the tower, where it is removed as a dry powder. The solvent evaporates during the course of the fall. Particles dried in this fashion have an unusual shape, like that of a saddle (or a potato chip), and Analogy consequently, fail through the air in an unusual manner. Rather than falling in a vertical path, the particle fall in a helical (spiral) path. The shape of the helical path is described by the Remark coefficient, which is Paraphrase the ratio of the diameter of the helix to the height required for one passage of the particle around the perimeter of the helix. The Definition coefficient, which is a function of drying conditions, is sought to be maximized, so that the length of flight of the panicle is made much greater than the actual height of the spray-drying tower. Paraphrase
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technical terms are not only comprehensible, but arc often "information-rich" in the sense that they may trigger a host of associated concepts in the reader's memory. These associated concepts then become part of the "given information" in the message. Adding more given information in the form of examples, analogies, etc... would only produce a disproportionate and inefficient give/new ratio for that type of reader. What do you do, though, if you are writing to a mixed audience of specialists and nonspecialists? This is always a very challenging sometimes impossible'- situation, but there are a few things you can do. First, you might divide and conquer" produce two separate pieces of writing, or a single piece with two parts to it. so that each group of readers can be addressed with appropriate terminology. Alternatively, you might stick to a single text but briefly define the technical terms as you go along. The least objectionable way of doing this, usually, is to insert a short familiar paraphrase immediately after each technical term: in the Remark coefficient example, for instance, notice how the writer has inserted the paraphrase (spiral) after the less familiar term helical.
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for the remaining sentences in die paragraph should (1) be consistent with expectations likely to be raised by the topic statement. (2) be appropriate to the subject matter and the most important (3) be appropriate to die anticipated use of the paragraph by the reader. If you adhere to these principles with all your paragraphs, you will greatly enhance the overall readability of your writing.
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Instead, we would have to say A table usually has four legs or The table usually has four legs. or Samir's table has four legs.
Not all investors will benefit from Saving Certificates of the Investment authority Investors exceeding a deposit of LE 26886 (LE 53768 joint return) would have an after-tax yield far lower than with alternative investments, such as money market funds, or Treasury bills. Alternative investments would also yield better after-tax yieldsand no penalty if the certificate was redeemed within the one-) car maturity period.
The last sentence in this paragraph has three definite NPs which contain given information Alternate investments, after-tax yields and the certificate. Of these, the last seems to come closest to
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being thought of as topical information, the word Certificate, after all, does appear in the topic statement. But what is the real topic of this paragraph? Isn't it different kinds of investors! Notice for example, that the word investors appears not only in the topic statement but in the subject position of the next sentence. Notice also that investors are referred to b\ implication as the delegated agent of the passive mam verb: was redeemed (by investors) ideally, then, we should try to insert the word investors in the subject position of the third sentence, too. if it is all possible Indeed it is.
Not all investors will benefit from Saving Certificates of the Investment Authority. Investors exceeding a deposit of LE 26886 (LE 53768 joint return) would have an after-tax yield far lower than with alternative investments, such as money market funds, or Treasury bills. Investors redeeming their certificates within the one-year maturity period would also have a lower aftertax yield and would pay a penalty besides.
Not only does this rewritten version keep the focus on the topic of the paragraph and thus contribute to paragraph unity- it also establishes parallelism between the second and thud sentences, thus making it much clearer to the reader that we are talking about two different classes of investors: those who exceed a deposit of LE 26886 (LE 33768 joint return) and thos. who redeem their certificate early C) Put "Light" NPs Before "Heavy" NPs As seen earlier. NPs vary considerably in length, complexity, preciseness. etc.. If we use the word heavy to describe NPs which are long and complex and the word light for NPs which are short and simple, the preferred stylistic ordering is light NPs before heavy NPs For instance, consider the following passage:
We have received and acted upon requests for equipment from several branch offices We have sent the research, development and testing office in Alexandria a gas analyzer,
The second sentence of this passage is awkward and difficult to read. It has a very heavy indirect object - the research, development and testing office in Alexandria - and a very light direct object -a gas analyzer. Thus the ordering of NPs in this sentence, as it stands, is heavy .... Light. A more readable version of the second sentence and thus a better version, would order the NPs light... heavy as follows We have sent a gas analyzer (Direct Object) to the research, development and testing office in Alexandria (Object of preposition) Notice that in moving the heavy NP to the end, we have to insert the preposition The following represents a flowchart for editing sentences in paragraphs:
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do have an audience, and this audience needs to know, just as listeners do. how the details of a discussion are related to the main points. Furthermore, writers have as many devices as speakers do for helping the reader sec how details support main points. In short the use of emphasis is as appropriate and indeed necessary to good writing as it is to good conversation. In what follows we will describe the most common and useful devices used by good writers to create emphasis within individual sentences. These fall into three categories: devices used to highlight important words and phrases, devices used to subordinate relatively unimportant words and phrases, and devices used to eliminate unnecessary words and phrases
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Not only does this move reduce the wordiness of the first two sentences, it also creates a better topic statement: it is more unified and emphatic, and it introduces the key terms performance problems and cost problems, (notice how these terms are the subjects of the next two sentences). If we also change sentence 3 to satisfy given-new and light-heavy criteria, we can reduce the wordiness of the paragraph and increase its readability still further. The overall result is this: FIRST REWRITE At the present time electric car utilization is not possible because of performance and cost problems. The performance problems are lack of speed, short mileage range, and lack of acceleration. The cost problems are the price of batten replacement and the base price of the car. It is possible, though with research and development, that these problems can be solved in the future This is a significant improvement, but we have other options that might improve it even more. For example, now that we have converted the original sentence 2 into a prepositional phrase, we can shift it into presubject position in place of the time adverbial originally there: Because of performance and cost problems, electric CAN utilization is not possible at the present lime. This puts more focus on the key terms performance problems and cost problems and less focus on the less time important time adverbial. Another change we could make, though not as compelling a one as thos just described, would be to combine the two sentences in the middle with a semicolon These two sentences are closely related in function; linking them formally would reflect this relatedness FINAL VERSION Because of performance and cost problems, electric car utilization is not possible at the present time. The performance problems are lack of speed, short mileage range, and lack of acceleration: the cost problems are the price of battery replacement and the base price of the car. It is possible. though, with research and development that these problems can be solved in the future. ln general, combining sentences is often a good way to create emphasis in your writing. By making it easy for your readers to see the relatedness of ideas, you make it easier for them to absorb these ideas. You can also show explicitly that one idea is logically subordinate to another by putting the more important idea in the main clause of the sentence and the less important idea in a subordinate clause. For example, suppose you wanted to combine the two sentences in italics in the following paragraph: NEGATIVE EXAMPLE Electric cars must be able to meet the same safety standards that gasoline cars must meet as set up by the Ministry of Environmental Affairs. These standards are derived from an established crash test. In the crash test, the car is propelled against a solid wall at 30 mph. The data obtained from the crash test are analyzed for fuel spillage, fuel system integrity, windshield retention, and zone intrusion. In combining the two italicized sentences, we could subordinate the more detailed sentence to the more general first one: Technical Reports Writing (HS x12) 47 First year Chemical Engineering Department Spring 2009
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These standards are derived from an established car test in which the car is propelled against a solid wall at 30 mph. Alternatively, we could maintain prominence on the details and subordinate instead the idea that the crash test is an established one: These standards are derived from propelling the car against a solid wall at 30 mph. which is an established car test. Clearly the first option is the more appropriate one in this context: the fact that the crash test is an established one underscores the main idea of the paragraph, as stated in the topic sentence. REVISED VERSION Electric cars must be able to meet the same safety standards that gasoline cars must meet as set up by the Department of Transportation. These standards are derived from an established crash test in which the car is propelled against a solid wall at 30 mph. The data obtained from the crash test are analyzed for fuel spillage, fuel system integrity, windshield retention, and zone intrusion. There are times when it is best not to combine sentences. For example, if you are giving a list of instructions and want to emphasize independent steps in accordance with how the user might carry out the instructions, you might want to state these steps in independent sentences. To see how this might apply in a specific case, consider the following set of instructions for replacing a brake line an automobile: 1. Disconnect the union nuts at both ends 2. Unclip the line from the chassis 3. Pull the line out 4. Install the new line in the chassis clips 5. Moisten the ends in brake fluid 6. Tighten the union nuts. You could leave these set of instructions as is in the form of a formatted list Or you could combine some of the steps ( 2 with 3. 5 with 6) to create more realistic four-step sequence of disconnect-remove-install-reconnect. as is done in tins excerpt from a repair manual To replace a brake line, disconnect the union nuts at both ends. Unclip the line from the chassis and pull it out. install the new line in the chassis clips Moisten the ends in brake fluid, then tighten the union nuts. To combine sentences beyond this however, would be a mistake because it would destroy the emphasis we want to maintain on certain individual steps. For example, if we were to combine sentences 2 and 3 in the repair manual version, this would be the result: NEGATIVE EXAMPLE To replace a brake line, disconnect the union nuts at both ends Unclip the line from the chassis, pull it out. and install the new line in the chassis clips. Moisten the ends in brake fluid, then tighten the union nuts. By lumping together the remove and install steps like this (Unclip the line from the chassis, pull it out. and install the new line in the chassis clips), we would be creating an imbalance in the
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sequence: no mechanic would consider this to be a single step, as the form of the description implies. It is also best not to combine sentences when the result would be too long a sentence Suppose, for example, you have been writuig a proposal for a computer-aided design system and have included this paragraph in your summary. The proposed system is required to alleviate the increase in demand. The system will do that by removing the burden of data entry from the present system. CADDS. This is accomplished by utilizing the microcomputer as a stand-alone data entry system. The microcomputer has all of the graphics and software capabilities required to implement this concept. As it stands, this paragraph is a nicely written one. with an adequate topic statement, a clear general-to-specific pattern of development, and properly constructed sentences satisfying the givennew. light-heavy and topical criteria. The result is a highly readable paragraph with appropriate emphasis on the main ideas and key words. If you were to combine the sentences into one. on the other hand, much of this emphasis would be destroyed: NEGATIVE EXAMPLE The proposed system is required to alleviate the increase in demand by utilizing the microcomputer as a stand-alone entry system with all the necessary graphics and soft ware capabilities to remove the burden of data entry from the present system. CADDS. This is a more economical version, no doubt, insofar as it contains 16 fewer words than tic original. But is it more readable? Absolutely not! In fact it is a perfect example of the kind of incomprehensive gobbiedygook that so many readers of technical writing complain about. the lesson to be learned from this example . then, is this: do not combine sentences just for the sake of doing so; do it only when it serves a purpose.
5.4.2. Be Concise
While the more important words and phrases of a text should be highlighted, the less important ones should be subordinated - or perhaps even eliminated altogether Unnecessary words and phrases will only detract from the emphasis you have carefully tried to build up through the use of combined sentences, signal words and identifiers. A bloated, wordy style can submerge your readers in a sea of empty terms, making it next to impossible for them to follow. your main points and be persuaded to your point of view. In' fact, foggy language is more likely than not to rum readers against you. Inexperienced writers sometimes think that they must use a wordy, bloated style of writing in order to create a certain professional image. They seem to believe that by using pretentious language, they will enhance their image as experts in their field. Actually, what evidence there is suggests just the opposite: pretentious, wordy language is less likely to promote one's credibility as an expert than is concise, direct, simple language. For example, consider the following two abstracts presented in a conference; one version (Version 1) being noticeably wordier than the other (Version 2).
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Version 1 IN the experiment of the series using mice, it was discovered that total removal of the adrenal glands effects reduction or aggressivenss and that aggressheness in adrenalectomised mice is restorable to the level of intact mice by treatment with corticosterone. These results point to the indispensability of the adrenals for the full t expression of aggression. Nevertheless, since adrenalectomy is followed by an increase in the release of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). and since ACTH has been . reported (P. Brain. 1972) to decrease the aggressiveness of intact mice, it is possible that the effects of adrenalectomy on aggressiveness of intact mice, it is possible that the effects of adrenalectomy on aggressiveness are a function of the concurrent increased levels of ACTH. However, high levels of ACTH. in addition to causing increases in glucocorticoids (which possibly accounts for the depression of aggression in intact mice by ACTH). also result in decreased androgen levels. In view of the fact that animals with low androgen levels are characterized by decreased aggressiveness the possibility exists that adrenalectomy, rather than affecting aggression directly, has the effect of reducing aggressiveness by producing an ACTHmediated condition of t decreased androgen levels. Version 2 The experiment in our series with mice showed that the total removal of the adrenal glands reduces aggressiveness. Moreover, when treated with corticosterone. mice that had their adrenals taken out became as aggressive as intact animals again. These findings suggest that the adrenals are necessary for animals to show full aggressiveness. But removal of the adrenals raises the levels of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). and P. Brain found that ACTH lowers the aggressiveness of intact mice. Thus the reduction of aggressiveness after this operation might be due to the higher levels of ACTH which accompany it. However. high levels of ACTH have tow effects. First the level of glucocorticoids rise, which might account for P. Brain's results. Second, the levels of androgen fall. Since animals with low levels of androgenare less aggressive it is possible that removal of the adrenals redues aggressiveness only drrectly by ratsing the levels of ACTH it cuases androgen levels to drop . Obviously, Version 2 is easier to read, and its style is more appropriate therefore the more concise abstract of Version 2 (155 words versus 179 for Version 1) is definmtely preferred This style is not so "noun-heavy", it has higher percentage of verbs and adectives than Version 1. For example, instead of saying effects reduction of it simply says reduces lnstead of point to the indispensability of the adrenals . it has suggests that the adrenals are necessary instead of producing a condition of decrease androgen levels . it has couses androgen levels to drop Second the Version 2 style has simpler sentence structure with fewer and shorter adverbial phrases before the sentence subject This means that the reader reaches the main verb of the sentence sooner, making it easier to process the sentence as a whole Thirdly, the Version 2 style avoids unnecessary Technical Reports Writing (HS x12) 50 First year Chemical Engineering Department Spring 2009
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technical terms in favor of more comrnooplace equivalents, even when it requires more words to make the substitution In place of adrenalectmised mice, for example. Version 2 has mice that had their adrenals taken out instead of are aunction of. there is are due to. Finally, the style of Version 2 uses more pronouns and demonstrative adjectives: their in sentence 2. these in sentence 3. this in sentences5 and it in the last part of sentence 9. By contrast, the Version 1 style has only one demonstrative These, leading off sentence 2 Pronouns and demonstrative adjectives, in general, help make a text more cohesive - provided, of course, that it is clear to the reader what they refer to. This last point deserves some discussion before we end. Scientists, engineers, and other technical people sometimes use full nouns phrases repeatedly to avoid being "imprecise". They have heard of cases, perhaps, where a single misinterpretation of a pronoun by a single reader has led to some accident or mishap, which in turn has led to the writer's company being sued for damages. Therefore, they tend to avoid pronouns and demonstratives altogether, preferring instead to repeat full noun phrases over and over. This strategy is certainly a safe one. and indeed it should be used in appropriate circumstances (such as when writing operating instructions for a potentially hazardous macliine or when writing a legally binding contract). There are many circumstances, however, where such caution is uncalled for. and where in feet it simply disrupts the coherence of the text. Consider this example NEGATIVE EXAMPLE In order to keep from delaying the construction phase of the Office Building, the Technical Division needs to know the loads that will be placed upon the footings. I have investigated the proposed use of the structure and various footing systems to determine the loads that will be placed upon the footings. This report gives the loads of the footings and explains how these loads were derived There is no reason to describe the loads every time they are referred to Pronouns and demonstratives can be used instead without any real risk of misinterpretation, and the result will be more coherent and more concise text. REVISED VERSION In order to keep from delaying the construction phase of the Office Building, the Technical Division needs to know the loads that will be placed upon the footings. 1 have investigated the proposed use of the structure and various footing systems to determine these loads. This report gives the loads and explains how they were derived In general when you have to refer repeatedly to some object or concept that has first been introduced with a long noun phrase, you can usually use a shortened version of tins noun phrase and a demonstrative adjective or definite article without muck if any. risk of ambiguity
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6. PROJECT PROPOSAL
A project proposal deals with work plans of a certain subject. Project proposals usually serve the following purposes with respect to the different functional types of projects. A) Institution building projects: They help in the institutional building up, its approaches and capabilities, set standards of performance and help continuing staff development. B) Direct support projects: Provide data, information and analysis of a certain idea and in some cases embody the technical details and findings of a certain project. C) DIRECT TRAINING PROJECTS. D) Upgrading of the efficiency of certain institutions in industry, administration and other activities. E) Experimental and pilot projects: Provide data, information and analysis on different aspects of experimental research or pilot activities and the results thereof, in detailed support of the findings and the recommendations of the project. F) SPECIAL SUPPORT PROJECTS. Which provide development support of communication, documentary services, e.g. CAD, computer services...etc.
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