Blade machining

At the heart of any gas turbine, whatever its particular design or function, the action of the turbine blades is crucial for the turbine to carry out its intended function. Their operating environment can be extremely demanding, with large variations in temperature and pressure as well as the physical stresses of high speed rotation, and any flaws in their structural integrity may lead to rapid failure. Consequently the choices of material and manufacturing process in blade production, and the security and efficiency of the machining operations employed, are vital. Blades of many different sizes and geometries are utilised in gas turbines, and can perform different functions within the turbine. Some are stationary blades, while others are rotating, and it is usually the rotating blades which present the greater

machining challenges due to their tougher materials and more complex designs. The stationary blades, also called vanes, have simpler designs and are primarily used to direct the airflow. Hence they are usually regarded as being easier to machine than rotating blades, although the quality of their manufacture is still critical for turbine efficiency. For either class of blade, the raw material can be bar stock, forging, or precision castings.

86

Cutting tools for turbine blades

The commonest workpiece materials for turbine blades are stainless steel, heat resistant super alloys (HRSA) and titanium, but of these stainless steel, ISO class M materials, account for the majority of workpieces used.

For cutting data see page 134, stainless steel insert recommendations see page 82, feed recommendations see page 85.

Blade machining strategies

A variety of machine tools are suitable for blade machining, including 3-, 4-, or 5-axis machines, but the 3-axis machines are not recommended for the majority of modern blade machining operations. They can only effectively produce the simplest shapes and geometries, and although such machines are still widely available and profitable for maintenance operations, they are not recommended for new investments or most modern machining processes. 4-axis machining is more common, particularly in older machines which have been upgraded with NC-programming capability. But the modern trend is towards 5-axis machines, which allow maximum flexibility and versatility while still using standard cutting tools. The choice of overall machining strategy is important, and will greatly influence the subsequent machining parameters. These strategies fall into two classes: Machining with one (or more) individual machining centre(s) or: Machining with a dedicated machining cell Deciding which strategy is best in a particular situation depends on numerous factors, including: the philosophy in the blade shop the different types and sizes of blade the design of the blade the number of blades of each size the machining operations involved the calculated gross profit and the amortisation time the process flow the CAD/CAM systems the operating performance the staff. In general, for the efficient manufacture of large quantities of similar components, perhaps thousands of comparable blades per year, a machining cell is the best solution. Alternatively, for production of many different blade designs, a single machining centre which is able to accommodate a variety of fixtures and/or special tools, will provide more flexibility and higher productivity. 87

Machining the fixturing elements

The fixturing elements at the head and root of the blade structure are ultimately removed to leave the final shaped item, but during the machining process itself their accuracy and form have a crucial impact on the success of the overall operation.
Element Root Rectangle Root Trapezoid or dovetail Head Countersinking Head rectangle Standard Head Cylindrical Tool Standard endmill only roughing necessary Special roughing and finishing necessary Standard counterbore

Consequently the design of these elements and the tools used to machine them must be selected carefully, and will be discussed here in some detail.

Remarks Wide tolerance possible, fixturing in jaws (screw). Secured in two axis. Close tolerance. Secured in all three axis. Axial pressure (tailstock) for fixturing necessary. Special equipment. Large size. Transmission of torque possible. Fixturing in a pull-in collet. Secured in all three axis.

Standard endmill only roughing necessary Standard endmill roughing and finishing

Whichever processing methods are employed, the first step is to machine the reference surfaces by which the workpiece will be clamped during the subsequent machining. Several Coromant tools are suitable for this operation, and the CoroMill 390 long edge cutter is particularly recommended. CoroMill 200, 300 and

390 are also good alternatives. It may also be possible in this operation to also machine the clearances necessary for subsequent processes, if the machining strategy would benefit from this.

n n

Clearance Fixturing element

vf Down milling

88

Bending = 0,005 x L (mm)

It is possible that the blade workpiece may deform or bend during subsequent stages of the machining process, the result of machining away 80% of the original rolled or annealed raw material and the residual stresses thus created. This is particularly possible for large blades, 400600 mm long, which may bend by as much as 2 mm. Reworking the fixturing elements during the machining process, so that the position of the workpiece in the machining centres is modified to account for the deformation, can counteract this phenomenon.

The recommended procedure for such reworking on a 5-axis machine is:

G

opening the fixturing system on the blade head and moving it back, so that the blade is now secured only by the root. creating a new centre line for the workpiece, by counter-boring or turnmilling. fixing the blade by the new element.

An alternative is to modify the adaptor itself, so that the position of the workpiece is suitably adjusted when the modified adaptor is held in the machine, without any changes to the fixturing elements.

89

Machining the root of the blade

The machining process to shape the root of the blade will depend on several factors, notably the dimensions of the finished item. Small blades are often machined directly from round bar stock, which is then is milled to a square shape.

160 mm

Larger blades are often made from rectangular bar stock or forging. Normally these blades are first machined with cutting tools, and then broached or ground.

500 mm

Turbine blades can be divided into two classes, stator and rotor blades, and in normal practice these two designs have different mounting systems and different styles of root, to accommodate the different loadings they receive in use. Stator blades normally have one small slot in one side of the root, which is relatively easy to machine with solid carbide or indexable insert endmills.

Rotor blades may have different mounting systems, such as a Christmas tree profile, or deep slots machined in a trapezoidal cross-section. These variations in the profile and geometry of the blades root will require different machining strategies:

Machining a Christmas tree profile: For machining the Christmas tree profile on a blade, it can be helpful to change the fixturing arrangement, and make the tool axis parallel to the blade length. It may also then be possible to use a special adaptor on the Christmas tree profile to hold the blade during subsequent roughing operations, and so avoid the need for machining (and later removing) separate fixturing elements onto the workpiece. A milling strategy using CoroMill 390 long 90 edge milling cutters, applying down milling for each side of the profile, will allow maximised metal removal rates and tool life.

1. Roughing with the long edge cutter in different ap-steps, using down milling Calculate a suitable ae/Dc ratio so as to bring more than one effective tooth into cut during the cutting cycle.

2. Roughing completed.

3. Machining the christmas tree profile, with special HSS tooling.

Roughing the christmas tree profile may also be performed by CoroMill 331 side and face milling cutters in different diameters, to achieve the stair-like shape on the component.

However, using a set of different diameter cutters mounted in this manner results in large differences in effective cutting speed between the largest and the smallest cutter.

An alternative is to employ solid tools, particularly if there are difficulties with accessibility or the complexity of the shapes being produced.

91

Machining a deep slot in the blade root by endmilling The type of workpiece material will have a large influence over the machining parameters when machining slots into the blade roots. In many cases it will be stainless steel, and thus problems of chip adhesion to the cutting tool will occur. However, carefully selected tooling and the correct machining methods will counteract these difficulties. The blades size and material, and the slots position and form, will determine the machining strategy. In most cases it will be better to leave the machining of the slots, along with their roughing and finishing, until after the other machining operations are complete. That way the machining of the blade profile itself can be carried out without any slots in the blade root which might conceivably affect the clamping and stability of the workpiece. In addition any bending or deformation in the workpiece that occurs during profiling, due to the release of internal stresses, can be compensated for when the item is remounted prior to the finishing operations, an approach which should also help to maximise the quality of the final blade. In general, machining deep slots in the blade root can be divided into: slot milling (L-style with endmill) plunge milling (with endmill) trochoidal milling (with endmill)

Slot milling L-style milling is a technique for cutting deep slots which can be beneficial to both power consumption and tool life. After an initial channel has been cut by the first pass, subsequent steps down towards the final slot depth are made with the tool cutting a sequence of L-shape shoulders around the cavity perimeter, rather than further fullscale cutting engagements. Machining with CoroMill 390 endmills, 92

with -11 or -17 size inserts mounted in differential pitch, will enable tool life and power consumption to be optimised, and allow the machining operation to be completed in a minimum number of steps. The larger depths of cut should be carried out in down milling. The widths of the slot should be 1,21,4 times larger than the diameter of the endmill, giving an overlap of 2040% in the down milling action. For the finishing operation a special tool is required to produce a trapezoidal profile in the slot, often HSS or brazed carbide.

Recommended cutting speed/feeds can be found in Coromant publications.

Plunge milling

Plunge milling is a very effective method to achieve a maximum chip volume per minute, low power consumption, and increased tool life at higher cutting speeds. This method is the first choice when machining stainless steels with an austenitic structure (e.g. CMC 5.21 and others). In the cutting action, the chip has no opportunity to glue onto the cutting edge, and both sides of the cutting edge can be employed. It is also the first choice when machining in weak fixturing conditions. Recommended tooling is in line with the recommendations for slot milling, i.e.:

R390 endmill, inserts size -11 or size -17 The width of the slot should be 1,2 to 1,4 times larger than the diameter of the endmill. For the finishing operation you need a special tool according to the trapezoidal profile in the slot, often HSS or brazed carbide. Recommended cutting speed/feeds can be found in Coromant publications.

93

Troichoidal milling:
Tool path Tool path

Conventional method.

Trochoidal method.

In trochoidal milling, an approach particularly suited to CoroMill Plura solid carbide endmills, the cutter removes repeated slices of material in a sequence of spiral paths, combining large axial cuts with small radial cutting depths. This is ideal for machining slots, as well as pockets and

grooves, and can also be employed for high speed machining (HSM) operations, as the curved path enables the maximum feed rate to be maintained during the entire machining process.

Machining the rotor power generation turbines

Although machining the detailed design features of the rotor sections of turbines is beyond the scope of this book, some general information and basic principles can be given. Very specialised equipment is required to machine the grooves in a rotor, the grooves into which the root of each individual blade will ultimately be fitted. These grooves may be straight or curved in geometry. For machining, the rotor is normally fixed on a heavy duty turning machine with an integrated milling unit. The form of the groove, straight or curved, will determine whether a 3-dimensional slot milling cutter or a 3-dimensional bell milling cutter is required. Both tools are highly specialised. The basic machining strategy will include: Machining the first slot with a slot milling cutter such as CoroMill 331. Opening the slot as wide as possible. Using the bell milling cutter or slot milling cutter to machine the profile, or using a special Christmas tree milling cutter, an endmill with indexable inserts.

94

Machining the blade body

Machining the blade rhombus is a critical step in blade manufacture, and a wide variety of potential machining solutions are available depending on the design of the blade and the types of cutting machinery available. A comprehensive description of all these different methods is beyond the scope of this book, but the basic principles can be outlined, emphasising the machining principles which underlie them: optimising the cutting tool engagement, reducing vibrations, using the tooling as effectively as possible, and maximising productivity.

Roughing the rhombus parallel to the blade axis, using one tool This is a very common machining approach, using two separate cutting steps to reach the full depth of cut. In most cases this method allows the cutting force to be reduced more effectively than by reducing the feed per tooth, as it allows the chip thickness to be modified towards the recommended target values.

Material CMC 5.2 Tool R200-L, Dc 63 mm, zn 6 Insert RCKT 1204M0-MM 2040 vc 220 m/min, fz 0,21 mm, ap 24 mm, ae 3063 mm

95

To achieve the full benefits of this approach, the milling strategy must use down milling, and a 45 angle of cutting entry into the workpiece. The tool path must not change through 90 angles. Instead, change the feed direction incrementally through small changes of radii. Ensure a tool engagement of 6080%, if necessary by changing the tool diameter or cutting path. Employ a different depth of cut in each of the two passes, to minimise notch wear on the cutting insert. Maximise the larger depth of cut as much as possible.

Vibrations and heavy axial pressure on the inserts will occur if the feed forces cause any movement or deflection of the workpiece. If this occurs the feed direction should be modified so the forces act in directions where the blade fixturing arrangement supports the workpiece most effectively.

96

Vibrations can also be reduced by adopting cutting paths which machine the metal in small triangular steps, in both the longitudinal and lateral directions. This approach requires modifications to the cutting speed and feed, along with no more than 60% of the usual maximum depth of cut, and the modified cutting forces will also produce changes in the wear patterns seen on the cutting inserts.

Roughing the rhombus parallel to the blade axis, using two tools of different diameter The use of two different tools to machine the rhombus is an effective strategy in many situations. A first cut, producing a slot perpendicular to the blade axis, can be made with an endmill such as CoroMill 390 (using L-milling or plunge milling) or a slot milling cutter such as CoroMill 331. This slot then provides clearance for a subsequent cutting tool of different diameter, which should experience a less severe cutting environment and generate lower vibrations while it machines along the blades longitudinal axis. For this milling strategy to be effective, a round insert cutter is recommended for this second cutting stage, such as CoroMill 200 with RCKT 1204 inserts in a 4080 mm diameter cutting head .

97

Roughing the rhombus machining the roof slopes This penultimate operation in roughing the blades contour uses a roughing tool whose size will depend on the design of the blade, and on the radius between the roof slope and the blades root. A round insert milling cutter is normally recommended, such as CoroMill 200, or alternatively an endmill such as CoroMill 390.

Roughing the pressure side peripheral milling Roughing the pressure side of the blade the concave side is usually the last stage of the roughing process, and also one of the most complex. Modern designs of turbine blades maximise their efficiency through complicated surface geometries, and machining these surfaces requires a careful machining strategy to account for both the profile of the blade, and changes in the effective stiffness of the 98 workpiece as the machining operation proceeds. Peripheral milling is an effective way to carry out this operation, with a depth of cut between 15 mm. Round inserts are recommended, such as CoroMill 200, as the round geometry ensures that the minimum residual metal remains after each cutting pass as long as the correct cutting parameters are used. The feed direction should

be away from the fixturing in the root, and a left hand tool such as CoroMill 200 may be required.

Square shoulder cutter, 90

Stock to be removed

Smooth transitions little stock Much material remaining after roughing

Roughing the pressure side waterline milling, parallel to the blade axis An alternative strategy to machine the pressure side is waterline milling, an approach originally derived from 3-axis milling in the die and mould industry, now adapted to 5-axis milling machines. In this technique, the cutting operation consists of a sequence of 2-dimensional layers, each completed before the tool moves down to the next. Transitions between the layers are carried out by helical ramping or circular interpolation, with the initial feed direction always away from the solid fixturing at the root of the blade. Recommended tool: round insert cutter, such as CoroMill 200.

Material CMC 5.2 (1.4418) Tool R200-L, Dc 63 mm, zn 6 Insert RCKT 1204M0-MM 2040 vc 216 m/min, fz 0,175 mm, ap 4,0 mm, ae 40 mm

99

Roughing the pressure side plunge milling Plunge milling is a very effective milling strategy, especially when producing long blades or when fixturing conditions are weak, and is also useful when machining austenitic stainless steel. On turbine blades, plunge milling can be used to machine deep roof surfaces, as well as the concave deep pressure sides.

ap

ae = step size

Typical cutting recommendations include: CoroMill 390 endmill with 11 or 17 size inserts, an insert radius r of 2 mm or less to reduce radial pressure during the cut, and a step size 6070% of Dc. The recommended radial depth of cut will depend on the insert: For -11 insert: 5,5 mm For -17 insert: 8,5 mm Other speed and feed recommendations can be found in Coromant publications. Machining example for plunge milling pressure side:
G G

Plunge milling the roof surface Plunge milling the pressure side
Material CMC 5.21, Tool CoroMill 390, 32 mm diameter cutting head, holding two inserts grade 2040 Cutting data: vc 210 m/min, fz 0,18 mm/tooth, ae 8,5 mm, step size 20 mm

100

Roughing blades using turnmilling techniques

n tool Torque 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

n blade = vf

Turnmilling centres are versatile machines in which the cutting head can either hold a single cutting edge which remains stationary (in which case the machining operation is fundamentally a turning process) or a multi-tool cutting head rotating in place (as in a milling process). In such machines, when in milling mode, the workpiece can still turn along its longest axis as it would in a turning operation, although now at slower revolutions enabling the rotating tools attitude to the workpiece to be changed as desired by moving the workpiece as well as the tool. Complex profiles can be machined in this way. Such techniques are among the most effective methods for roughing small and medium size blades up to 600 mm in length, but although the basic principles are simple, in practice this approach requires a very flexible CAD-CAM system, with specialised software and optimised NC systems. If correctly applied however, turnmilling has several attractive advantages over other strategies, in both machining centres and machining cells:

the highest values for chip volumes per minute regular engagement of the tool, leading to a smooth cut the minimum number of necessary tools a balanced spindle load machining the whole surface profile along a components length with one cut an alternating depth of cut, therefore reducing the notch wear a constant movement in all 5 axis, reducing any reciprocating movement in the fixturing system short tool overhangs

G G G

101

Correctly applied, this technique can be used for all roughing operations on a blade, including the head and root as well as the blade body. When turnmilling a blade structure, the workpiece slowly rotates along its long axis in front of the tool, while the cutting head moves in two dimensions, perpendicular to the cross-section of the blade profile, and along its length. In practice, the profile is thus machined in a single cutting engagement, and the tool moves slowly down the length of the spinning workpiece, in a single helical cut. Therefore the concave pressure side can also be machined in the same operation, without having to alter the rotation of the workpiece, and only one revolution per blade is required.

The normangle of the tool is not constant, and will alter as the workpiece rotation presents different aspects to the tool. The first engagement should be in a direction away from the blade root, to correspond with the blades inherent flexural strength, and downmilling should always be used. Recommended tools for turnmilling when machining blades with stiff cross sections are round insert milling cutters such as the CoroMill 200 cutter, with RCKT 1204 inserts. The step size should be app. 80% of the Dc.

n tool A-Axis

vf Roughing ae = 0,8 x Dc Prefinishing ae = 0,3 x Dc

Recommended tools for turnmilling when machining thin blades (e.g. compressor blades) are face milling cutters such as CoroMill 390, using inserts with a radius r of 0,24,0 mm. The axial pressure on such a tool is much lower than on a round insert milling cutter, which causes less vibration during machining.

Semi-finishing the blade

The semi finishing operation requires a 5-axis milling operation, and will directly influence the surface quality of the final finished blade. Therefore the aim should always be to achieve a very regular, uniform level of residual material if necessary, through two separate semi finishing operations. Normally this operation is done by turn102

milling. The recommended tool is an endmill with indexable inserts, such as the CoroMill 390, or a round insert milling cutter such as CoroMill 300. The choice of tool will depend on the profile of the blade and its size. A variety of tool paths can be employed. One common technique, especially when machining large cast blades, is to use a feed

direction along the blade length, but other possibilities are shown in the diagram. For example, the blade can be shaped by milling across the blade, either using several passes in one direction with a rapid return movement between passes, or in a single continuous helical cut around the blade.

Machining the transitional radius Before finishing a blade, the transitional radius between the root of the blade and the head must be machined. This is specialised stand-alone operation between the semifinishing and finishing stages. This job is also usually a 5-axis turnmilling operation. The recommended tool is a conical solid carbide endmill, employing a very small width of step between passes (0,20,5 mm) to reduce the stress concentration in the radii.
Finishing the blade

Finishing the blade is probably the most difficult 5-axis machining operation, but its success will greatly depend on the quality of the other machining steps carried out previously. The most suitable tool depends on the type and size of the blade, and also on the spindle speed and the feed available in the 103

machining centre. The capabilities of the machines employed can often be the limiting factors. In general, it is possible to use solid carbide endmills like CoroMill Plura 216.24, or endmills with indexable inserts, such as the CoroMill 390 with inserts R390 11T3 31EPM 1025). The tool diameters vary, e.g. between 1020 mm.

Material CMC 5.2 Tool R390-025A25 11-H Insert R390-11T324E-ML 1025 vc 320 m/min, fz 0,22 mm, ap 0,5 mm, ae 1,75 mm Tc 45 min/tool, Dry machining

The principal problems when finishing are vibrations, and the quality of the pre-finished surfaces. Using tools with a smaller radius, r, or using a different number of inserts in the cutting head can help combat vibrations, in line with the recommendations given in Coromant publications During the cutting process the tool follows a helical path around the blade, a path controlled by a specialised CAD-CAM system. To achieve the best surface quality and structure, the tool has to maintain a constant normangle at each point on the sur-

face, and always in a downmilling manner. In this way, and combined with an oil mist coolant, the resulting surface can be highly polished. With suitable optimised equipment it is possible to achieve a surface roughness of Ra < 0,4 m, although the final surface quality will strongly depend on the combination of normangle, feed and cutting engagement.

Spindle speed n = 12 000 rpm, cutter diameter = 6 mm z/ae Feed vf Cusp./h Time (min) ae 0,05 F1200 h0,0001 10 0,075 F1800 h0,0002 4,44 0,1 F2400 h0,0004 2,50 0,15 F3600 h0,0009 1,11 0,2 F4800 h0,002 0,62 0,25 F6000 h0,003 0,40 h = cusp. height Feed = rpm x z x z

R =radius of cutter h = ae2l(8 x R)

fz fz <ae fz = ae h

ae R

h=

R 2R2ae2
4

or

h~

ae2 8R

104

Adjustable guide blades turning or turnmilling

Some turbines contain adjustable guide blades, usually made from titanium (in aerospace) or stainless steel (in power generation), used to direct or control the air flow within a turbine. They may be fixed and stationary, or fitted onto rotating shanks by suitable grooves and fixturing elements. Normally these blades are between 300 mm and 1200 mm long, including the shank. When machining such a blade there are two main problems: the forged skin of the material, and the unbalanced nature of the workpiece. Three different machining methods are recommended: 1. Machining on a turning machine (roughing finishing) A very stiff and powerful machine is necessary, preferably with a self balancing chuck. After pre-machining and creation of the fixturing elements, a complete machining process is then possible, but due to the imbalance of the workpiece the cutting speed must be low. To improve chip-breaking, Coromant Capto with an integrated high pressure cooling system (Jetbreak) is recommended. With this equipment, cutting speed and tool life can be optimised, mainly due to the optimised chip breaking. 2. Complete machining on a turnmill centre (orthogonal-, longitudinal- and plunge turnmilling)
50

When using these turnmilling variants, chipbreaking problems can be avoided, and with suitable tools and programming a complete machining process is possible. For these specialised operations various different tools are required, such as CoroMill 390 endmills, CoroMill 331, CoroMill Ball Nose and CoroMill Plura. The most important tool is the face milling cutter which creates the finished surface on the shank to the correct tolerances of roughness and roundness. 3. Combined machining with a turnmill centre (roughing) and a turning machine (finishing) This combined method to machine these blades is probably the most profitable technique, using a turnmill centre for the roughing applications, as described above, followed by a separate turning stage. To achieve the highest surface quality and accuracy, a stable turning machine with a self balancing chuck is recommended. When using a Coromant Capto system with integrated Jetbreak cooling and a Wiper insert, both the feed and speed can be maximised, and the machining time reduced dramatically.

Dimensions in mm

140 700

105

Machining examples for adjustable guide blades

G

Roughing the shank: CoroMill 390, insert R390-170450E-MM 2030

To achieve the highest productivity, the cutting tool diameter should roughly equal the shank diameter.

Roughing the cone: CoroMill 390, insert R390-170450E-MM 2030.

Machining the sealing lip: solid carbide endmill CoroMill Plura 216.22, with zn = 3.

For the highest productivity, the sealing lip can be machined in one cut.

Finishing the shank: CoroMill 390, inserts R390-11T308E-PL 1025.

106

Other blade machining operations

Short blades Certain blade designs consist solely of a short blade body without head or root elements, which can be machined using a helimilling method. In this approach the tool axis and the blade axis are parallel, and the tool rotates around the blade following a helix. This method is very effective for small blades with lengths <150 mm, and as long as the set up is sufficiently rigid, it is possible to machine the blade with just one roughing cut and one finishing cut. Recommended tools for roughing: CoroMill 200 or CoroMill 300 Recommended tools for finishing: CoroMill 300

Machining with an automatic bar fed machine An automatic bar machine is normally only capable of 4 axis machining, but this can still be an effective and profitable way to machine small blades. The short overhangs between the blade and the tool will promote a rigid set up, so large depths of cut and feed per tooth can be employed, although subsequent grinding of the blade may be necessary. Cutting paths which follow small triangular steps in the longitudinal and lateral directions, similar to those described above for roughing of the blade rhombus, can be utilised. Recommended tools: CoroMill 200; CoroMill 390; CoroMill 245 for roughing CoroMill 390 in different diameters for semi-finishing and finishing Due to the low RPM on such machining equipment, solid carbide endmills are not recommended.

107

Peel milling (Multi-Spindle) Peel milling is one of the most traditional methods to machine turbine blades. It can be performed on multi spindle copy milling machines, with side and face milling cutters such as CoroMill 331, or with an endmill such as CoroMill 200. This is a very effective technique for repairing and renovating old blades, and the multi-spindle machines can allow up to six blades to be machined at one time.

After finishing
After the finishing operation is completed there will inevitably be residual stresses remaining in the blade surface, induced by the machining operations themselves. Typically these stresses could reach 200 to 400 MPa, down to a depth of 0,4 mm, and must be counteracted in order for the blade to maintain its structural integrity and rigidity. The common techniques for addressing residual stresses include grinding, press polishing and vibratory grinding, of which grinding, vibratory grinding and blasting are the methods most often employed. Press polishing requires specialised equipment and knowledge, as does the use of ultra sonic methods to monitor and observe these residual stresses.

108

Trouble shooting and general advice

If excessive vibrations, poor tool life, or bad surface finish should occur, the first step in trouble shooting should always be to check that the correct recommended tools and cutting parameters are being employed. Check also the rigidity of the tool set-up, together with the power consumption and torque of the spindle at the particular RPM being used. If problems still remain, check the engagement of the tools. Some CAD/CAM systems have their own interpretation of the basic programming instructions, which may need to be adjusted. Check that the ae and Dc values are in the recommended ranges. Using a smaller tool diameter at the beginning of the cut may be of benefit. Check the axial depth of cut. Some fixturing systems are not rigid enough to handle a feed direction perpendicular to the long axis of the blade. In that case reduce the axial depth of cut and increase the cutting speed. Reduce the overhang of the tool. Use rigid set-ups, preferably Coromant Capto throughout. Check the feed direction. In some cases it can be helpful to reverse the feed direction, using the same tool. Be sure to employ down milling techniques. Control the cutting force acting on the tool. Large radii on the insert will increase the security of the overall process, but at the same time they will increase the axial pressures created. Change the radii on the insert for a smoother cutting action.

Special machining parameters for HRSA and Ti

Usually these blades are cast or precision forged, and the machining is concentrated on the root. For finishing the root, use coated solid carbide endmills, or endmills with indexable inserts. If a coated insert is impractical for health and safety reasons, use uncoated cutting tools in line with the published Coromant recommendations. Recommended tool geometries: sharp geometries, such as -ML. Recommended grade of indexable insert: 1025. Recommended grade for solid carbide: 1010. 109 Due to the tendency for work-hardening when machining HRSA, it is not desirable to machine again a surface which has already been through a previous cutting operation. Therefore, all the metal removal required by the design of the blade should preferably be carried out with one cut. Or, if this is not possible, use a minimum depth of cut of 1,0 mm.