NHA TRANG UNIVERSITY Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Assoc. Prof.

Nguyn Vn Nhn

Engineering Thermodynamics
(Textbook Compiled for Students at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering)

NHA TRANG - 2008

- 2 Our modern technological society is based largely on the replacement of human and animal labor by animate, power-producing machinery. Examples of such machinery are steam power plants that generate electricity, locomotives that pull freight and passenger trains, and internal combustion engines that power automobiles. In each of these examples, working fluids such as steam and gases are generated by combustion of a fuel-air mixture and then are caused to act upon mechanical devices to produce power. Predictions of how much energy can be obtained from the working fluid and how well the extraction of energy from the working fluid can be accomplished are the province of an area of engineering called thermodynamics. Thermodynamics is based on two experimentally observed laws. The first is the law of conservation of energy, familiar to the student from the study of classical mechanics. Whereas in mechanics only potential and kinetic energies are involved, in thermodynamics the law of conservation of energy is extended to include thermal and other forms of energy. When an energy transformation occurs, the same total energy must be present after the transformation as before; in other words, according to the first law, all the different types of energy must be accounted for and balanced out when a transformation occurs. For example, in an internal combustion engine, a specific quantity of thermal energy is released due to the combustion of gasoline in the engine cylinders. Some of this energy goes out the tailpipe as heated exhaust gases and is lost; some is converted to useful work in moving the car; and some is dissipated to the air via the cooling system. Whereas the distribution of these various types of energy is clearly of important to the engineer, who wants to obtain as much useful work as possible from a given quantity of fuel, the first law merely states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it does not provide information as to the ultimate distributions of the energy in its various forms. The second law provides further information about energy transformations. For example, it places a limitation on the amount of useful mechanical work that can be obtained from combustion of the fuel in an internal combustion engine. The first law states that energy must be conserved. Thus, according to the first law, all the thermal energy available from combustion of the fuel could be converted to useful mechanical work with no losses. Intuitively, however, we know that thermal and other losses are present in the engine. The second law provides a quantitative prediction of the extent of these losses. An understanding of thermodynamics and the limitations it imposes on the conversion of energy from one to another is very relevant to what is going on in the world today. With limited supplies of conventional energy resources of oil and gas, and with increased demands for an improved standard of living and an accompanying increased demand for energy, it is important that we obtain the maximum utilization of our oil, gas, and coal reserves. Conversion of the chemical energy available in these fuels to usable form should be done as efficiently as possible. Further, we must examine the potential of new sources of energy, such as the sun and the oceans. Again, thermodynamics will be used to evaluate new energy sources and methods of converting the available energy to useful form.
Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 3 -

REFERENCE
1. Bi Hi, Trn Th Sn (2002), K thut nhit, NXB Khoa hc v K thut, H Ni 2. Phm L Dn, ng Quc Ph (2003), Bi tp c s K thut nhit, NXB Gio dc. 3. Trn Quang Nh, Bi Hi, Hong nh Tn, Ng. Hoi Vn (1978), Bi tp Nhit k thut, NXB i hc v THCN. 4. William L. Haberman, James E. A. John, Engineering Thermodynamics with Heat Transfer, ISBN 0-205-12076-8.

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 4 -

Chng 1

KHI NIM C BN
1.1. THIT B NHIT
Thit b nhit l loi thit b c chc nng bin i gia nhit nng v c nng. Thit b nhit c chia thnh 2 nhm : ng c nhit v my lnh. ng c nhit (v d : ng c hi nc, turbine kh, ng c xng, ng c diesel, ng c phn lc, v.v.) c chc nng bin i nhit nng thnh c nng. My lnh c chc nng chuyn nhit nng t ngun lnh (v d : phng lnh) n ngun nng (v d : kh quyn).
Wout
2

High-temperature reservoir (T1)

Qin
1 3

Wout
Heat Engine

Qout
Qin
4

Qout

Low-temperature reservoir (T2)

H. 1.1-1. Nguyn l hot ng ca turbine hi nc 1- Ni hi, 2- Turbine, 3- Thit b ngng t, 4- Bm nc

High-temperature reservoir (T1)

Qout
3 1

Win Refrigerator
Qin

Win Qout
4

Qin Low-temperature reservoir (T2)

H. 1.1-2. Nguyn l hot ng ca my lnh v bm nhit dng tc nhn lnh l cht lng d bay hi 1- Gin lnh, 2- My nn, 3- Gin nng, 4- Van tit lu
Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 5 -

1.2. H NHIT NG
H nhit ng (HN) l mt vt hoc nhiu vt c tch ring ra khi cc vt khc nghin cu nhng tnh cht nhit ng ca chng. Tt c nhng vt ngoi HN c gi l mi trng xung quanh. Vt thc hoc tng tng ngn cch h nhit ng v mi trng xung quanh c gi l ranh gii ca HN. H nhit ng c phn loi nh sau :
a)
Water vapor Rigid vessel System Gases boundaries

b)
Cylinder System boundaries Piston

Liquid water

c)

H. 1.2-1. H nhit ng a) HN kn vi th tch khng i b) HN kn vi th tch thay i c) HN h

Water pump Electrical power in

H nhit ng kn - HN trong khng c s trao i vt cht gia h v mi trng xung quanh. H nhit ng h - HN trong c s trao i vt cht gia h v mi trng xung quanh. quanh. H nhit ng c lp - HN c cch ly hon ton vi mi trng xung

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 6 -

1.3. CC THNG S TRNG THI CA MI CHT CNG TC

Mi cht cng tc (MCCT) c s dng trong thit b nhit l cht c vai tr trung gian trong qu trnh bin i gia nhit nng v c nng. Thng s trng thi ca MCCT l cc i lng vt l c trng cho trng thi nhit ng ca MCCT. Trng thi cn bng nhit ng l trng thi trong cc thng s trng thi ca HN c gi tr nh nhau trong ton b HN v khng i theo thi gian nu nh khng c tc ng (nhit hoc cng) t mi trng xung quanh. Ngc li, trng thi khi cc thng s trng thi c gi tr khc nhau trong HN c gi l trng thi khng cn bng. Trng thi ca MCCT c biu din bng mt im trn h trc ta trng thi gm cc trc l cc thng s trng thi c lp bt k. Trng thi cn bng ca HN n cht, mt pha c xc nh khi bit hai thng s trng thi c lp bt k. 1.3.1. NHIT Khi nim Nhit (T) - s o trng thi nhit ca vt. Theo thuyt ng hc phn t, nhit l s o ng nng trung bnh ca cc phn t . m 2 = k .T (1.3-1) 3 trong : m - khi lng phn t ; - vn tc trung bnh ca cc phn t ; k hng s Bonzman , k = 1,3805 . 105 J/deg ; T - nhit tuyt i.
Nhit k Nhit k hot ng da trn s thay i mt s tnh cht vt l ca vt thay i theo nhit , v d : chiu di, th tch, mu sc, in tr , v.v.

H. 1.3-1. Nhit k Thang nhit 1) Thang nhit Celsius (0C) - (Anders Celsius - 1701-1744) 2) Thang nhit Fahrenheit (0F) - (Daniel Fahrenheit - 1686-1736) . 3) Thang nhit Kelvin (K) - (Kelvin - 1824-1907 ). 4) Thang nhit Rankine (0R)

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 7 -

5 0 ( F 32 ) ; 9 9 0 F = 0 C + 32 ; 5 9 0 R= K ; 5 0 R = 0 F + 459,67
0

C =

C = K 273

K = 0 C + 273

5 K = R 9

1.3.2. P SUT Khi nim p sut ca lu cht (p) - lc tc dng ca cc phn t theo phng php tuyn ln mt n v din tch thnh cha.

p=

F A

Theo thuyt ng hc phn t :

p = n

m 2 3

(1.3-2)

trong : p - p sut ; F - lc tc dng ca cc phn t ; A - din tch thnh bnh cha ; n - s phn t trong mt n v th tch ; - h s ph thuc vo kch thc v lc tng tc ca cc phn t. n v p sut 1) N/m2 2) Pa (Pascal) 3) at (Technical Atmosphere) 4) atm (Physical Atmosphere) at 1 at 1 Pa 1 mm H2O 1 mm Hg 1 1,01972.10 -5 1.10 -4 1,35951.10 -3 ; ; ; ; 5) mm Hg (tor - Torricelli, 1068-1647) 6) mm H2O 7) psi (Pound per Square Inch) 8) psf (Pound per Square Foot) mm H2O 1.10 4 0,101972 1 13,5951 mm Hg (at 0 0C) 735,559 7,50062.10 -3 73,5559.10 -3 1

Pa 9,80665.10 4 1 9,80665 133,322

1 atm = 760 mm Hg (at 0 0C) = 10,13 . 10 4 Pa = 2116 psf (lbf/ft2) 1 at = 2049 psf 1 psi (lbf/in2) = 144 psf = 6894,8 Pa 1lbf/ft2 (psf) = 47,88 Pa

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 8 Phn loi p sut 1) p sut kh quyn (p0) - p sut ca khng kh tc dng ln b mt cc vt trn tri t. 2) p sut d (pd) - p sut ca lu cht so vi mi trng xung quanh

pd = p - p 0
3) p sut tuyt i (p) - p sut ca lu cht so vi chn khng tuyt i.

p = pd +p0
4) chn khng (pck) - phn p sut nh hn p sut kh quyn.

pck = p0 - p
pd p p0 p
H. 1.3-2. Cc loi p sut p k
a) Vacuum b)

pck

p0

pd
Hg

p0

p0

H. 1.3-3. Dng c o p sut a) Barometer , b) p k Ghi ch : Khi o p sut bng p k thy ngn, chiu cao ct thy ngn cn c hiu chnh v nhit 0 0C. (1.3-3) h0 = h (1 - 0,000172. t) 0 trong : t - nhit ct thy ngn, [ C] ; h0 - chiu cao ct thy ngn hiu chnh v nhit 0 0C ; h - chiu cao ct thy ngn nhit t 0C.

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 9 1.3.3. TH TCH RING V KHI LNG RING Th tch ring (v) - Th tch ring ca mt cht l th tch ng vi mt
v= V m

n v khi lng cht :

[m3/kg]
m V

Khi lng ring () - Khi lng ring - cn gi l mt - ca mt cht

=

l khi lng ng vi mt n v th tch ca cht :

[kg/m3]

1.3.4. NI NNG Ni nhit nng (u) - gi tt l ni nng - l nng lng do chuyn ng ca cc phn t bn trong vt v lc tng tc gia chng. Ni nng gm 2 thnh phn : ni ng nng (ud) v ni th nng (up). Ni ng nng lin quan n chuyn ng ca cc phn t nn n ph thuc vo nhit ca vt. Ni th nng lin quan n lc tng tc gia cc phn t nn n ph thuc vo khong cch gia cc phn t. Nh vy, ni nng l mt hm ca nhit v th tch ring : u = u (T, v) i vi kh l tng, ni nng ch ph thuc vo nhit . Lng thay i ni nng ca kh l tng c xc nh bng cc biu thc : 1.3.5. ENTHALPY Enthalpy (i) - l i lng c nh ngha bng biu thc : i = u + p.v Nh vy, cng tng t nh ni nng , enthalpy ca kh thc l hm ca cc thng s trng thi. i vi kh l tng, enthalpy ch ph thuc vo nhit . 1.3.6. ENTROPY Entropy (s) l mt hm trng thi c nh ngha bng biu thc :
ds = dq T

[J/0K]

1.4. CC DNG NNG LNG THNG DNG

1.4.1. NGOI TH NNG (Ep) - l nng lng c c do v tr ca vt.

H. 1.4-1

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 10 -

EP = m g z = G z
trong : m - khi lng [kg] ; g - gia tc trng trng, [m/s2] ; z - cao so vi mt phng so snh, [m] ; G - trng lng, [N]. 1.4.2. NGOI NG NNG (Ek) - l nng lng c c do chuyn ng v m ca vt.

EK = m

2
2

trong l vn tc ca vt.

1.4.3. NI NHIT NNG (U) - (xem 1.3.4). 1.4.4. HA NNG (EC) - nng lng tch tr trong cc lin kt gia cc nguyn t trong phn t. 1.4.5. NGUYN T NNG (EA) - nng lng tch tr trong cc lin kt gia cc ht to nn ht nhn ca nguyn t. 1.4.6. IN NNG (EE) - dng nng lng c truyn vo hoc ra khi vt nh h thng in. 1.4.7. NHIT NNG 1.4.7.1. KHI NIM Nhit nng l dng nng lng truyn t vt ny sang vt khc do s chnh lch nhit . n v o nhit nng : 1) Calorie (Ca) - 1 Ca l nhit nng cn thit lm nhit ca 1 gram nc tng t 14.5 0C n 15.5 0C. 2) British thermal unit (Btu) - 1 Btu l nhit nng cn thit lm nhit ca 1 pound nc tng t 59.5 0F ln 60.5 0F. 3) Joule (J) - 1 [J] 1 Ca = 4.187 J 1 Btu = 252 Ca = 1055 J

a)

b) Q

c)

Q
Sun

Earth

H. 1.4-2. Cc hnh thc truyn nhit

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 11 1.4.7.2. NHIT DUNG V NHIT DUNG RING Nhit dung ca mt vt l lng nhit cn cung cp cho vt hoc t vt ta ra nhit ca n thay i 1 0.

C=

dQ dt

[J/deg]

(1.4-1)

Nhit dung ring (NDR) - cn gi l T nhit - l lng nhit cn cung cp hoc ta ra t 1 n v s lng vt cht nhit ca n thay i 1 0. Phn loi NDR theo n v o lng vt cht :

1) Nhit dung ring khi lng : c = 2) Nhit dung ring th tch : 3) Nhit dung ring mol :

C m
C Vtc
C N

[J/kg .deg] [J/m3t c .deg]

[J/kmol .deg]

(1.4-2a) (1.4-2b)
(1.4-2c) (1.4-3)

c' =
c =

c = c ' vtc =

c' =

c c = vtc 22,4

Phn loi NDR theo qu trnh nhit ng : 1) NDR ng tch : cv , c'v , c . 2) NDR ng p : cp , c'p , c . Cng thc Maye : cp - cv = R cp - cv = R = 8314 [J/kmol. deg] Ch s on nhit : (1.4-4a) (1.4-4b) (1.4-5)

k=

cp cv

Tr s k ca kh thc ph thuc vo loi cht kh v nhit . i vi kh l tng, k ch ph thuc vo loi cht kh. Quan h gia c, k v R :

T (1.4-4) v (1.4-5) ta c :

cv =

1 R k 1

cp =

k R k 1

(1.4-6)

Nhit dung ring ca kh thc : NDR ca kh thc ph thuc vo bn cht ca cht kh, nhit , p sut v qu trnh nhit ng : c = f(T, p, qu trnh).

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 12 Trong phm vi p sut thng dng, p sut c nh hng rt t n NDR. Bi vy c th biu din NDR di dng mt hm ca nhit nh sau : (1.4-7) c = a0 + a1. t + a2. t 2 + ..... + an. tn Nhit dung ring ca kh l tng : NDR ca kh l tng ch ph thuc vo loi cht kh m khng ph thuc vo nhit v p sut. Bng 1.4-1. Ch s on nhit v nhit dung ring ca kh l tng Loi kh Kh 1 nguyn t Kh 2 nguyn t Kh nhiu nguyn t k 1,6 1,4 1,3

cv [kJ/kmol. deg]
12,6 20,9 29,3

cp [kJ/kmol. deg]
20,9 29,3 37,4

Nhit dung ring ca hn hp kh

n i =1

c = g i ci ;

c ' = ri ci' ;
i =1

c =

r
i =1

c i

(1.4-8)

1.4.7.2. TNH NHIT DUNG RING TRUNG BNH a) Tnh NDR trung bnh trong khong nhit t1 t2 khi bit NDR trung bnh trong khong nhit 0 t : NDR trung bnh trong khong nhit 0 t :

c |t0 = a 0 + a 1 t

(1.4-9)

Theo nh ngha NDR : c =

t2

dq dt

Nhit trao i trong qu trnh 1 - 2 :

q| =
t2 t1

c d t = c | (t
t2 t1 t1

t1 )
t1 0

(1.4-10a)

Mt khc c th vit :
t2 t1

= q

t2 0

t1 0

=c
t1 0

t2 0

(t 2 0 ) c

(t 1 0 )
(1.4-10b)

=c

t2 0

t2 c
t1 0

t1

T (1.4-10a) v (1.4-10b) ta c :
t2 t1

t2 0

t2 c t 2 t1

t1

= a 0 + a 1 ( t 2 + t1 )

(1.4-11)

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 13 b) Tnh nhit dung ring trung bnh trong khong nhit t1 t2 khi bit NDR thc c = a0 + a1.t :
t2 t2 t1

t1

c dt
t 2 t1
=

2 t2 a 0 t 2 + a1 2

t12 a 0 t1 + a 1 2 t 2 t1

t2 t1

= a 0 + a1

t 2 + t1 2

(1.4-12)

1.4.7.3. CC CCH TNH NHIT LNG 1) Tnh nhit lng theo nhit dung ring

q = c dt = c | tt12 (t 2 t 1 )
t1

t2

(1.4-12a)

2) Tnh nhit lng theo nh lut nhit ng 1

q = u + w
3) Tnh nhit lng theo nh lut nhit ng 2
s2

(1.4-12b)

q = T ds
s1

(1.4-12c)

1.4.7.4. TH NHIT
T
Q1-2 = Qin (+) 2

0 s T
Q3-4 = Qout (-) 4 3

0 s

th nhit l th biu din qu trnh nhit ng trn h trc ta T - s. Trn th nhit, din tch gii hn bi trc honh, ng biu din qu trnh v hai ng thng ng i qua hai im u v cui ca qu trnh th hin nhit lng tham gia trong qu trnh. Nhit nng khng phi l thng s trng thi ca MCCT. Lng nhit cp cho MCCT ph thuc vo ng i ca qu trnh. Qui c : Nhit truyn vo HN mang du (+), nhit do HN nh ra mang du (-).

H. 1.4-3. Biu din qu trnh nhit ng trn th nhit

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 14 1.4.8. CNG (W) 1.4.8.1. KHI NIM Cng - cn gi l c nng - l dng nng lng hnh thnh trong qu trnh bin i nng lng trong c s dch chuyn ca lc tc dng. V tr s, cng bng tch ca thnh phn lc cng phng chuyn ng v qung ng dch chuyn. W = (F. cos). S
F

H. 1.4-4.

n v Cng l mt dng nng lng nn n v ca cng l n v ca nng lng. n v thng dng l Joule (J). 1 J l cng ca lc 1 N tc dng trn qung ng 1 m.
a) b) p

F c) d)

H. 1.4-5. Cc hnh thc thc hin cng

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 15 Phn loi cng 1) Cng thay i th tch (W) - cn gi l cng c hc - l cng do MCCT sinh ra khi dn n hoc nhn c khi b nn. Cng thay i th tch gn lin vi s dch chuyn ranh gii ca HN. Cng thay i th tch c xc nh bng biu thc : dw = p . dv

w=

v2

v1

p dv

2) Cng k thut (Wkt) - l cng ca dng kh chuyn ng c thc hin khi p sut ca cht kh thay i. Cng k thut c xc nh bng biu thc : dwkt = - v . dp

wkt = v dp
p1

p2

1.4.8.2. TH CNG th cng l th biu din qu trnh nhit ng trn h trc ta p - V. Trn th cng, din tch gii hn bi trc honh, ng biu din qu trnh v hai ng thng ng i qua hai im u v cui ca qu trnh th hin cng do HN sinh ra hoc cng tc dng ln HN. Cng khng phi l thng s trng thi ca MCCT. Cng ph thuc vo ng i ca qu trnh. Qui c : Cng do HN sinh ra mang du (+), cng do mi trng tc dng ln HN mang du (-).

1 W1-2 = Wout (+)

0 V p
4 W3-4 = Win (-) 3

H. 1.4-6. Biu din qu trnh nhit ng trn th cng

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 16 -

CU HI N TP CHNG 1
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) M t nguyn l hot ng ca ng c nhit v my lnh thng dng ? nh ngha, phn loi v cho cc v d v h nhit ng ? nh ngha MCCT, trng thi v thng s trng thi ca MCCT ? nh ngha v phn loi nhit , thang nhit ? nh ngha v phn loi p sut ? Lit k cc n v o p sut v quan h gia cc n v o p sut ? nh ngha ni nng (U), enthalpy (I), entropy (S) ? nh ngha nhit nng (Q) v cc n v o nhit nng ? M t cc phng thc truyn nhit nng ? nh ngha v phn loi nhit dung ring (NDR) ? Lp cng thc xc nh NDR trung bnh trong khong nhit t1 t2 khi bit NDR trung bnh trong khong nhit 0 t ( c | 0 = a 0 + a1 t ) v NDR thc (c = a0 + a1. t) ?
t

9) 10)

nh ngha v phn loi cng (W) ? M t cc phng thc thc hin cng ? nh ngha th cng, th nhit ? Phn tch ngha ca th cng v th nhit ?

BI TP CHNG 1
Bi tp 1.1 : p sut ca khng kh trong bnh c kh nng ct thy ngn cao 500 mm (HBT.1-1). Xc nh p sut tuyt i trong bnh. Bit rng p sut kh quyn bng 95 kPa, khi lng ring ca thy ngn bng 13,6.103 kg/m3. B qua nh hng ca nhit n chiu cao ct thy ngn.

p0
A

A
FA

50 mm H20

p = ?
B
C B
180 mm Hg

FB

HBT. 1-1

HBT. 1-2

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008

- 17 Bi tp 1.2 : Ch s p sut d trong phng (A) l 50 mm H2O (HBT. 1-2). Trong phng A t bnh o p sut (B) c chn khng l 180 mm Hg. p sut ngoi tri l 750 mm Hg nhit 30 0C. Xc nh p sut tuyt i ca bnh o p sut . Bi tp 1.3 : Mt bnh kn c th tch V = 625 dm3 cha oxy c p sut tuyt i p = 23 bar v nhit t = 280 0C. p sut kh quyn p0 = 750 mmHg 0 0C. Xc nh : 1) p sut d ca oxy tnh theo cc n v : [bar], [N/m2], [mmHg], [mmH2O], [at] ? 2) Nhit ca oxy tnh theo 0F, 0R v K ? 3) Th tch ring v khi lng ring ca oxy trng thi thc t (v, ) v trng thi tiu chun (vtc, tc) ? 4) Khi lng ca oxy c trong bnh (m) ? 5) Th tch ca oxy iu kin tiu chun (Vtc) ? Bi tp 1.4 : Nhit dung ring trung bnh ng tch v ng p ca kh N2 trong khong nhit 00C 1500 0C c biu din bng cc biu thc sau :

cv |t0 = 0,7272 + 0,00008855. t c p |t0 = 1,0240 + 0,00008855. t

[kJ/kg.deg] [kJ/kg.deg]

Xc nh NDR trung bnh ng tch v ng p ca N2 trong khong nhit t t1 = 200 0C n t2 = 800 0C ? Bi tp 1.5 : Mt bnh kn cha m = 1,05 kg khng kh (k = 28,9) vi p sut p1 = 3 at v nhit t1 = 20 0C. Sau khi cp lng nhit Q, nhit ca khng kh tng ln t2 = 120 0C . 1) Tnh Q trong trng hp nhit dung ring cv = 20,9 kJ/kmol.deg. 2) Tnh Q trong trng hp nhit dung ring ph thuc nhit : cv |1500 = 0, 7088 + 0, 00009299 t [kJ/kg.deg] 0 3) Tnh sai s tng i trong hai trng hp trn ?

Assoc. Prof. Nguyn Vn Nhn

- Engineering Thermodynamics

2008