UNIT III FIBER OPTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Derive an expression for an Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture

Let us consider an optical fiber, where n0=Refractive Index of Air; n1 = Refractive Index of Core; n2 = Refractive Index of Cladding.

The ray AO enter from air into core at an incident angle i Refract thro OB at an angle Finally, it is incident from core to cladding surface at an angle C. At the incident angle is critical angle (C), the ray just moves along interface BC.

Hence, the angle of incidence (C = 90 ) at the interface of core and cladding will be more than the critical angle. Hence the ray is totally internally reflected ray. Thus, only those ray which passes within the acceptance angle will be totally internally reflected. Therefore, the light incident on the core within this maximum external incident angle can be coupled into the fiber to propagate. This angle is called as an acceptance angle.

Applying Snells law, at a point of entry of ray (AO) we have, n0 sin i = n1 sin sin i = n1n0 sin sin i = n1n0 1-cos2 -------------(1)

Applying Snells lay, at point B

n1 sin = n2 sin 90 sin = n2n1 sin (90 ) = n2n1 cos = n2n1 Substituting eqn. (2) in (1), sin i = n1n01-(n2n1)2 sin i = n1n0.1n1n12-n22 --------------(2) (sin 90 = 1)

i max = sin-1n12-n22n0
If the refractive index of air, no = 1, then the maximum value of sin I is given as Sin i max = n12-n22 Where n1 and nw are the refractive indices of core and cladding respectively. Acceptance angle The maximum incident angle below which the ray undergoes the total internal reflection is called an acceptance angle. The cone is referred as acceptance cone. Numerical aperture It is defined as the sine of acceptance angle of the fiber. i.e. NA = Sin i max = n12-n22

Double Crucible Technique:

Principle:

The raw materials for core and cladding are separately placed in the crucibles kept one inside the other and are heated to a very high temperature using a furnace. The molten materials are drawn out together to form the fiber.

Construction:
Inner & Outer Crucibles: To fill the core & Cladding raw materials. Electric furnace: To melt the silica powders at 1200C. Diameter Controller: To adjust the thickness of the fiber.

Working:
1. High pure powdered glass materials are fed into two 2. 3. 4. 5.

crucibles. Heated the materials to molten state by using furnace. The molten core material diffusing in to molten cladding material. The fiber is coming from the bottom orifice (hole) of the instrument. Finally, the thickness of the fiber is adjusting by diameter controller.

Advantages:
1. Low cost and easy maintenance. 2. We can produce continues fibers.

Disadvantages:
1. Platinum crucible is more cost 2. Graded index fiber is difficult to produce by this technique.

Types of Optical Fiber Cable:

Classification of Optical Fiber Cable

GLASS AND PLASTIC FIBERS

Based on materials in which the fibers are made it is classified into two types as follows:

Glass fibers

If the fibers are made up of mixture of metal oxides and silica glasses are called glass fibers. Examples:(i) Core: SiO2; cladding: P2O3 SiO2 (ii) Core: GeO2 SiO2; cladding: SiO2 Plastic fibers If the fibers are made up plastics which can be handled without any care due to its toughness and durability it is called plastic fiber. Examples:The plastic fibers are made by any one of the following combinations of core and cladding. (i) Core: Polymethyl methacrylate; cladding: co-polymer (ii) Core: Polystyrene; cladding: Methyl methacrylate

SINGLE AND MULTIMODE FIBERS

Mode is described by the nature of propagation of electromagnetic waves in a wave guide. Based on the modes of propagation the fibers are classified into two types viz. (i) Single mode fibers (ii) Multi mode fibers (i) Single mode fibers 1. It has very small core diameter so that it can allow only one mode of propagation and hence called single mode fibers. 2. The cladding diameter must be very large compared to the core diameter. 3. Thus in the case of a single mode fiber, the optical loss is very much reduced. Structure
Core diameter: 5 10 m Cladding diameter : Around 125 m Protective layer: 250 to 1000 m Numerical aperture: 0.08 to 0.10 Band width: More than 50 MHz km (ii) Multi-mode fibers: 1. Here the optical dispersion may occur. 2. They are made by multi-component glass materials. 3. The core diameter is larger than the diameter of the single mode fibers, so that it can allow many modes to propagate through it and hence called as multimode fibers. Structure: Core diameter: 50 350 m Cladding diameter: 125 500 m Protective layer: 250 to 1100 m Numerical aperture: 0.12 to 0.5 Band width: Less than 50 MHz km

STEP INDEX AND GRADED INDEX FIBERS:Based on the variation in the refractive index of the core and the cladding, the fibers are classified into two types, viz. (i) Step index fiber (ii) Graded index fiber

(i) Step index fiber

Here the refractive indices of air, cladding and core vary step by step and hence it is called as step index fiber. There are two types of step index fibers. They are, 1. Step index single mode fiber there is dispersion will occur. 2. Step index multi mode fiber -- there is intermodal dispersion will occur.

(ii) Graded index fiber (GRIN)

Here the refractive index of the core varies radically from the axis of the fiber. The refractive index of the core is large along the fiber axis and its gradually decreases thus it is called as graded index fiber. Here the refractive index becomes small at the core cladding interface. In general the graded index fibers will be of multimode system. The multimode graded index fiber has very less intermodal dispersion compared to multimode step index fiber.

SPLICING:
For longer distance communication, we have to connect one fiber with other fiber and mean while the losses must be minimized. The process of connecting the two fibers is called Splicing. Depend upon requirement splicing is classified into two type. They are,

1. Splices For permanent connections. 2. Connectors For temporary connections.

1. Splices
If we connect the two fibers for permanent requirement is known as splices. There are two types of splices. They are (i). Mechanical splices (ii). Fusion splices. (i). Mechanical splices a. Elastomeric splice It is made by an elastomer material. It consists of a hole, so that we have to insert the two fibers from two ends for rigid hold. The elastomer is covered by a glass sleeve with ends in such a way that it aligns the fibers into the elastomeric splice. The gel has the same refractive index is used as an adhesive. Thus the fibers are connected.

b. Four Rod Splices: The four glass rods are attached with one end of the fiber to hold another fiber firmly. Initially the rods curve slightly outward, so that the fiber can be easily inserted into it. By a suitable mechanical pressure the rods are made to be tightly clamping the two fibers. Here also gel is used for adhesion. c. Fusion Splices: Here two ends of the fiber is fused together with the help of a special equipment, using a high voltage electric arc. Hence, these splices are called fusion splices. Here the losses are minimized due to self-alignment system. 2. Connectors (ii) Butt-joint connectors It is made up of a special type of material called ferrule, composing of metal/glass/plastic materials. The fiber is send into the drilled hole of the ferrules and is aligned properly with the help of the alignment sleeve. The distance between the fibers is minimized by

adjusting the alignment sleeve and the guide ring, and is used to match the ends of the fibers. Once the matching was done, the light from one fiber can be easily coupled to the other fiber with minimum losses.

(iii) Expanded beam connectors: It consists of a collimating lens at the end of transmitting fiber and focusing lens at entrance of the receiving fiber. Light coming out from the transmitting fiber is made to fall over the collimating lens. The collimating lens makes the beam parallel and is focused into the focusing lens. After passing through the focusing lens, the light is coupled into the receiving fiber without any loss. Thus the loss is minimized. LOSSES IN OPTICALFIBERS When light propagates through an optical fiber, a small percentage of light is lost through different mechanisms. The loss of optical power is measured in terms of decibels per kilometer for attenuation losses.
Attenuation It is defined as the ratio of the optical power output (Pout) from a fiber of length (L) to the power input (Pin).
Attenuation =-10LlogPinPout dB/Km

The major attenuations are given below,

1. Absorption 2. Scattering 3. Radiative losses

1. Absorption Usually absorption occurs due to three defects in the atomic structure i. missing molecules, ii. Hydroxyl ions (OH-), iii. High density cluster of atoms 2. Scattering Scattering loss is depends upon the wavelength of light. Changes in the refractive index of the core glass will scatter the portion of incident light rays. This type of scattering is called Rayleigh scattering.

Rayleigh Scattering loss 14

3. Radiative losses This is otherwise known as bending loss. Its due to bending of finite radius of curvature in optical fibers. There are two types of bends are available. They are,
(a) Macroscopic bend (b) Microscopic bend (a) Macroscopic Bends: If the radius of core is large compared to fiber diameter, may cause large curvature at the position where the fiber cable turns at the corner. At this corner the light will not satisfy the condition for total internal reflection and hence it escapes out from the fiber. This is called as macroscopic losses. Also note that this loss is negligible for small bends.

b) Microscopic bends Micro-bends losses are caused due to non-uniformities or micro-bends inside the fiber. This micro bends in fiber appears due to non uniform pressures created during the cabling of the fiber or even during the manufacturing itself. This leads to loss of light by leakage through the fiber.

Dispersion and distortion

The optical signal becomes gradually distorting as it travels along a fiber. This distortion is due to dispersion effect. It is defined as when the light signal (or) pulse is sent into the fiber, the pulse spreads/broaden as it propagates through the fiber. This phenomenon is called dispersion. They are several dispersion such as intermodal, chromatic and waveguide dispersion.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Principle:

Its a device used to convert the electrical energy into light energy. When it is forward biased, the majority charge carriers of electrons from n-type and holes from p-type are diffuse into each other.

At the junction the electron hole recombination process takes place and energy is emitting in the form of visible light and IR region.

Construction:

The light emitting diode is made by Gallium Arsenide semiconductors. First the PN Junction is formed by epitaxial growth technique. Si+Ga=n-type; Si+As=p-type. The thickness of the n-layer is always larger than the p-layer, because of increasing the radiative recombination. Proper electric connection (forward bias) given to the semiconductor through aluminium contact. P-jn is slightly open for outcoming light rays.

Working: When the p-n junction diode is forward biased, the barrier width is reduced, raising the potential energy on the n-side and lowering that on the p-side. The free electrons and holes have sufficient energy to move into the junction region. If a free electron meets a hole, it recombines and releases a photon. Thus, light radiation from the LED is caused by the recombination of holes and electrons that are injected into the junction by a forward bias voltage. Advantages of LED 1. Very small in size 2. Less cost and long life time.
3. It needs less voltage for operate

Disadvantages of LED

1. It requires high power. 2. Its preparation cost is high.

Detector (PIN Diode) Principle: This is a device used to convert the light energy into electrical energy. Under the reverse bias condition, if the light ray is incident over the intrinsic region, then it will produce the electron hole pair. The accelerated electron-hole pair charges carrier produce the photo-current. Construction: It consists of three layers such as p, n and intrinsic region with proper biasing. The P and N region are heavily doped. The intrinsic layer is slightly larger than both the p-type and n-type for receive the light photons. Working: The PIN diode is heavily reverse biased. When a photon of higher energy is incident over the larger width intrinsic semiconductor layer, then the electron hole pairs are created. The mobile charges are accelerated by the applied voltage, which gives rise to photo current in the external circuit. It is a linear device because the photo-current is directly proportional to the incident optical power on the PIN photo-diode.

FIBER OPTICS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

An optical fiber communication system consists of three important parts viz., (i) Transmitter (ii) Optical fiber (iii) Receiver
a. Information signal source

The information signals source, may be voice, music, video signals etc. which is in the analog form to be transmitted is converted from analog signal to electrical signal.
b. Transmitter

The transmitter consists of a drive circuit and a light source. The drive circuit transfers the electric input signal into digital pulses and the light source converts that into optical pulses. The light source usually used is LED. Here the electric pulses modulate the intensity of the light source (Laser or LED) and are focused onto the optical fiber.
c. Optical fiber

It acts as a wave guide and transmits the optical pulses towards the receiver, by the principle of total internal reflection.
d. Receiver

The photo detector is a receiver which receives the optical pulses and converts it into electrical pulses. Further the signals are amplified by an amplifier. These electrical signals are decoded (i.e.) converted from digital to analog signals. Thus the original electrical signal is obtained, in analog form, with the same information. In this way, information is transmitted from one end to other end.

Temperature/ Pressure sensor (Intrinsic sensor)

Principle:

It is based on the principle of Interference between the beams emerging out from the reference fiber and the fiber kept in the measuring environment.
Working:

A monochromatic source of light is emitted from the laser source. It consists of a Laser source to emit light. A beam splitter, made of glass plate is inclined at an angle of 45 used to split the single beam into two beams.
The main beam passes through the lens L1 and is focused onto the reference fiber which is isolated from the environment to be sensed. The beam after passing through the reference fiber then falls on the lens L2. The spitted beam passes through the lens L3 and is focused onto the test fiber kept in the environment to be sensed. The splitted beam after passing through the test fiber is made to fall on the lens L2. The two beams after passing through the fibers, produces a path difference due to the change in parameters such as pressure, temperature etc., in the environment.

Therefore a path difference is produced between the two beams, causing the interference pattern. Thus the change in pressure (or) temperature can be accurately measured with the help of the interference pattern obtained.

DISPLACEMENT SENSOR (EXTRINSIC SENSOR)

Principle: Light is sent through a transmitting fiber and is made to fall on a moving target. The reflected light from the target is sensed by a detector with respect to intensity of light reflected and the displacement of the target is measured. Description: It consists of a bundle of transmitting fibers coupled to the laser source and a bundle of receiving fibers coupled to the detector. Working: Light from the source is transmitted through the transmitting fiber and is made to fall on the moving target. The light reflected from the target is made to pass through the receiving fiber and the same is detected by the detector. Based on the intensity of light received, the displacement of the target can be measured, (i.e.) If the received intensity is more, then we can say that the target is moving towards the sensor and if the intensity is less, we can say that the target is moving away from the sensor. The axis of the transmitting fiber and the receiving fiber with respect to the moving target can be adjusted to increase the sensitivity of the sensor.

Medical Endoscope:
It is a tubular optical instrument, used to view the internal parts of human body, which are not visible to the naked eye.

Construction: It is mainly possess two fibers such as outer fiber and inner fiber. Outer fiber It possess large number of fibers with imperfect order so called coherent bundle. One end of the fiber connected with the light source for illuminate the inner parts of the body and another end connected with plastic sleeve for protection. Inner fiber The bundle of fibers are arranged in perfect order so called coherent bundle. It is used to collect the reflected light ray from the object. At one end tiny lens are used as a telescope for a wider view and better image quality. Working:

The light ray from the source is passing through the outer fiber and incident over the inner parts of the human body. After incident the light rays are reflected towards the inner fiber. The reflected ray is amplified and then viewed from another end of the inner fiber which possesses an eye piece.