Albert Einstein

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Contents
Articles
Introduction 1 2 2 31 31 37 65 65 71 92 92 96 96 105 105 121 121 124 124 126 126

Main article
Albert Einstein

Annus Mirabilis and special relativity

Annus Mirabilis papers History of special relativity

Light and general relativity

History of general relativity Relativity priority dispute

Unified field theory

Classical unified field theories

Collaboration and conflict

BohrEinstein debates

Politics
Manhattan Project

Honors
List of things named after Albert Einstein

Effect on popular culture

Albert Einstein in popular culture

Scientific publications
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 182 185

Article Licenses

License

187

Introduction

Introduction
Note. This book is based on the Wikipedia article "Albert Einstein". The supporting articles are those referenced as major expansions of selected sections.

Main article
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein, 1921 Born Died 14 March 1879Ulm, Kingdom of Wrttemberg, German Empire 18 April 1955 (aged76)Princeton, New Jersey, USA

Resting place Grounds of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey. Residence Ethnicity Citizenship Germany, Italy, Switzerland, USA Jewish

Wrttemberg/Germany(until 1896) Stateless(18961901) Switzerland(from 1901) Austria(191112) Germany(191433) [1] United States(from 1940) ETH Zurich University of Zurich General relativity Special relativity Photoelectric effect Brownian motion Mass-energy equivalence Einstein field equations Unified Field Theory BoseEinstein statistics Mileva Mari(19031919) Elsa Lwenthal, ne Einstein, (19191936)

Alma mater Knownfor

Spouse

Albert Einstein

3
Awards

Nobel Prize in Physics (1921) Copley Medal(1925) Max Planck Medal(1929) Time Person of the Century Signature

AlbertEinstein (pronounced /lbrt anstan/; German:[albt antan] ( listen); 14March 1879 18April 1955) was a theoretical physicist, philosopher and author who is widely regarded as one of the most influential and best known scientists and intellectuals of all time. A German-Swiss Nobel laureate, he is often regarded as the father of modern physics.[2] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".[3] Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole.[4] On the eve of World War II in 1939, he personally alerted President Franklin D. Roosevelt that Germany might be developing an atomic weapon, and recommended that the U.S. begin uranium procurement and nuclear research. As a result, Roosevelt advocated such research, leading to the creation of the top secret Manhattan Project, and the U.S. becoming the first and only country to possess nuclear weapons during the war. Einstein published more than 300 scientific along with over 150 non-scientific works, and received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities;[4] he also wrote about various philosophical and political subjects such as socialism, international relations and the existence of God.[5] His great intelligence and originality has made the word "Einstein" synonymous with genius.[6]

Albert Einstein

Biography
Early life and education
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Wrttemberg in the German Empire on 14March 1879.[7] His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (ne Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.[7]

Einstein at the age of 4.

The Einsteins were non-observant Jews. Their son attended a Catholic elementary school from the age of five until ten.[8] Although Einstein had early speech difficulties, he was a top student in elementary school.[9] [10] His father once showed him a pocket compass; Einstein realized that there must be something causing the needle to move, despite the apparent "empty space".[11] As he grew, Einstein built models and mechanical devices for fun and began to show a talent for mathematics.[7] In 1889, Max Talmud (later changed to Max Talmey) introduced the ten-year old Einstein to key texts in science, mathematics and philosophy, including Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's Elements (which Einstein called the "holy little geometry book").[12] Talmud was a poor Jewish medical student from Poland. The Jewish community arranged for Talmud to take meals with the Einsteins each week on Thursdays for six years. During this time Talmud wholeheartedly guided Einstein through many secular educational interests.[13] [14]

Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14).

In 1894, his father's company failed: direct current (DC) lost the War of Currents to alternating current (AC). In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, a few months later, to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote learning. In the spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.[7] During this time, Einstein wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields".[15] Einstein applied directly to the Eidgenssische Polytechnische Schule (ETH) in Zrich, Switzerland. Lacking the requisite Matura certificate, he took an entrance examination, which he failed, although he got exceptional marks in mathematics and physics.[16] The Einsteins sent Albert to Aarau, in northern Switzerland to finish secondary school.[7] While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with the family's daughter, Marie. (His sister Maja later married the Wintelers' son Paul.)[17] In Aarau, Einstein studied Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. At age 17, he graduated, and, with his father's approval, renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of

Albert Einstein Wrttemberg to avoid military service, and in 1896 he enrolled in the four year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Polytechnic in Zurich. Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post. Einstein's future wife, Mileva Mari, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that same year, the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Mari's friendship developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900 Einstein was awarded the Zurich Polytechnic teaching diploma, but Mari failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics component, theory of functions.[18] There have been claims that Mari collaborated with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers,[19] [20] but historians of physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions.[21] [22] [23] [24]

Marriages and children

In early 1902, Einstein and Mileva Mari had a daughter they named Lieserl in their correspondence, who was born in Novi Sad where Mari's parents lived.[25] Her full name is not known, and her fate is uncertain after 1903.[26] Einstein and Mari married in January 1903. In May 1904, the couple's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zurich in July 1910. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin, while his wife remained in Zurich with their sons. Mari and Einstein divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years. Einstein married Elsa Lwenthal (ne Einstein) on 2 June 1919, after having had a relationship with her since 1912. She was his first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated permanently to the United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems and died in December 1936.[27]

Patent office
After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post, but a former classmate's father helped him secure a job in Bern, at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent office, as an assistant examiner.[28] He evaluated patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".[29]
Left to right: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine and Einstein, who founded the Olympia Academy

Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.[30] With a few friends he met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group, self-mockingly named "The Olympia Academy", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included the works of Henri Poincar, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.

Einstein's home in Bern

Albert Einstein

Academic career
In 1901, Einstein had a paper on the capillary forces of a straw published in the prestigious Annalen der Physik.[31] On 30 April 1905, he completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions".[32] That same year, which has been called Einstein's annus mirabilis or "miracle year", he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of matter and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world. By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist, and he was appointed lecturer at the University of Berne. The following year, he quit the patent office and the lectureship to take the position of physics docent[33] at the University of Zurich. He became a full professor at Karl-Ferdinand University in Prague in 1911. In 1914, he returned to Germany after being appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (19141932)[34] and a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, although with a special clause in his contract that freed him from most teaching obligations. He became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In 1916, Einstein was appointed president of the German Physical Society (19161918).[35] [36] In 1911, he had calculated that, based on his new theory of general relativity, light from another star would be bent by the Sun's gravity. That prediction was claimed confirmed by observations made by a British expedition led by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919. International media reports of this made Einstein world famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science New Theory of the Universe Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".[37] (Much later, questions were raised whether the measurements were accurate enough to support Einstein's theory.) In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Because relativity was still considered somewhat controversial, it was officially bestowed for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.

Travels abroad
Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921. When asked where he got his scientific ideas, Einstein explained that he believed scientific work best proceeds from an examination of physical reality and a search for underlying axioms, with consistent explanations that apply in all instances and avoid contradicting each other. He also recommended theories with visualizable results.(Einstein 1954)[38] In 1922, he traveled throughout Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour. His travels included Singapore, Ceylon, and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. His first lecture in Tokyo lasted four hours, after which he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace where thousands came to watch. Einstein later gave his impressions of the Japanese in a letter to his sons:[39] :307 Of all the people I have met, I like the Japanese most, as they are modest, intelligent, considerate, and have a feel for art.[39] :308 On his return voyage, he also visited Palestine for twelve days in what would become his only visit to that region. "He was greeted with great British pomp, as if he were a head of state rather than a theoretical physicist", writes Isaacson. This included a cannon salute upon his arrival at the residence of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception given to him, the building was "stormed by throngs who wanted to hear him". In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed his happiness over the event: I consider this the greatest day of my life. Before, I have always found something to regret in the Jewish soul, and that is the forgetfulness of its own people. Today, I have been made happy by the sight of the Jewish people learning to recognize themselves and to make themselves recognized as a force in the world.[40] :308

Albert Einstein

Emigration from Germany

In 1933, Einstein was compelled to immigrate to the United States due to the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.[41] While visiting American universities in April, 1933, he learned that the new German government had passed a law barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. A month later, the Nazi book burnings occurred, with Einstein's works being among those burnt, and Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaimed, "Jewish intellectualism is dead."[40] Einstein also learned that his name was on a list of assassination targets, with a "$5,000 bounty on his head". One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged".[40] [42] Among other German scientists forced to flee were fourteen Nobel Germany in 1933 laureates and twenty-six of the sixty professors of theoretical physics in the country. Among the other scientists who left Germany, or the other countries it came to dominate, were Edward Teller, Niels Bohr, Enrico Fermi, Otto Stern, Victor Weisskopf, Hans Bethe, and Lise Meitner, many of whom made certain that the Allies would develop nuclear weapons first, before the Nazis.[40] With so many other Jewish scientists now forced by circumstances to live in America, often working side by side, Einstein wrote to a friend, "For me the most beautiful thing is to be in contact with a few fine Jewsa few millennia of a civilized past do mean something after all." In another letter he writes, "In my whole life I have never felt so Jewish as now."[40] He took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey, [43] an affiliation that lasted until his death in 1955. There, he tried unsuccessfully to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics. He and Kurt Gdel, another Institute member, became close friends. They would take long walks together discussing their work. His last assistant was Bruria Kaufman, who later became a renowned physicist. World War II and the Manhattan Project In the summer of 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II, Einstein was persuaded to write a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and warn him that Nazi Germany might be developing an atomic bomb. The letter, written with the help of Hungarian emigre physicist Leo Szilard, gave the letter more prestige , with Einstein also recommending that the U.S. begin uranium enrichment and nuclear research. According to F.G. Gosling of the U.S. Department of Energy, Einstein, Szilard, and other refugees including Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon."[44] British columnist Ambrose Evans-Pritchard notes, however, that Washington at first "brushed off with disbelief" the fears they expressed. He then describes how quickly Roosevelt changed his mind: "Albert Einstein interceded through the Belgian queen mother, eventually getting a personal envoy into the Oval Office. Roosevelt initially fobbed him off. He listened more closely at a second meeting over breakfast the next day, then made up his mind within minutes. 'This needs action,' he told his military aide. It was the birth of the Manhattan Project."[45] Gosling adds that "the President was a man of considerable action once he had chosen a direction," and believed that the U.S. "could not take the risk of allowing Hitler" to possess nuclear bombs.[44] Other weapons historians agree that the letter was "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II". As a result of Einstein's letter, and his meetings with Roosevelt, the
Being protected in England after escaping Nazi

Albert Einstein U.S. entered the "race" to develop the bomb first, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources". It became the only country to develop an atomic bomb during World War II as a result of its Manhattan Project.[46] Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, in 1954, the last year of his life: "I made one great mistake in my life when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification the danger that the Germans would make them..."[47] U.S. citizenship Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at Princeton, he expressed his appreciation of the "meritocracy" in American culture when compared to Europe. According to Isaacson, he recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased", without social barriers, and as result, the individual was "encouraged" to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education. Einstein writes: What makes the new arrival devoted to this country is the democratic trait among the people. No one humbles himself before another person or class. . . American youth has the good fortune not to have its outlook troubled by outworn traditions.[40]
:432 Taking oath of allegiance for U.S. citizenship, (1940)

As a member of the NAACP at Princeton who campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans, Einstein corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois, and in 1946 Einstein called racism America's "worst disease".[48] He later stated, "Race prejudice has unfortunately become an American tradition which is uncritically handed down from one generation to the next. The only remedies are enlightenment and education".[49] After the death of Israel's first president, Chaim Weizmann, in November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of President of Israel, a mostly ceremonial post.[50] The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons".[39] :522 However, Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply moved", and "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it:

Einstein with David Ben Gurion, 1951

All my life I have dealt with objective matters, hence I lack both the natural aptitude and the experience to deal properly with people and to exercise official function. I am the more more distressed over these circumstances because my relationship with the Jewish people became my strongest human tie once I achieved complete clarity about our precarious position among the nations of the world.[39] :522 [50] [51]

Albert Einstein

Death
On April 17, 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Dr. Rudolph Nissen in 1948.[52] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.[53] Einstein refused surgery, saying: "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[54] He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered around the grounds of the Institute for Advanced Study.[55] [56] During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz Harvey, removed Einstein's brain for preservation, without the permission of his family, in hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[57]

Scientific career
Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. Most were about physics, but a few expressed leftist political opinions about pacifism, socialism, and zionism.[5] [7] In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the BoseEinstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.[58]

Physics in 1900
Einstein's early papers all come from attempts to demonstrate that atoms exist and have a finite nonzero size. At the time of his first paper in 1902, it was not yet completely accepted by physicists that atoms were real, even though chemists had good evidence ever since Antoine Lavoisier's work a century earlier. The reason physicists were skeptical was because no 19th century theory could fully explain the properties of matter from the properties of atoms.

Albert Einstein in 1904.

Ludwig Boltzmann was a leading 19th century atomist physicist, who had struggled for years to gain acceptance for atoms. Boltzmann had given an interpretation of the laws of thermodynamics, suggesting that the law of entropy increase is statistical. In Boltzmann's way of thinking, the entropy is the logarithm of the number of ways a system could be configured inside. The reason the entropy goes up is only because it is more likely for a system to go from a special state with only a few possible internal configurations to a more generic state with many. While Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of entropy is universally accepted today, and Einstein believed it, at the turn of the 20th century it was a minority position. The statistical idea was most successful in explaining the properties of gases. James Clerk Maxwell, another leading atomist, had found the distribution of velocities of atoms in a gas, and derived the surprising result that the viscosity of a gas should be independent of density. Intuitively, the friction in a gas would seem to go to zero as the density goes to zero, but this is not so, because the mean free path of atoms becomes large at low densities. A subsequent

Albert Einstein experiment by Maxwell and his wife confirmed this surprising prediction. Other experiments on gases and vacuum, using a rotating slitted drum, showed that atoms in a gas had velocities distributed according to Maxwell's distribution law. In addition to these successes, there were also inconsistencies. Maxwell noted that at cold temperatures, atomic theory predicted specific heats that are too large. In classical statistical mechanics, every spring-like motion has thermal energy kBT on average at temperature T, so that the specific heat of every spring is Boltzmann's constant kB. A monatomic solid with N atoms can be thought of as N little balls representing N atoms attached to each other in a box grid with 3N springs, so the specific heat of every solid is 3NkB, a result which became known as the DulongPetit law. This law is true at room temperature, but not for colder temperatures. At temperatures near zero, the specific heat goes to zero. Similarly, a gas made up of a molecule with two atoms can be thought of as two balls on a spring. This spring has energy kBT at high temperatures, and should contribute an extra kB to the specific heat. It does at temperatures of about 1000 degrees, but at lower temperature, this contribution disappears. At zero temperature, all other contributions to the specific heat from rotations and vibrations also disappear. This behavior was inconsistent with classical physics. The most glaring inconsistency was in the theory of light waves. Continuous waves in a box can be thought of as infinitely many spring-like motions, one for each possible standing wave. Each standing wave has a specific heat of kB, so the total specific heat of a continuous wave like light should be infinite in classical mechanics. This is obviously wrong, because it would mean that all energy in the universe would be instantly sucked up into light waves, and everything would slow down and stop. These inconsistencies led some people to say that atoms were not physical, but mathematical. Notable among the skeptics was Ernst Mach, whose positivist philosophy led him to demand that if atoms are real, it should be possible to see them directly.[59] Mach believed that atoms were a useful fiction, that in reality they could be assumed to be infinitesimally small, that Avogadro's number was infinite, or so large that it might as well be infinite, and kB was infinitesimally small. Certain experiments could then be explained by atomic theory, but other experiments could not, and this is the way it will always be. Einstein opposed this position. Throughout his career, he was a realist. He believed that a single consistent theory should explain all observations, and that this theory would be a description of what was really going on, underneath it all. So he set out to show that the atomic point of view was correct. This led him first to thermodynamics, then to statistical physics, and to the theory of specific heats of solids. In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, the leading German language physics journal Annalen der Physik published four of Einstein's papers. The four papers eventually were recognized as revolutionary, and 1905 became known as Einstein's "Miracle Year", and the papers as the Annus Mirabilis Papers.

10

Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics

Einstein's earliest papers were concerned with thermodynamics. He wrote a paper establishing a thermodynamic identity in 1902, and a few other papers which attempted to interpret phenomena from a statistical atomic point of view. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. As in Maxwell's work, the finite nonzero size of atoms leads to effects which can be observed. This research, and the thermodynamic identity, were well within the mainstream of physics in his time. They would eventually form the content of his PhD thesis.[60] His first major result in this field was the theory of thermodynamic fluctuations. When in equilibrium, a system has a maximum entropy and, according to the statistical interpretation, it can fluctuate a little bit. Einstein pointed out that the statistical fluctuations of a macroscopic object, like a mirror suspended on spring, would be completely

Albert Einstein determined by the second derivative of the entropy with respect to the position of the mirror. Searching for ways to test this relation, his great breakthrough came in 1905. The theory of fluctuations, he realized, would have a visible effect for an object which could move around freely. Such an object would have a velocity which is random, and would move around randomly, just like an individual atom. The average kinetic energy of the object would be , and the time decay of the fluctuations would be entirely determined by the law of friction. The law of friction for a small ball in a viscous fluid like water was discovered by George Stokes. He showed that for small velocities, the friction force would be proportional to the velocity, and to the radius of the particle (see Stokes' law). This relation could be used to calculate how far a small ball in water would travel due to its random thermal motion, and Einstein noted that such a ball, of size about a micrometre, would travel about a few micrometres per second. This motion could be easily detected with a microscope and indeed, as Brownian motion, had actually been observed by the botanist Robert Brown. Einstein was able to identify this motion with that predicted by his theory. Since the fluctuations which give rise to Brownian motion are just the same as the fluctuations of the velocities of atoms, measuring the precise amount of Brownian motion using Einstein's theory would show that Boltzmann's constant is non-zero and would measure Avogadro's number. These experiments were carried out a few years later by Jean Baptiste Perrin, and gave a rough estimate of Avogadro's number consistent with the more accurate estimates due to Max Planck's theory of blackbody light and Robert Millikan's measurement of the charge of the electron.[61] Unlike the other methods, Einstein's required very few theoretical assumptions or new physics, since it was directly measuring atomic motion on visible grains. Einstein's theory of Brownian motion was the first paper in the field of statistical physics. It established that thermodynamic fluctuations were related to dissipation. This was shown by Einstein to be true for time-independent fluctuations, but in the Brownian motion paper he showed that dynamical relaxation rates calculated from classical mechanics could be used as statistical relaxation rates to derive dynamical diffusion laws. These relations are known as Einstein relations. The theory of Brownian motion was the least revolutionary of Einstein's Annus mirabilis papers, but it is the most frequently cited, and had an important role in securing the acceptance of the atomic theory by physicists.

11

Thought experiments and a-priori physical principles

Einstein's thinking underwent a transformation in 1905. He had come to understand that quantum properties of light mean that Maxwell's equations were only an approximation. He knew that new laws would have to replace these, but he did not know how to go about finding those laws. He felt that guessing formal relations would not go anywhere. So he decided to focus on a-priori principles instead, which are statements about physical laws which can be understood to hold in a very broad sense even in domains where they have not yet been shown to apply. A well accepted example of an a-priori principle is rotational invariance. If a new force is discovered in physics, it is assumed to be rotationally invariant almost automatically, without thought. Einstein sought new principles of this sort, to guide the production of physical ideas. Once enough principles are found, then the new physics will be the simplest theory consistent with the principles and with previously known laws. The first general a-priori principle he found was the principle of relativity, that uniform motion is indistinguishable from rest. This was understood by Hermann Minkowski to be a generalization of rotational invariance from space to space-time. Other principles postulated by Einstein and later vindicated are the principle of equivalence and the principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum number. Another of Einstein's general principles, Mach's principle, is fiercely debated, and whether it holds in our world or not is still not definitively established. The use of a-priori principles is a distinctive unique signature of Einstein's early work, and has become a standard tool in modern theoretical physics.

Albert Einstein

12

Special relativity
His 1905 paper on the electrodynamics of moving bodies introduced his theory of special relativity, which showed that the observed independence of the speed of light on the observer's state of motion required fundamental changes to the notion of simultaneity. Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body slowing down and contracting (in the direction of motion) relative to the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time was superfluous.[62] In his paper on massenergy equivalence, which had previously been considered to be distinct concepts, Einstein deduced from his equations of special relativity what has been called the 20th century's best-known equation: E=mc2.[63] [64] This equation suggests that tiny amounts of mass could be converted into huge amounts of energy and presaged the development of nuclear power.[65] Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.[66] [67]

Photons
In a 1905 paper,[68] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering. Einstein's paper on the light particles was almost entirely motivated by thermodynamic considerations. He was not at all motivated by the detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, which did not confirm his theory until fifteen years later. Einstein considers the entropy of light at temperature T, and decomposes it into a low-frequency part and a high-frequency part. The high-frequency part, where the light is described by Wien's law, has an entropy which looks exactly the same as the entropy of a gas of classical particles. Since the entropy is the logarithm of the number of possible states, Einstein concludes that the number of states of short wavelength light waves in a box with volume V is equal to the number of states of a group of localizable particles in the same box. Since (unlike others) he was comfortable with the statistical interpretation, he confidently postulates that the light itself is made up of localized particles, as this is the only reasonable interpretation of the entropy. This leads him to conclude that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.[69]

Quantized atomic vibrations

Einstein continued his work on quantum mechanics in 1906, by explaining the specific heat anomaly in solids. This was the first application of quantum theory to a mechanical system. Since Planck's distribution for light oscillators had no problem with infinite specific heats, the same idea could be applied to solids to fix the specific heat problem there. Einstein showed in a simple model that the hypothesis that solid motion is quantized explains why the specific heat of a solid goes to zero at zero temperature. Einstein's model treats each atom as connected to a single spring. Instead of connecting all the atoms to each other, which leads to standing waves with all sorts of different frequencies, Einstein imagined that each atom was attached to a fixed point in space by a spring. This is not physically correct, but it still predicts that the specific heat is 3NkB, since the number of independent oscillations stays the same. Einstein then assumes that the motion in this model is quantized, according to the Planck law, so that each independent spring motion has energy which is an integer multiple of hf, where f is the frequency of oscillation. With this assumption, he applied Boltzmann's statistical method to calculate the average energy of the spring. The

Albert Einstein result was the same as the one that Planck had derived for light: for temperatures where kBT is much smaller than hf, the motion is frozen, and the specific heat goes to zero. So Einstein concluded that quantum mechanics would solve the main problem of classical physics, the specific heat anomaly. The particles of sound implied by this formulation are now called phonons. Because all of Einstein's springs have the same stiffness, they all freeze out at the same temperature, and this leads to a prediction that the specific heat should go to zero exponentially fast when the temperature is low. The solution to this problem is to solve for the independent normal modes individually, and to quantize those. Then each normal mode has a different frequency, and long wavelength vibration modes freeze out at colder temperatures than short wavelength ones. This was done by Peter Debye, and after this modification Einstein's quantization method reproduced quantitatively the behavior of the specific heats of solids at low temperatures. This work was the foundation of condensed matter physics.

13

Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables

Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements. Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics. The law that the action variable is quantized was the basic principle of the quantum theory as it was known between 1900 and 1925.

Wave-particle duality
Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a privatdozent at the University of Bern.[70] In "ber die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen ber das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave-particle duality in quantum mechanics.

Theory of critical opalescence

Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Raleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.[71]

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Zero-point energy
Einstein's physical intuition led him to note that Planck's oscillator energies had an incorrect zero point. He modified Planck's hypothesis by stating that the lowest energy state of an oscillator is equal to 12hf, to half the energy spacing between levels. This argument, which was made in 1913 in collaboration with Otto Stern, was based on the thermodynamics of a diatomic molecule which can split apart into two free atoms.

Principle of equivalence
In 1907, while still working at the patent office, Einstein had what he would call his "happiest thought". He realized that the principle of relativity could be extended to gravitational fields. He thought about the case of a uniformly accelerated box not in a gravitational field, and noted that it would be indistinguishable from a box sitting still in an unchanging gravitational field.[72] He used special relativity to see that the rate of clocks at the top of a box accelerating upward would be faster than the rate of clocks at the bottom. He concludes that the rates of clocks depend on their position in a gravitational field, and that the difference in rate is proportional to the gravitational potential to first approximation.

Einstein at the Solvay conference in 1911.

Although this approximation is crude, it allowed him to calculate the deflection of light by gravity, and show that it is nonzero. This gave him confidence that the scalar theory of gravity proposed by Gunnar Nordstrm was incorrect. But the actual value for the deflection that he calculated was too small by a factor of two, because the approximation he used doesn't work well for things moving at near the speed of light. When Einstein finished the full theory of general relativity, he would rectify this error and predict the correct amount of light deflection by the sun. From Prague, Einstein published a paper about the effects of gravity on light, specifically the gravitational redshift and the gravitational deflection of light. The paper challenged astronomers to detect the deflection during a solar eclipse.[73] German astronomer Erwin Finlay-Freundlich publicized Einstein's challenge to scientists around the world.[74] Einstein thought about the nature of the gravitational field in the years 19091912, studying its properties by means of simple thought experiments. A notable one is the rotating disk. Einstein imagined an observer making experiments on a rotating turntable. He noted that such an observer would find a different value for the mathematical constant pi than the one predicted by Euclidean geometry. The reason is that the radius of a circle would be measured with an uncontracted ruler, but, according to special relativity, the circumference would seem to be longer because the ruler would be contracted. Since Einstein believed that the laws of physics were local, described by local fields, he concluded from this that spacetime could be locally curved. This led him to study Riemannian geometry, and to formulate general relativity in this language.

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Hole argument and Entwurf theory

While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In June, 1913 the Entwurf ("draft") theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. Simultaneously less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, after more than two years of intensive work Einstein abandoned the theory in November, 1915 after realizing that the hole argument was mistaken.[75]

General relativity
In 1912, Einstein returned to Switzerland to accept a professorship at his alma mater, the ETH. Once back in Zurich, he immediately visited his old ETH classmate Marcel Grossmann, now a professor of mathematics, who introduced him to Riemannian geometry and, more generally, to differential geometry. On the recommendation of Italian mathematician Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began exploring the usefulness of general covariance (essentially the use of tensors) for his gravitational theory. For a while Einstein thought that there were problems with the approach, but he later returned to it and, by late 1915, had published his general theory of relativity in the form in which it is used today.[76] This theory explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of spacetime by matter, affecting the inertial motion of other matter. During World War I, the work of Central Powers scientists was available only to Central Powers academics, for national security reasons. Some of Einstein's work did reach the United Kingdom and the United States through the efforts of the Austrian Paul Ehrenfest and physicists in the Netherlands, especially 1902 Nobel Prize-winner Hendrik Lorentz and Willem de Sitter of Leiden University. After the war ended, Einstein maintained his relationship with Leiden University, accepting a contract as an Extraordinary Professor; for ten years, from 1920 to 1930, he travelled to Holland regularly to lecture.[77] In 1917, several astronomers accepted Einstein 's 1911 challenge from Prague. The Mount Wilson Observatory in California, U.S., published a solar spectroscopic analysis that showed no gravitational redshift.[78] In 1918, the Lick Observatory, also in California, announced that it too had disproved Einstein's prediction, although its findings were not published.[79] However, in May 1919, a team led by the British astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington claimed to have confirmed Einstein's prediction of gravitational deflection of starlight by the Sun while photographing a solar eclipse with dual expeditions in Sobral, northern Brazil, and Prncipe, a west African island.[74] Nobel laureate Max Born praised general relativity as the "greatest feat of human thinking about nature";[80] fellow laureate Paul Dirac was quoted saying it was "probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made".[81] The international media guaranteed Einstein's global renown. There have been claims that scrutiny of the specific photographs taken on the Eddington expedition showed the experimental uncertainty to be comparable to the same magnitude as the effect Eddington claimed to have demonstrated, and that a 1962 British expedition concluded that the method was inherently unreliable.[37] The deflection of light during a solar eclipse was confirmed by later, more accurate observations.[82] Some resented the newcomer's fame, notably among some German

Eddington's photograph of a solar eclipse, which confirmed Einstein's theory that light "bends".

Albert Einstein physicists, who later started the Deutsche Physik (German Physics) movement.[83] [84]

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Cosmology
In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole. He wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, but this type of universe is not consistent with relativity. To fix this, Einstein modified the general theory by introducing a new notion, the cosmological constant. With a positive cosmological constant, the universe could be an eternal static sphere[85] Einstein believed a spherical static universe is philosophically preferred, because it would obey Mach's principle. He had shown that general relativity incorporates Mach's principle to a certain extent in frame dragging by gravitomagnetic fields, but he knew that Mach's idea would not work if space goes on forever. In a closed universe, he believed that Mach's principle would hold. Mach's principle has generated much controversy over the years.

Modern quantum theory

In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.[86] This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the HamiltonJacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrdinger's work of 1926.
Einstein in his office at the University of Berlin.

BoseEinstein statistics
In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift fr Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the BoseEinstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.[87] It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NISTJILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[88] BoseEinstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[]

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Energy momentum pseudotensor

General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard. The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrdinger and others.

Unified field theory

Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation, which would allow the explanation of electromagnetism. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".[89] Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.

Wormholes
Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches. If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.

EinsteinCartan theory
In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.

Equations of motion
The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law the Einstein equations which describe how space curves, the geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself. This was established by Einstein, Infeld and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.

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Einstein's controversial beliefs in physics

In addition to his well-accepted results, some of Einstein's views are regarded as controversial: In the special relativity paper (in 1905), Einstein noted that, given a specific definition of the word "force" (a definition which he later agreed was not advantageous), and if we choose to maintain (by convention) the equation mass x acceleration = force, then one arrives at as the expression for the transverse mass of a fast moving particle. This differs from the accepted expression today, because, as noted in the footnotes to Einstein's paper added in the 1913 reprint, "it is more to the point to define force in such a way that the laws of energy and momentum assume the simplest form", as was done, for example, by Max Planck in 1906, who gave the now familiar expression for the transverse mass. As Miller points out, this is equivalent to the transverse mass predictions of both Einstein and Lorentz. Einstein had commented already in the 1905 paper that "With a different definition of force and acceleration, we should naturally obtain other expressions for the masses. This shows that in comparing different theories... we must proceed very cautiously." [90] Einstein published (in 1922) a qualitative theory of superconductivity based on the vague idea of electrons shared in orbits. This paper predated modern quantum mechanics, and today is regarded as being incorrect. The current theory of low temperature superconductivity was only worked out in 1957, thirty years after the establishing of modern quantum mechanics. However, even today, superconductivity is not well understood, and alternative theories continue to be put forward, especially to account for high-temperature superconductors. After introducing the concept of gravitational waves in 1917, Einstein subsequently entertained doubts about whether they could be physically realized. In 1937 he published a paper saying that the focusing properties of geodesics in general relativity would lead to an instability which causes plane gravitational waves to collapse in on themselves. While this is true to a certain extent in some limits, because gravitational instabilities can lead to a concentration of energy density into black holes, for plane waves of the type Einstein and Rosen considered in their paper, the instabilities are under control. Einstein retracted this position a short time later. Einstein denied several times that black holes could form. In 1939 he published a paper that argues that a star collapsing would spin faster and faster, spinning at the speed of light with infinite energy well before the point where it is about to collapse into a black hole. This paper received no citations, and the conclusions are well understood to be wrong. Einstein's argument itself is inconclusive, since he only shows that stable spinning objects have to spin faster and faster to stay stable before the point where they collapse. But it is well understood today (and was understood well by some even then) that collapse cannot happen through stationary states the way Einstein imagined. Nevertheless, the extent to which the models of black holes in classical general relativity correspond to physical reality remains unclear, and in particular the implications of the central singularity implicit in these models are still not understood. Efforts to conclusively prove the existence of event horizons have still not been successful. Closely related to his rejection of black holes, Einstein believed that the exclusion of singularities might restrict the class of solutions of the field equations so as to force solutions compatible with quantum mechanics, but no such theory has ever been found. In the early days of quantum mechanics, Einstein tried to show that the uncertainty principle was not valid, but by 1927 he had become convinced that it was valid. In the EPR paper, Einstein argued that quantum mechanics cannot be a complete realistic and local representation of phenomena, given specific definitions of "realism", "locality", and "completeness". The modern consensus is that Einstein's concept of realism is too restrictive. Einstein himself considered the introduction of the cosmological term in his 1917 paper founding cosmology as a "blunder".[91] The theory of general relativity predicted an expanding or contracting universe, but Einstein wanted a universe which is an unchanging three dimensional sphere, like the surface of a three dimensional ball in four dimensions. He wanted this for philosophical reasons, so as to incorporate Mach's principle in a reasonable way. He stabilized his solution by introducing a cosmological constant, and when the universe was shown to be expanding, he retracted the constant as a blunder. This is not really much of a blunder the cosmological constant

Albert Einstein is necessary within general relativity as it is currently understood, and it is widely believed to have a nonzero value today. Einstein did not immediately appreciate the value of Minkowski's four-dimensional formulation of special relativity, although within a few years he had adopted it as the basis for his theory of gravitation. Finding it too formal, Einstein believed that Heisenberg's matrix mechanics was incorrect. He changed his mind when Schrdinger and others demonstrated that the formulation in terms of the Schrdinger equation, based on Einstein's wave-particle duality was equivalent to Heisenberg's matrices.

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Collaboration with other scientists

In addition to long time collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. Einstein-de Haas experiment Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization. Schrdinger gas model Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrdinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a BoseEinstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it. This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrdinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrdinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.[92] Einstein refrigerator In 1926, Einstein and his former student Le Szilrd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This Absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.[93] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1781541 [94] was awarded to Albert Einstein and Le Szilrd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, as the most promising of their patents were quickly bought up by the Swedish company Electrolux to protect its refrigeration technology from competition.[95]

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Bohr versus Einstein

In the 1920s, quantum mechanics developed into a more complete theory. Einstein was unhappy with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory developed by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg, both in its outcomes and its instrumentalist methodology, Einstein being a scientific realist. In this interpretation, quantum phenomena are inherently probabilistic, with definite states resulting only upon interaction with classical systems. A public debate between Einstein and Bohr followed, lasting on and off for many years (including during the Solvay Conferences). Einstein formulated thought experiments against the Copenhagen interpretation, which were all rebutted by Bohr. In a 1926 letter to Max Born, Einstein wrote: "I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] does not throw dice." [96] Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be quantum theory's Einstein and Niels Bohr intrinsically incomplete description of nature, and in 1935 he further explored the issue in collaboration with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, noting that the theory seems to require non-local interactions; this is known as the EPR paradox.[97] The EPR experiment has since been performed, with results confirming quantum theory's predictions.[98] Repercussions of the EinsteinBohr debate have found their way into philosophical discourse.

EinsteinPodolskyRosen paradox
In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without disturbing it in any way. He then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude that the other particle had these properties already determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the answer to a position or momentum measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values of position or momentum. This principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it has since been shown to be incompatible with experiments.

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Political views
Einstein flouted the ascendant Nazi movement and later tried to be a voice of moderation in the tumultuous formation of the State of Israel.[99] Fred Jerome in his Einstein on Israel and Zionism: His Provocative Ideas About the Middle East argues that Einstein was a Cultural Zionist who supported the idea of a Jewish homeland but opposed the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine with borders, an army, and a measure of temporal power. Instead, he preferred a bi-national state with continuously functioning, mixed, administrative, economic, and social organizations..[100] [101] However Ami Isseroff in his article Was Einstein a Zionist, argues that Einstein supported the recognition of the State of Israel and declared it "the fulfillment of our dream" when President Harry Truman recognize Israel in May 1948 and in presidential election 1948 Einstein supported Henry A. Wallaces Progressive Party which advocate pro-Soviet and pro-Israel foreign policy.[102] [103]

Albert Einstein, seen here with his wife Elsa Einstein and Zionist leaders, including future President of Israel Chaim Weizmann, his wife Dr. Vera Weizmann, Menahem Ussishkin, and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921.

Throughout the November Revolution in Germany Einstein signed an appeal for the foundation of a nationwide liberal and democratic party,[104] [105] which was published in the Berliner Tageblatt on 16 November 1918,[106] and became a member of the German Democratic Party.[107] In his article Why Socialism?,[108] published in 1949 in the Monthly Review, Einstein described a chaotic capitalist society, a source of evil to be overcome, as the "predatory phase of human development". He came to the following conclusion: I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils [capitalism], namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.[108] He braved anti-communist politics and resistance to the civil rights movement in the United States. On the floor of the US Congress, Einstein was accused by John E. Rankin of Mississippi of being a "foreign-born agitator" who sought "to further the spread of Communism throughout the world".[109] He also participated in the 1927 congress of the League against Imperialism in Brussels.[110] After World War II, as enmity between the former allies became a serious issue, Einstein wrote, "I do not know how the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth rocks!"[111] (Einstein 1949) With Albert Schweitzer and Bertrand Russell, Einstein lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future bombs. Days before his death, Einstein signed the RussellEinstein Manifesto, which led to the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs.[112] Einstein was a member of several civil rights groups, including the Princeton chapter of the NAACP. When the aged W. E. B. Du Bois was accused of being a Communist spy, Einstein volunteered as a character witness, and the case was dismissed shortly afterward. Einstein's friendship with activist Paul Robeson, with whom he served as co-chair of the American Crusade to End Lynching, lasted twenty years.[113] Einstein said "Politics is for the moment, equation for the eternity."[114] He declined the presidency of Israel in 1952.[115]

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Religious views
The question of scientific determinism gave rise to questions about Einstein's position on theological determinism, and whether or not he believed in God, or in a god. He once said: You may call me an agnostic... I do not share the crusading spirit of the professional atheist whose fervor is mostly due to a painful act of liberation from the fetters of religious indoctrination received in youth. I prefer an attitude of humility corresponding to the weakness of our intellectual understanding of nature and of our own being.[116]

Non-scientific legacy
While travelling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986[117] ). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[118] Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of his image to The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.[119]
[120]

In popular culture
In the period before World War II, Einstein was so well-known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."[121] Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.[122] He is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".[123]

Awards and honors

In 1922, Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics,[124] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time". (Einstein 1923) It was long reported that Einstein gave the Nobel prize money to his first wife, Mileva Mari, in compliance with their 1919 divorce settlement. However, personal correspondence made public in 2006[125] shows that he invested much of it in the United States, and saw much of it wiped out in the Great Depression. In 1929, Max Planck presented Einstein with the Max Planck medal of the German Physical Society in Berlin, for extraordinary achievements in theoretical physics.[126] In 1936, Einstein was awarded the Franklin Institute's Franklin Medal for his extensive work on relativity and the photo-electric effect.[126] The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics named 2005 the "World Year of Physics" in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the publication of the annus mirabilis papers.[127]

Albert Einstein The Albert Einstein Science Park is located on the hill Telegrafenberg in Potsdam, Germany. The best known building in the park is the Einstein Tower which has a bronze bust of Einstein at the entrance. The Tower is an astrophysical observatory that was built to perform checks of Einstein's theory of General Relativity.[128] The Albert Einstein Memorial in central Washington, D.C. is a monumental bronze statue depicting Einstein seated with manuscript papers in hand. The statue, commissioned in 1979, is located in a grove of trees at the southwest corner of the grounds of the National Academy of Sciences on Constitution Avenue. The chemical element 99, einsteinium, was named for him in August 1955, four months after Einstein's death.[129] [130] 2001 Einstein is an inner main belt asteroid discovered on 5 March 1973.[131] In 1999 Time magazine named him the Person of the Century,[123] [132] ahead of Mahatma Gandhi and Franklin Roosevelt, among others. In the words of a biographer, "to the scientifically literate and the public at large, Einstein is synonymous with genius".[133] Also in 1999, an opinion poll of 100 leading physicists ranked Einstein the "greatest physicist ever".[134] A Gallup poll recorded him as the fourth most admired person of the 20th century in the U.S.[135] In 1990, his name was added to the Walhalla temple for "laudable and distinguished Germans",[136] which is located east of Regensburg, in Bavaria, Germany.[137] The United States Postal Service honored Einstein with a Prominent Americans series (19651978) 8 postage stamp.

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Awards named after him

The Albert Einstein Award (sometimes called the Albert Einstein Medal because it is accompanied with a gold medal) is an award in theoretical physics, established to recognize high achievement in the natural sciences. It was endowed by the Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial Fund in honor of Albert Einstein's 70th birthday. It was first awarded in 1951 and included a prize money of $15,000,[138] [139] which was later reduced to $5,000.[140] [141] The winner is selected by a committee (the first of which consisted of Einstein, Oppenheimer, von Neumann and Weyl[142] ) of the Institute for Advanced Study, which administers the award.[139] The Albert Einstein Medal is an award presented by the Albert Einstein Society in Bern, Switzerland. First given in 1979, the award is presented to people who have "rendered outstanding services" in connection with Einstein.[143] The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is given yearly by the Chicago, Illinois-based Albert Einstein Peace Prize Foundation. Winners of the prize receive $50,000.[144]

See also
German inventors and discoverers Heinrich Burkhardt Hermann Einstein Historical Museum of Bern (Einstein museum) History of gravitational theory Introduction to special relativity List of coupled cousins Relativity priority dispute Sticky bead argument Summation convention The Einstein Theory of Relativity (educational film about the theory of relativity)

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Publications
The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein. Einstein, Albert (1901), "Folgerungen aus den Capillarittserscheinungen (Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity)", Annalen der Physik 4: 513, doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306 Einstein, Albert (1905a), "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light" [145] , Annalen der Physik 17: 132148 . This annus mirabilis paper on the photoelectric effect was received by Annalen der Physik 18th March. Einstein, Albert (1905b), A new determination of molecular dimensions. This PhD thesis was completed 30th April and submitted 20th July. Einstein, Albert (1905c), "On the Motion Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid", Annalen der Physik 17: 549560. This annus mirabilis paper on Brownian motion was received 11th May. Einstein, Albert (1905d), "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", Annalen der Physik 17: 891921. This annus mirabilis paper on special relativity was received 30th June. Einstein, Albert (1905e), "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", Annalen der Physik 18: 639641. This annus mirabilis paper on mass-energy equivalence was received 27th September. Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation (The Field Equations of Gravitation)", Kniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften: 844847 Einstein, Albert (1917a), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativittstheorie (Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity)", Kniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften Einstein, Albert (1917b), "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation)", Physikalische Zeitschrift 18: 121128 Einstein, Albert (11 July 1923), "Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity" [146], Nobel Lectures, Physics 19011921, Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company, retrieved 25 March 2007 Einstein, Albert (1924), "Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases (Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases)", Sitzungsberichte der Preussichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse: 261267. First of a series of papers on this topic. Einstein, Albert (1926), "Die Ursache der Manderbildung der Flusslufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes", Die Naturwissenschaften 14: 223224, doi:10.1007/BF01510300. On Baer's law and meanders in the courses of rivers. Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (15 May 1935), "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?", Physical Review 47 (10): 777780, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777 Einstein, Albert (1940), "On Science and Religion", Nature (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic) 146: 605, doi:10.1038/146605a0, ISBN0707304539 Einstein, Albert etal. (4 December 1948), "To the editors" [147], New York Times (Melville, NY: AIP, American Inst. of Physics), ISBN0735403597 Einstein, Albert (May 1949), "Why Socialism?" [148], Monthly Review, retrieved 16 January 2006 Einstein, Albert (1950), "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation", Scientific American CLXXXII (4): 1317 Einstein, Albert (1954), Ideas and Opinions, New York: Random House, ISBN0-517-00393-7 Einstein, Albert (1969) (in German), Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 19161955, Munich: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung, ISBN388682005X Einstein, Albert (1979), Autobiographical Notes, Paul Arthur Schilpp (Centennial ed.), Chicago: Open Court, ISBN0-875-48352-6. The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 4851. Collected Papers: Stachel, John, Martin J. Klein, a.J. Kox, Michel Janssen, R. Schulmann, Diana Komos Buchwald and others (Eds.) (19872006), The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol. 110 [149], Princeton University Press Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the

Albert Einstein Einstein Papers Project [150] and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page [151]

25

Notes
[1] Hans-Josef, Kpper (2000), Various things about Albert Einstein (http:/ / www. einstein-website. de/ z_information/ variousthings. html), einstein-website.de, , retrieved 18 July 2009 [2] Zahar, lie (2001), Poincar's Philosophy. From Conventionalism to Phenomenology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=jJl2JAqvoSAC), Carus Publishing Company, p.41, ISBN0-8126-9435-X, , Chapter 2, p. 41 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jJl2JAqvoSAC& pg=PA41) [3] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5bLXMl1V0), Nobel Foundation, archived from the original (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1921/ ) on 5 October 2008, , retrieved 6 March 2007 [4] "Einstein Biography" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1921/ einstein. html) Nobelprize.org [5] Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor (1951), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Volume II, New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook edition), pp.730746 His non-scientific works include: About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by Sigmund Freud), The World As I See It (1934), Out of My Later Years (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, The Evolution of Physics (1938, co-authored by Leopold Infeld). [6] WordNet for Einstein (http:/ / wordnetweb. princeton. edu/ perl/ webwn?s=Einstein) [7] Albert Einstein Biography (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1921/ einstein-bio. html), Nobel Foundation, , retrieved 7 March 2007 [8] Einstein: the life and times, By Ronald William Clark (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6IKVA0lY6MAC& pg=PA28& lpg=PA28& dq=einstein+ "Catholic+ elementary+ school"& source=bl& ots=rn-6c9y5U9& sig=jEmNcKzdh42rgKpgxeNnfOqOpkk& hl=en& ei=KCKLSrH7Ioe6MJfk2ckP& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1#v=onepage& q=einstein "Catholic elementary school"& f=false) [9] Rosenkranz, Ze'ev (2005), Albert Einstein Derrire l'image, Neue Zrcher Zeitung, p.29, ISBN3-03823-182-7 [10] Sowell, Thomas (2001), The Einstein Syndrome: Bright Children Who Talk Late, Basic Books, pp.89150, ISBN0-465-08140-1 [11] Schilpp (Ed.), P. A. (1979), Albert Einstein Autobiographical Notes, Open Court Publishing Company, pp.89 [12] Dudley Herschbach, "Einstein as a Student", Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA, page 3, web: HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF (http:/ / www. chem. harvard. edu/ herschbach/ Einstein_Student. pdf): Max Talmud visited on Thursdays for six years. [13] www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf Albert's intellectual growth was strongly fostered at home. His mother, a talented pianist, ensured the children's musical education. His father regularly read Schiller and Heine aloud to the family. Uncle Jakob challenged Albert with mathematical problems, which he solved with "a deep feeling of happiness". Most remarkable was Max Talmud, a poor Jewish medical student from Poland, "for whom the Jewish community had obtained free meals with the Einstein family". Talmud came on Thursday nights for about six years, and "invested his whole person in examining everything that engaged [Albert's] interest". Talmud had Albert read and discuss many books with him. These included a series of twenty popular science books that convinced Albert "a lot in the Bible stories could not be true", and a textbook of plane geometry that launched Albert on avid self-study of mathematics, years ahead of the school curriculum. Talmud even had Albert read Kant; as a result Einstein began preaching to his schoolmates about Kant, with "forcefulness" [14] Einstein's greatest intellectual stimulation came from a poor student who dined with his family once a week. It was an old Jewish custom to take in a needy religious scholar to share the Sabbath meal; the Einsteins modified the tradition by hosting instead a medical student on Thursdays. His name was Max Talmud, and he began his weekly visits when he was 21 and Einstein was 10. (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,1607298-1,00. html) [15] Mehra, Jagdish (2001), "Albert Einstein's first paper" (http:/ / www. worldscibooks. com/ phy_etextbook/ 4454/ 4454_chap1. pdf) (PDF), The Golden Age of Physics, World Scientific, ISBN9810249853, , retrieved 4 March 2007 [16] Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993), The Private Lives of Albert Einstein, London: Faber and Faber, p.21, ISBN0-571-17170-2 [17] Highfield & Carter (1993, pp.21,31,5657) [18] Albert Einstein Collected Papers, vol. 1, 1987, doc. 67. [19] Troemel-Ploetz, D., "Mileva Einstein-Mari: The Woman Who Did Einstein's Mathematics", Women's Studies Int. Forum, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 415-432, 1990. [20] E. H. Walker, E. H., "Did Einstein Espouse his Spouse's Ideas?", Physics Today, Feb. 1989. http:/ / philoscience. unibe. ch/ lehre/ winter99/ einstein/ Walker_Stachel. pdf [21] Pais, A., Einstein Lived Here, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp. 1-29. [22] Holton, G., Einstein, History, and Other Passions, Harvard University Press, 1996, pp. 177-193. [23] Stachel, J., Einstein from B to Z, Birkhuser, 2002, pp. 26-38; 39-55. http:/ / philoscience. unibe. ch/ lehre/ winter99/ einstein/ Stachel1966. pdf [24] Martinez, A. A., Handling evidence in history: the case of Einsteins Wife. School Science Review, 86 (316), March 2005, pp. 49-56. http:/ / www. ase. org. uk/ htm/ members_area/ journals/ ssr/ ssr_march_05pdf/ eins_wife-pg49. pdf [25] This conclusion is from Einstein's correspondence with Mari. Lieserl is first mentioned in a letter from Einstein to Mari (who was staying with her family in or near Novi Sad at the time of Lieserl's birth) dated 4 February 1902 (Collected papers Vol. 1, document 134). [26] Albrecht Flsing (1998). Albert Einstein: A Biography. Penguin Group. ISBN 0140237194; see section I, II,

Albert Einstein
[27] Highfield & Carter 1993, p.216 [28] Now the Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property (http:/ / www. ipi. ch/ E/ institut/ i1. shtm), , retrieved 16 October 2006. See also their FAQ about Einstein and the Institute (http:/ / www. ipi. ch/ E/ institut/ i1094. shtm), [29] Peter Galison, "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time" Critical Inquiry 26, no. 2 (Winter 2000): 355389. [30] Gallison, Question of Time. [31] Galison, Peter (2003), Einstein's Clocks, Poincar's Maps: Empires of Time, New York: W.W. Norton, ISBN0393020010 [32] (Einstein 1905b) [33] Universitt Zrich: Geschichte (http:/ / www. uzh. ch/ about/ portrait/ history. html) [34] Kant, Horst. "Albert Einstein and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin". in Renn, Jrgen. "Albert Einstein Chief Engineer of the Universe: One Hundred Authors for Einstein." Ed. Renn, Jrgen. Wiley-VCH. 2005. pp. 166169. ISBN = 3527405747 [35] Calaprice, Alice; Lipscombe, Trevor (2005), Albert Einstein: a biography (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=5eWh2O_3OAQC), Greenwood Publishing Group, p.xix, ISBN0-313-33080-8, , Timeline, p. xix (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5eWh2O_3OAQC& pg=PR19) [36] Heilbron, 2000, p. 84. [37] Andrzej, Stasiak (2003), "Myths in science" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ embor/ journal/ v4/ n3/ full/ embor779. html), EMBO reports 4 (3): 236, doi:10.1038/sj.embor.embor779, , retrieved 31 March 2007 [38] See Albert Einstein, "Geometry and Experience", (1921), reprinted in Ideas and Opinions. [39] Isaacson, Walter. Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon & Schuster (2007) [40] Isaacson, Walter. Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon & Schuster (2007) pp. 407-410 [41] "In Brief" (http:/ / www. ias. edu/ people/ einstein/ in-brief). Institute for Advanced Study. . Retrieved 4 March 2010. [42] Dunn, Jean (2010-07-07). "Albanian Muslims Who Sheltered Jews Honored at Program" (http:/ / www. raoulwallenberg. net/ ?en/ press/ albanian-muslims-sheltered. 4808. htm). Voicesnews.com. . [43] "In Breif (Albert Einstein)" (http:/ / www. ias. edu/ people/ einstein/ in-brief). The Center for History of Physics. American Institute of Physics. 2005. . Retrieved 2010-11-02. [44] Gosling, F.G. The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb, U.S. Department of Energy, History Division (January, 1999) p. vii [45] Evans-Pritchard, Ambrose (29 August 2010). "Obama could kill fossil fuels overnight with a nuclear dash for thorium" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ finance/ comment/ 7970619/ Obama-could-kill-fossil-fuels-overnight-with-a-nuclear-dash-for-thorium. html). The Daily Telegraph (London). . [46] Diehl, Sarah J.; Moltz, James Clay. Nuclear Weapons and Nonproliferation: a Reference Handbook (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3PN-NEfl_U0C& pg=PA218& dq=Einstein+ Roosevelt& lr=& as_drrb_is=q& as_minm_is=0& as_miny_is=& as_maxm_is=0& as_maxy_is=& num=30& as_brr=3& ei=3LkCTNjODJzykwS-qb3kBA& cd=4#v=onepage& q=Letter from Einstein Roosevelt& f=false), ABC-CLIO (2008) p. 219 [47] Einstein: The Life and Times by Ronald Clark. page 752 [48] Fred Jerome, Rodger Taylor (2006) Einstein on Race and Racism (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4d79VQdOfFUC& pg=PR10& dq=Einstein+ on+ Race+ and+ Racism+ america's+ worst+ disease& hl=en& ei=rGkNTP-OB9DY4gaN6f1-& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false) Rutgers University Press, 2006. [49] Calaprice, Alice (2005) The new quotable Einstein (http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ titles/ 7921. html). pp.148-149 Princeton University Press, 2005. See also Odyssey in Climate Modeling, Global Warming, and Advising Five Presidents (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dLhVn-McDDgC& pg=PA226& dq=racism+ americas+ worst+ disease+ 1946& hl=en& ei=cWINTOqjGpKX4gavnK22AQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false) [50] "ISRAEL: Einstein Declines" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,817454,00. html). Time magazine. 1 December 1952. . Retrieved 31 March 2010. [51] "Einstein in Princeton / Scientist, Humanitarian, Cultural Icon" (http:/ / www. princetonhistory. org/ museum_alberteinstein. cfm). Historical Society of Princeton. . Retrieved 31 March 2010. [52] The Case of the Scientist with a Pulsating Mass (http:/ / www. medscape. com/ viewarticle/ 436253), 14 June 2002, , retrieved 11 June 2007 [53] Albert Einstein Archives (April 1955), "Draft of projected Telecast Israel Independence Day, April 1955 (last statement ever written)" (http:/ / www. alberteinstein. info/ db/ ViewImage. do?DocumentID=20078& Page=1), Einstein Archives Online (http:/ / www. alberteinstein. info/ ), , retrieved 14 March 2007 [54] Cohen, J.R.; Graver, L.M. (November 1995), "The ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm of Albert Einstein", Surgery, Gynecology & Obstetrics 170 (5): 4558, ISSN0039-6087, PMID2183375. [55] O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (1997), "Albert Einstein" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ Biographies/ Einstein. html), The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, , retrieved 14 March 2007 [56] Dr. Albert Einstein Dies in Sleep at 76. World Mourns Loss of Great Scientist., New York Times, 19 April 1955, "Princeton, New Jersey, 18 April 1955. Dr. Albert Einstein, one of the great thinkers of the ages, died in his sleep here early today." [57] The Long, Strange Journey of Einstein's Brain (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=4602913), National Public Radio, , retrieved 3 October 2007 [58] " Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz (http:/ / www. lorentz. leidenuniv. nl/ history/ Einstein_archive/ )". Instituut-Lorentz. 2005. Retrieved on 21 November 2005. [59] This did not become possible until the development of alpha particle scintillation detectors early in the twentieth century. Rutherford invited Mach to take a look at the scintillation screen in a dark room, where the impact of individual alpha particles (Helium nuclei) are directly

26

Albert Einstein
visible to the dark adapted eye. [60] an account may be found here (http:/ / www. pitt. edu/ ~jdnorton/ Goodies/ Einstein_stat_1905/ index. html) [61] The charge of a mole of electrons was known and measured as Faraday's constant. Dividing by the charge of a single electron, measured by Millikan, gives Avogadro's number. [62] (Einstein 1905d) [63] Hawking, S. W. (2001), The Universe in short, Bantam Books, ISBN0-55-380202-X [64] Schwartz, J.; McGuinness, M. (1979), Einstein for Beginners, Pantheon Books, ISBN0-39-450588-3 [65] (Einstein 1905e) [66] For a discussion of the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see the articles in Thomas F. Glick, ed., The Comparative Reception of Relativity (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1987), ISBN 9027724989. [67] Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, pp.382386, ISBN019853907X [68] Einstein, Albert (1905), "ber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt" (http:/ / www. zbp. univie. ac. at/ dokumente/ einstein1. pdf), Annalen der Physik 17: 132148, , retrieved 27 June 2009 [69] (Einstein 1905a). [70] Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, p.522, ISBN019853907X [71] Levenson, Thomas. " Einstein's Big Idea (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ einstein/ genius/ )". Public Broadcasting Service. 2005. Retrieved on 25 February 2006. [72] Einstein, A., "Relativittsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen (On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It)", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitt (Yearbook of Radioactivity) 4: 411462 page 454 (Wir betrachen zwei Bewegung systeme ...) [73] Einstein, Albert (1911), "On the Influence of Gravity on the Propagation of Light", Annalen der Physik 35: 898908, doi:10.1002/andp.19113401005 (also in Collected Papers Vol. 3, document 23) [74] Crelinsten, Jeffrey. " Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity (http:/ / www. pupress. princeton. edu/ titles/ 8165. html)". Princeton University Press. 2006. Retrieved on 13 March 2007. ISBN 9780691123103 [75] van Dongen, Jeroen (2010) Einstein's Unification Cambridge University Press, p.23. [76] (Einstein 1915) [77] Two friends in Leiden (http:/ / www. lorentz. leidenuniv. nl/ history/ einstein/ einstein. html), , retrieved 11 June 2007 [78] Crelinsten, Jeffrey (2006), Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity (http:/ / www. pupress. princeton. edu/ titles/ 8165. html), Princeton University Press, pp.103108, ISBN978-0-691-12310-3, , retrieved 13 March 2007 [79] Crelinsten, Jeffrey (2006), Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity (http:/ / www. pupress. princeton. edu/ titles/ 8165. html), Princeton University Press, pp.114119, ISBN978-0-691-12310-3, , retrieved 13 March 2007 [80] Smith, PD (17 September 2005), The genius of space and time (http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ reviews/ scienceandnature/ 0,,1571826,00. html), London: The Guardian, , retrieved 31 March 2007 [81] Jrgen Schmidhuber. " Albert Einstein (18791955) and the 'Greatest Scientific Discovery Ever' (http:/ / www. idsia. ch/ ~juergen/ einstein. html)". 2006. Retrieved on 4 October 2006. [82] See the table in MathPages Bending Light (http:/ / www. mathpages. com/ rr/ s6-03/ 6-03. htm) [83] Hentschel, Klaus and Ann M. (1996), Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources, Birkhaeuser Verlag, xxi, ISBN3-76-435312-0 [84] For a discussion of astronomers' attitudes and debates about relativity, see Crelinsten, Jeffrey (2006), Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity, Princeton University Press, ISBN0691123101, especially chapters 6, 9, 10 and 11. [85] (Einstein 1917a) [86] (Einstein 1917b) [87] (Einstein 1924) [88] Cornell and Wieman Share 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics (http:/ / www. nist. gov/ public_affairs/ releases/ n01-04. htm), 9 October 2001, , retrieved 11 June 2007 [89] (Einstein 1950) [90] Miller, Arthur I. (1981), Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (19051911), Reading: AddisonWesley, pp.325331, ISBN0-201-04679-2 [91] Wright, Karen (30 September 2004), The Master's Mistakes (http:/ / discovermagazine. com/ 2004/ sep/ the-masters-mistakes/ article_view?b_start:int=1& -C=), Discover Magazine, , retrieved 15 October 2009 [92] Moore, Walter (1989), Schrdinger: Life and Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN0-521-43767-9 [93] Goettling, Gary. Einstein's refrigerator (http:/ / gtalumni. org/ Publications/ magazine/ sum98/ einsrefr. html) Georgia Tech Alumni Magazine. 1998. Retrieved on 21 November 2005. Le Szilrd, a Hungarian physicist who later worked on the Manhattan Project, is credited with the discovery of the chain reaction [94] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=1781541 [95] In September 2008 it was reported that Malcolm McCulloch of Oxford University was heading a three-year project to develop more robust appliances that could be used in locales lacking electricity, and that his team had completed a prototype Einstein refrigerator. He was quoted as saying that improving the design and changing the types of gases used might allow the design's efficiency to be quadrupled.Alok, Jha (21 September 2008), Einstein fridge design can help global cooling (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/ 2008/ sep/ 21/

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scienceofclimatechange. climatechange), London: The Guardian, [96] (Einstein 1969). A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, ISBN 388682005X [97] (Einstein 1935) [98] Aspect, Alain; Dalibard, Jean; Roger, Grard (1982), "Experimental test of Bell's inequalities using time-varying analyzers", Physical Review Letters 49 (25): 18041807, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.49.1804 The first of many experimental tests relating to EPR. [99] Zionism and Israel Information Center, Albert Einstein and Zionism (http:/ / www. zionism-israel. com/ Albert_Einstein/ Albert_Einstein_about_zionism. htm), , retrieved 14 August 2008 [100] "Einstein and Complex Analyses of Zionism" (http:/ / www. forward. com/ articles/ 109560/ ) Jewish Daily Forward, July 24, 2009 [101] "Albert Einstein on Zionism" (http:/ / www. opednews. com/ articles/ ALBERT-EINSTEIN-ON-PALESTI-by-Edward-Corrigan-100110-905. html), Edward Corrigan [102] "Was Einstein a Zionist" (http:/ / www. zionism-israel. com/ ezine/ Einstein_and_Zionism. htm) Zionism and Israel Information Center [103] "Albert Einstein was a political activist" (http:/ / www. jewishtribune. ca/ TribuneV2/ 201004142880/ Albert-Einstein-was-a-political-activist. html/ ) Jewish Tribune,14 April 2010 [104] Pulzer, Peter G.J. (2003), Jews and the German state: the political history of a minority, 18481933 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=T8tVo-xbKn8C& pg=PA335& dq=einstein+ deutsche+ demokratische+ partei& q=einstein deutsche demokratische partei), Blackwell Publishers, ISBN9780814331309, , retrieved 21 October 2009 [105] Leonhard, Elke (1993) (in German), Von postrevolutionrer Scheinblte zum politischen Bankrott; Weimars liberale Parteien DDP und DVP (http:/ / library. fes. de/ spdpd/ 1993/ 930316. pdf), Sozialdemokratischer Pressedienst, , retrieved 21 October 2009 [106] Holborn, Hajo (1971) (in German), Deutsche Geschichte in der Neuzeit, III (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=RZPsF6NY5dwC& pg=PA319& lpg=PA319& dq=einstein+ deutsche+ demokratische+ partei& q=einstein deutsche demokratische partei), R. oldenbourg, ISBN9783486432510, , retrieved 21 October 2009 [107] Geller, Jay Howard (2005), Jews in post-Holocaust Germany, 19451953 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=bbuQzfFmXv4C& pg=PA147& dq=einstein+ deutsche+ demokratische+ partei& q=einstein deutsche demokratische partei), Cambridge University Press, ISBN9780521541268, , retrieved 21 October 2009 [108] Albert Einstein (May 1949). "Why Socialism?" (http:/ / monthlyreview. org/ 598einstein. php). Monthly Review. . [109] David E. Rowe and Robert Schulmann (June 25, 2007). "What Were Einstein's Politics?" (http:/ / hnn. us/ articles/ 39445. html). George Mason University's History News Network. . [110] Nationalist-Communist Civil War 19271937 (http:/ / san. beck. org/ 15-4-ChinaCivilWar1927-37. html), , retrieved 3 October 2007 [111] Calaprice, Alice (2005), The new quotable Einstein (http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ titles/ 7921. html), Princeton University Press, p.173, ISBN0-691-12075-7 Other versions of the quote exist. [112] Butcher, Sandra Ionno (May 2005) (PDF), The Origins of the RussellEinstein Manifesto (http:/ / www. pugwash. org/ publication/ phs/ history9. pdf), Council of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, , retrieved 2 May 2007 [113] Ken Gewertz (12 April 2007), Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070529080415/ http:/ / www. news. harvard. edu/ gazette/ 2007/ 04. 12/ 01-einstein. html), Harvard University Gazette, archived from the original (http:/ / www. news. harvard. edu/ gazette/ 2007/ 04. 12/ 01-einstein. html) on 29 May 2007, , retrieved 11 June 2007 [114] Hawking, Stephen W. (2001), The universe in short, Bantam Books, p.26, ISBN9780553802023 [115] Feldman, Burton (2001), The Nobel prize: a history of genius, controversy, and prestige (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xnckeeTICn0C), Arcade Publishing, p.141, ISBN1-559-70592-2, , Page 141 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xnckeeTICn0C& pg=PA141) [116] "Albert Einstein (18791955)" (http:/ / www. stephenjaygould. org/ ctrl/ quotes_einstein. html). . Retrieved 2007-05-21. [117] New York Times obituary (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9A0DEFD9153FF931A25754C0A960948260) [118] "Letters Reveal Einstein Love Life" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 5168002. stm), BBC News (BBC), 11 July 2006, , retrieved 14 March 2007 [119] Roger Richman Agency (2007), "Albert Einstein Licensing" (http:/ / www. albert-einstein. net/ index2. html), , retrieved 25 March 2007; Archive copy (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ */ http:/ / www. albert-einstein. net/ index2. html) at the Wayback Machine. [120] Einstein (http:/ / einstein. biz/ ), Corbis Rights Representation, , retrieved 8 August 2008 [121] The New Yorker April 1939 pg 69 Disguise (http:/ / www. newyorker. com/ search/ query?queryType=nonparsed& query=Einstein+ & bylquery=Maloney& month1=01& day1=14& year1=1939& month2=01& day2=14& year2=1939& page=& sort=& submit. x=10& submit. y=5) [122] (http:/ / www. cindymctee. com/ einsteins_dream. html) Einstein's Dream for orchestra by Cindy McTee [123] Golden, Frederic (3 January 2000), "Person of the Century: Albert Einstein" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ time100/ poc/ magazine/ albert_einstein5a. html), Time, , retrieved 25 February 2006 [124] Albert Einstein Frequently Asked Questions (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1921/ einstein-faq. html), Nobelprize.org, 18 April 1955, , retrieved 7 January 2009 [125] BBC (11 July 2006), "Letters Reveal Einstein Love Life" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 5168002. stm), BBC News (BBC), , retrieved 25 November 2008 [126] Marco Mamone Capria (2005) Physics before and after Einstein p.5. IOS Press, 2005 [127] World Year of Physics 2005 (http:/ / www. wyp2005. org/ overview. html), , retrieved 3 October 2007 [128] Brunhouse, Jay (2008) Maverick Guide to Berlin (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3LylIwXu0xsC& pg=PA422& dq=albert+ einstein+ science+ park& hl=en& ei=aKFgTJG8HYyOjAeVqrmLCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2&

28

Albert Einstein
ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=albert einstein science park& f=false) Pelican Publishing Company [129] Einsteinium and Fermium (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ 80th/ einsteiniumfermium. html), , retrieved 6 June 2009 [130] (pdf) History of the International Atomic Energy Agency The First Forty Years (http:/ / www-pub. iaea. org/ MTCD/ publications/ PDF/ Pub1032_web. pdf), International Atomic Energy Agency, p.30, ISBN9201023979, , retrieved 6 June 2009 [131] Spratt, Christopher E. (April 1990), "The Hungaria group of minor planets" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1990JRASC. . 84. . 123S), Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Journal (ISSN 0035-872X) 84 (2): 123131, [132] Isaacson, Walter (3 January 2000), "Person of the Century: Why We Chose Einstein" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ time100/ poc/ magazine/ who_mattered_and_why4a. html), Time, , retrieved 16 July 2007 [133] Howard, Don, and Stachel, John J. Einstein: The Formative Years, 18791909, p. 159, Springer (2000) [134] "Einstein the greatest" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 541840. stm). BBC News. 29 November 1999. . [135] Mother Teresa Voted by American People as Most Admired Person of the Century (http:/ / www. gallup. com/ poll/ 3367/ Mother-Teresa-Voted-American-People-Most-Admired-Person-Century. aspx), 31 December 1999, , retrieved 13 August 2008 [136] Walhalla, official guide booklet. p. 3. Translated by Helen Stellner and David Hiley, Bernhard Bosse Verlag Regensburg, 2002 [137] (in German) Walhalla Ruhmes- und Ehrenhalle (http:/ / www. walhalla-regensburg. de/ deutsch/ index. shtml), , retrieved 3 October 2007 [138] Biography of J. Schwinger (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ Printonly/ Schwinger. html) from University of St Andrews, MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive (Last accessed 17 December 2006). [139] The Month at Caltech, April 1954 issue (http:/ / calteches. library. caltech. edu/ 153/ 01/ themonth. pdf), p.20 (Last accessed on 4 September 2007). [140] The Americana Annual 1962: An Encyclopedia of the Events of 1961, Americana Corporation, 1962, ISSN0196-0180 [141] Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1967, Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA, 1968, ISSN0519-2366 [142] Sigmund, Dawson, Muhlberger (2006), Kurt Godel: The Album, Wiesbaden: Vieweg, ISBN3834801739 [143] Albert Einstein Society in Bern (http:/ / www. einstein-website. de/ z_information/ einsteinsociety. html) retrieved 17 July 2010 [144] [145] [146] [147] [148] [149] [150] [151] Pugwash Online (http:/ / www. pugwash. org/ about/ history. htm), , retrieved 20 December 2009 http:/ / lorentz. phl. jhu. edu/ AnnusMirabilis/ AeReserveArticles/ eins_lq. pdf http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1921/ einstein-lecture. pdf http:/ / phys4. harvard. edu/ ~wilson/ NYTimes1948. html http:/ / www. monthlyreview. org/ 598einst. htm http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ einstein/ writings. html#papers http:/ / www. einstein. caltech. edu/ index. html http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ einstein/

29

Further reading
Moring, Gary (2004): The complete idiot's guide to understanding Einstein (http://books.google.com/ books?id=875TTxildJ0C&dq=idiots+guide+to+einstein&printsec=frontcover&source=bl& ots=W9rxRk0Ukn&sig=gbJach7BrzngSiFjODx95k8e1DU&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=6& ct=result) ( 1st ed. 2000). Indianapolis IN: Alpha books (Macmillan USA). ISBN 0028631803 Pais, Abraham (1982): Subtle is the Lord: The science and the life of Albert Einstein. Oxford University Press. The definitive biography to date. Pais, Abraham (1994): Einstein Lived Here. Oxford University Press. Parker, Barry (2000): Einstein's Brainchild. Prometheus Books. A review of Einstein's career and accomplishments, written for the lay public. Schweber, Sylvan S. (2008): Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674028289.

Albert Einstein

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External links
Works by Albert Einstein (public domain in Canada) The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/ Einstein.html), School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland, April 1997, retrieved 14 June 2009 Why Socialism? (http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einstein.php) by Albert Einstein, Monthly Review, May 1949 Nobelprize.org Biography:Albert Einstein (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/ einstein-bio.html) The Einstein You Never Knew (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/41492/ the-einstein-you-never-knew) - slideshow by Life magazine Albert Einstein (http://www.history.com/topics/albert-einstein)--Watch Videos Science Odyssey People And Discoveries (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bpeins.html) Authority control: PND: 118529579 (http:/ / d-nb. info/ gnd/ 118529579) | LCCN: n79022889 (http:/ / errol. oclc. org/laf/n79022889.html) | VIAF: 75121530 (http://viaf.org/viaf/75121530)

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Annus Mirabilis and special relativity

Annus Mirabilis papers
The Annus Mirabilis papers (from Latin annus mrbilis, "extraordinary year") are the papers of Albert Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four articles contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The Annus Mirabilis is often called the "Miracle Year" in English or Wunderjahr in German.[1]

Background
At the time the papers were written, Einstein did not have easy access to a complete set of scientific reference materials, although he did regularly read and contribute reviews to Annalen der Physik. Additionally, scientific colleagues available to discuss his theories were few. He worked as an examiner at the Patent Office in Bern, Switzerland, and he later said of a co-worker there, Michele Besso, that he "could not have found a better sounding Einstein, in 1905, when he wrote the Annus Mirabilis board for his ideas in all of Europe". In addition to co-workers and papers the other members of the self-styled "Olympian Academy" (Solovine and Habicht), his wife, Mileva Mari, may have had some influence on Einstein's work but how much is unclear.[2] [3] [4] Through these papers, Einstein tackles some of the era's most important physics questions and problems. In 1900, a lecture titled "Nineteenth-Century Clouds over the Dynamical Theory of Heat and Light",[5] by Lord Kelvin, suggested that physics had no satisfactory explanations for the results of the Michelson-Morley experiment and for black body radiation. As introduced, special relativity provided an account for the results of the Michelson-Morley experiments. Einstein's theories for the photoelectric effect extended the quantum theory which Max Planck had developed in his successful explanation of black body radiation. Despite the greater fame achieved by his other works, such as that on special relativity, it was his work on the photoelectric effect which won him his Nobel Prize in 1921: "For services to theoretical physics and especially for the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect." The Nobel committee had waited patiently for experimental confirmation of special relativity; however none was forthcoming until the time dilation experiments of Ives and Stilwell (1938),[6] (1941)[7] and Rossi and Hall (1941).[8]

Annus Mirabilis papers

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Papers
Photoelectric effect
The paper, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light",[9] proposed the idea of energy quanta. This idea, motivated by Max Planck's earlier derivation of the law of black body radiation, assumes that luminous energy can be absorbed or emitted only in discrete amounts, called quanta. Einstein states, Energy, during the propagation of a ray of light, is not continuously distributed over steadily increasing spaces, but it consists of a finite number of energy quanta localised at points in space, moving without dividing and capable of being absorbed or generated only as entities. In explaining the photoelectric effect, the hypothesis that energy consists of discrete packets, as Einstein illustrates, can be directly applied to black bodies, as well. The idea of light quanta contradicts the wave theory of light that follows naturally from James Clerk Maxwell's equations for electromagnetic behavior and, more generally, the assumption of infinite divisibility of energy in physical systems. A profound formal difference exists between the theoretical concepts that physicists have formed about gases and other ponderable bodies, and Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic processes in so-called empty space. While we consider the state of a body to be completely determined by the positions and velocities of an indeed very large yet finite number of atoms and electrons, we make use of continuous spatial functions to determine the electromagnetic state of a volume of space, so that a finite number of quantities cannot be considered as sufficient for the complete determination of the electromagnetic state of space. [... this] leads to contradictions when applied to the phenomena of emission and transformation of light. According to the view that the incident light consists of energy quanta [...], the production of cathode rays by light can be conceived in the following way. The body's surface layer is penetrated by energy quanta whose energy is converted at least partially into kinetic energy of the electrons. The simplest conception is that a light quantum transfers its entire energy to a single electron [...] Einstein noted that the photoelectric effect depended on the wavelength, and hence the frequency of the light. At too low a frequency, even intense light produced no electrons. However, once a certain frequency was reached, even low intensity light produced electrons. He compared this to Planck's hypothesis that light could be emitted only in packets of energy given by hf, where h is Planck's constant and f is the frequency. He then postulated that light travels in packets whose energy depends on the frequency, and therefore only light above a certain frequency would bring sufficient energy to liberate an electron. Even after experiments confirmed that Einstein's equations for the photoelectric effect were accurate, his explanation was not universally accepted. Niels Bohr, in his 1922 Nobel address, stated, "The hypothesis of light-quanta is not able to throw light on the nature of radiation." By 1921, when Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize and his work on photoelectricity was mentioned by name in the award citation, some physicists accepted that the equation ( ) was correct and light quanta were possible. In 1923, Arthur Compton's X-ray scattering experiment helped more of the scientific community to accept this formula. The theory of light quanta was a strong indicator of wave-particle duality, a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics.[10] A complete picture of the theory of photoelectricity was realized after the maturity of quantum mechanics.

Annus Mirabilis papers

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Brownian motion
The article "ber die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wrme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen" ("On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat")[11] delineated a stochastic model of Brownian motion. In this paper it will be shown that, according to the molecular kinetic theory of heat, bodies of a microscopically visible size suspended in liquids must, as a result of thermal molecular motions, perform motions of such magnitudes that they can be easily observed with a microscope. It is possible that the motions to be discussed here are identical with so-called Brownian molecular motion; however, the data available to me on the latter are so imprecise that I could not form a judgment on the question ... Brownian motion generates expressions for the root mean square displacement of particles. Using the kinetic theory of fluids, which at the time was controversial, the article established the phenomenon, which was lacking a satisfactory explanation even decades after the first observation, provided empirical evidence for the reality of the atom. It also lent credence to statistical mechanics, which had been controversial at that time, as well. Before this paper, atoms were recognized as a useful concept, but physicists and chemists debated whether atoms were real entities. Einstein's statistical discussion of atomic behavior gave experimentalists a way to count atoms by looking through an ordinary microscope. Wilhelm Ostwald, one of the leaders of the anti-atom school, later told Arnold Sommerfeld that he had been convinced of the existence of atoms by Einstein's complete explanation of Brownian motion.

Special relativity
Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Krper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies")[12] , his third paper that year, was published on June 30. It reconciles Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics, by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light. This later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. The paper mentions the name of only five other scientists, Isaac Newton, James Clerk Maxwell, Heinrich Hertz, Christian Doppler, and Hendrik Lorentz. It does not have any references to any other publications. Many of the ideas had already been published by others, as detailed in history of special relativity. However, Einstein's paper introduces a new theory of time, distance, mass, and energy that was consistent with electromagnetism, but omitted the force of gravity. At the time, it was known that Maxwell's equations, when applied to moving bodies, led to asymmetries, and that it had not been possible to discover any motion of the Earth relative to the 'light medium'. Einstein puts forward two postulates to explain these observations. First, he applies the classic principle of relativity, which states that the laws of physics remain the same for any non-accelerating frame of reference (called an inertial reference frame), to the laws of electrodynamics and optics as well as mechanics. In the second postulate, Einstein proposes that the speed of light has the same value in all inertial frames of reference, independent of the state of motion of the emitting body. Special relativity is thus consistent with the result of the MichelsonMorley experiment, which had not detected a medium of conductance (or aether) for light waves unlike other known waves that require a medium (such as water or air). Einstein states, the unsuccessful attempts to discover any motion of the earth relatively to the "light medium," suggest that the phenomena of electrodynamics as well as of mechanics possess no properties corresponding to the idea of absolute rest. The speed of light is fixed, and thus not relative to the movement of the observer. This was impossible under Newtonian classical mechanics. Einstein argues, the same laws of electrodynamics and optics will be valid for all frames of reference for which the equations of mechanics hold good. We will raise this conjecture (the purport of which will hereafter be called

Annus Mirabilis papers the "Principle of Relativity") to the status of a postulate, and also introduce another postulate, which is only apparently irreconcilable with the former, namely, that light is always propagated in empty space with a definite velocity c which is independent of the state of motion of the emitting body. These two postulates suffice for the attainment of a simple and consistent theory of the electrodynamics of moving bodies based on Maxwell's theory for stationary bodies. The introduction of a "luminiferous ether" will prove to be superfluous in as much as the view here to be developed will not require an "absolutely stationary space" provided with special properties, nor assign a velocity-vector to a point of the empty space in which electromagnetic processes take place. The theory [] is basedlike all electrodynamicson the kinematics of the rigid body, since the assertions of any such theory have to do with the relationships between rigid bodies (systems of co-ordinates), clocks, and electromagnetic processes. Insufficient consideration of this circumstance lies at the root of the difficulties which the electrodynamics of moving bodies at present encounters. It had previously been conjectured, by George FitzGerald in 1894 and by Lorentz 1895, independent of each other, that the Michelson-Morley result could be accounted for if moving bodies were contracted in the direction of their motion. Some of the paper's core equations, the Lorentz transforms, had been published by Joseph Larmor (1897, 1900), Hendrik Lorentz (1899, 1903, 1904) and Henri Poincar (1905), in a development of Lorentz's 1904 paper. Einstein revealed the underlying causes for this geometrical oddity, which differed from the explanations given by FitzGerald, Larmor, and Lorentz, but were similar in many respects to the reasons given by Poincar (1905). His explanation arises from two axioms. First, Galileo's idea that the laws of nature should be the same for all observers that move with constant speed relative to each other. Einstein writes, The laws by which the states of physical systems undergo change are not affected, whether these changes of state be referred to the one or the other of two systems of co-ordinates in uniform translatory motion. The second is the rule that the speed of light is the same for every observer. Any ray of light moves in the "stationary" system of co-ordinates with the determined velocity c, whether the ray be emitted by a stationary or by a moving body. The theory, now called the special theory of relativity, distinguishes it from his later general theory of relativity, which considers all observers to be equivalent. Special relativity gained widespread acceptance remarkably quickly, confirming Einstein's comment that it had been "ripe for discovery" in 1905. Acknowledging the role of Max Planck in the early dissemination of his ideas, Einstein wrote in 1913 "The attention that this theory so quickly received from colleagues is surely to be ascribed in large part to the resoluteness and warmth with which he [Planck] intervened for this theory". In addition, the improved mathematical formulation of the theory by Hermann Minkowski in 1907 was influential in gaining acceptance for the theory. Also, and most importantly, the theory was supported by an ever-increasing body of confirmatory experimental evidence.

34

Matter and energy equivalence

On September 27 Annalen der Physik published a fourth paper, "Ist die Trgheit eines Krpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhngig?" ("Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?"),[13] in which Einstein developed an argument for arguably the most famous equation in the field of physics: E=mc. Einstein considered the equivalency equation to be of paramount importance because it showed that a massive particle possesses an energy, the "rest energy", distinct from its classical kinetic and potential energies. The paper is based on James Clerk Maxwell's and Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's investigations and, in addition, the axioms of relativity, as Einstein states, The results of the previous investigation lead to a very interesting conclusion, which is here to be deduced. The previous investigation was based "on the Maxwell-Hertz equations for empty space, together with the Maxwellian expression for the electromagnetic energy of space ..."

Annus Mirabilis papers The laws by which the states of physical systems alter are independent of the alternative, to which of two systems of coordinates, in uniform motion of parallel translation relatively to each other, these alterations of state are referred (principle of relativity). The equation sets forth that energy of a body at rest (E) equals its mass (m) times the speed of light (c) squared, or E = mc. If a body gives off the energy L in the form of radiation, its mass diminishes by L/c. The fact that the energy withdrawn from the body becomes energy of radiation evidently makes no difference, so that we are led to the more general conclusion that The mass of a body is a measure of its energy-content; if the energy changes by L, the mass changes in the same sense by L/9 1020, the energy being measured in ergs, and the mass in grammes. [...] If the theory corresponds to the facts, radiation conveys inertia between the emitting and absorbing bodies. The mass-energy relation can be used to predict how much energy will be released or consumed by nuclear reactions; one simply measures the mass of all constituents and the mass of all the products and multiplies the difference between the two by c2. The result shows how much energy will be released or consumed, usually in the form of light or heat. When applied to certain nuclear reactions, the equation shows that an extraordinarily large amount of energy will be released, much larger than in the combustion of chemical explosives, where the mass difference is hardly measurable at all. This explains why nuclear weapons produce such phenomenal amounts of energy, as they release binding energy during nuclear fission and nuclear fusion, and also convert a much larger portion of subatomic mass to energy.

35

Commemoration
The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) resolved to commemorate the 100th year of the publication of Einstein's extensive work in 1905 as the 'World Year of Physics 2005'. This was subsequently endorsed by the United Nations.

Notes
[1] "Annalen der Physik - Factbites" (2005), Factbites.com, web: Factbites-Annalen (http:/ / www. factbites. com/ topics/ Annalen-der-Physik): about annus mirabilis as "miraculous year" in English, or German Wunderjahr. [2] The suggestion that Mileva actually co-authored some of Einstein's early papers was based largely on what is now generally agreed to have been a misunderstanding. In an obituary for Einstein in 1955, Abram Joffe wrote "In 1905, three articles appeared in the Annalen der Physik... The author of these articles, an unknown person at the time, was a bureaucrat at the Patent Office in Bern, Einstein-Marity (Marity - the maiden name of his wife, which by Swiss custom is added to the husband's family name)." Thus Joffe did not claim co-authorship, he merely stated that the papers were by an unknown individual, and that Marity was the maiden name of the author's wife, appended to the author's name by Swiss custom. Joffe's comment was later mis-quoted in a way that suggested co-authorship of the husband and wife. [3] "Einstein's Wife : The Mileva Question (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ opb/ einsteinswife/ science/ mquest. htm)". Oregon Public Broadcasting, 2003. [4] Calaprice, Alice, "The Einstein almanac". Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Md. 2005. [5] The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, Series 6, volume 2, page 1 (1901) [6] Ives, Herbert E.; Stilwell, G. R. (1938). "An experimental study of the rate of a moving clock". Journal of the Optical Society of America 28: 215226. doi:10.1364/JOSA.28.000215. [7] Ives, Herbert E.; Stilwell, G. R. (1941). "An experimental study of the rate of a moving clock II". Journal of the Optical Society of America 31: 359374. [8] Rossi, Bruno; Hall, David B. (February 1, 1941). "Variation of the Rate of Decay of Mesotrons with Momentum" (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PR/ v59/ i3/ p223_1). Physical Review 59 (3): 223228. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.59.223. . Retrieved 2006-10-01. [9] Einstein, Albert (1905). "ber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt" (http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_17_132-148. pdf). Annalen der Physik 17: 132148. . Retrieved 2008-02-18. [10] Physical systems can display both wave-like and particle-like properties [11] Einstein, Albert (1905). "ber die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wrme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen" (http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_17_549-560. pdf). Annalen der

Annus Mirabilis papers

Physik 17: 549560. . Retrieved 2008-08-25.

36

English translation:
" Investigations on the theory of Brownian Movement (http:/ / users. physik. fu-berlin. de/ ~kleinert/ files/ eins_brownian. pdf)". Translated by A.D Cowper [12] Einstein, Albert (1905-06-30). "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Krper" (http:/ / www. pro-physik. de/ Phy/ pdfs/ ger_890_921. pdf). Annalen der Physik 17: 891921. . See also a digitized version at Wikilivres:Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Krper.

English translations:
" On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies (http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/ specrel/ www/ )". Translation by George Barker Jeffery and Wilfrid Perrett in The Principle of Relativity, London: Methuen and Company, Ltd. (1923) "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". Translation by Megh Nad Saha in The Principle of Relativity: Original Papers by A. Einstein and H. Minkowski, University of Calcutta, 1920, pp.134: [13] Einstein, Albert (1905). "Ist die Trgheit eines Krpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhngig?" (http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_18_639-641. pdf). Annalen der Physik 18: 639641. . Retrieved 2008-02-18.

English translations:
" Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content? (http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/ E_mc2/ www/ )". Translation by George Barker Jeffery and Wilfrid Perrett in The Principle of Relativity, London: Methuen and Company, Ltd. (1923).

Works by Einstein Further reading

Stachel, John, et al., Einstein's Miraculous Year. Princeton University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-691-05938-1 Renn, Jrgen, and Dieter Hoffmann, "1905 a miraculous year". 2005 J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 38 S437-S448 (Max Planck Institute for the History of Science) [Issue 9 (14 May 2005)]

External links
(http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/files/) - collection of the Annus Mirabilis papers and their English translations. On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies (1923 edition)

History of special relativity

37

History of special relativity

The history of special relativity consists of many theoretical results and empirical findings obtained by Albert Michelson, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincar and others. It culminated in the theory of special relativity proposed by Albert Einstein, and subsequent work of Max Planck, Hermann Minkowski and others.

Introduction
Although Isaac Newton based his theory on absolute space and time, he also adhered to the principle of relativity of Galileo Galilei. This stated that all observers who move uniformly relative to each other are equal and no absolute state of motion can be attributed to any observer. During the 19th century the aether theory was widely accepted, mostly in the form given by James Clerk Maxwell. According to Maxwell all optical and electrical phenomena propagate in a medium. Thus it seemed possible to determine absolute motion relative to the aether and therefore to disprove Galileo's Principle. The failure of any experiment to detect motion through the aether led Hendrik Lorentz in 1892 to develop a theory based on an immobile aether and the Lorentz transformation. Based on Lorentz's aether, Henri Poincar in 1905 proposed the Relativity Principle as a general law of nature, including electrodynamics and gravitation. In 1905 Albert Einstein published what is now called Special Relativity (SR) he radically reinterpreted Lorentzian Electrodynamics by changing the concepts of space and time and abolishing the aether. This paved the way to General Relativity. Subsequent work of Hermann Minkowski laid the foundations of Relativistic Field Theories.

Aether and Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies

Aether models and Maxwell's equations
Following the work of Thomas Young (1804) and Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1816), it was believed that light propagates as a transverse wave within an elastic medium called luminiferous aether. However, a distinction was made between optical and electrodynamical phenomena so it was necessary to create specific aether models for all phenomena. Attempts to unify those models or to create a complete mechanical description of them did not succeed,[1] but after considerable work by many scientists, including Michael Faraday and Lord Kelvin, James Clerk Maxwell (1864) developed an accurate theory of electromagnetism by deriving a set of equations in electricity, magnetism and inductance, named Maxwell's equations. He first proposed that light was in fact undulations (Electromagnetic radiation) in the same aetherial medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. However, Maxwell's theory was unsatisfactory regarding the optics of moving bodies, and while he was able to present a complete mathematical model, he was not able to provide a coherent mechanical description of the aether.[2] After Heinrich Hertz in 1887 demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic waves, Maxwell's theory was widely accepted. In addition, Oliver Heaviside and Hertz further developed the theory and introduced modernized versions of Maxwell's equations. The "Maxwell-Hertz" or "Heaviside-Hertz" Equations subsequently formed an important basis for the further development of electrodynamics, and Heaviside's notation is still used today.[3] Other important contributions to Maxwell's theory were made by George FitzGerald, Joseph John Thomson, John Henry Poynting, Hendrik Lorentz, and Joseph Larmor.[4] [5]

History of special relativity

38

Search for the aether

Regarding the relative motion and the mutual influence of matter and aether, two theories were considered: The one of Fresnel (and subsequently Lorentz), who developed a Stationary Aether Theory in which light propagates as a transverse wave and aether was partially dragged with a certain coefficient by matter. Based on this assumption, Fresnel was able to explain the Aberration of light and many optical phenomena.[6] On the other hand, George Gabriel Stokes stated in 1845 that the aether was fully dragged by matter (later this view was also shared by Hertz). In this model the aether might be (by analogy with pine pitch) rigid for fast objects and fluid for slower objects. Thus the Earth could move through it fairly freely, but it would be rigid enough to transport light.[7] Fresnel's theory was preferred because his dragging coefficient was confirmed by the Fizeau experiment of Hippolyte Fizeau in 1851, who measured the speed of light in moving liquids.[8] Albert Abraham Michelson (1881) tried to measure the relative motion of earth and Aether (Aether-Wind), as it was expected in Fresnels theory, by using an interferometer. He could not determine any relative motion, so he interpreted the result as a confirmation of the thesis of Stokes.[9] However, Lorentz (1886) showed Michelson's calculations were wrong and that he overestimated the accuracy of the measurement. This, together with the large margin of error, made the result of Michelson's experiment inconclusive. In addition, Lorentz showed that Stokes' completely dragged aether lead to contradictory consequences, and therefore he supported an aether theory similar to Fresnel's.[10] To check Fresnel's theory Michelson and Edward Morley (1886) performed a repetition of the Fizeau experiment. Fresnel's dragging coefficient was confirmed very exactly on that occasion, and Michelson was now of the opinion that Fresnel's stationary aether Albert Abraham Michelson theory is correct.[11] To clarify the situation, Michelson and Morley (1887) repeated Michelson's 1881-experiment, whereby they corrected the former errors of calculation, and they substantially increased the accuracy of the measurement. However, this now famous Michelson-Morley experiment again yielded a negative result, i.e., no motion of the apparatus through the aether was detected. So the physicists were confronted with two seemingly contradictory experiments: The 1886-experiment as an apparent confirmation of Fresnel's stationary aether, and the 1887-experiment as an apparent confirmation of Stokes' completely dragged aether.[12] A possible solution to the problem was shown by Woldemar Voigt (1887), who investigated the Doppler Effect for waves propagating in an incompressible elastic medium and deduced transformation relations that left the Wave equation in free space unchanged, and explained the negative result of the Michelson-Morley Experiment. The Voigt-Transformations include the Lorentz factor for the y- and z-coordinates, and a new time variable which later was called "local time". However, Voigt's work was completely ignored by his contemporaries.[13] [14] FitzGerald (1889) offered another explanation of the negative result of the Michelson-Morley experiment. Contrary to Voigt, he speculated that the intermolecular forces are possibly of electrical origin so that also material bodies would contract in the line of motion (length contraction). This was in connection with the work of Heaviside (1887), who determined that the electrostatic fields were contracted in the line of motion (Heaviside Ellipsoid), which leads to physically undetermined conditions at the speed of light.[15] However, Fitzgerald's idea remained widely unknown and was not discussed before Oliver Lodge published a summary of the idea in 1892.[16] Also Lorentz (1892b) proposed length contraction independently from Fitzgerald in order to explain the Michelson-Morley experiment. For plausibility reasons, Lorentz referred to the analogy of the contraction of electrostatic fields. However, even Lorentz admitted that that was not a necessary reason and length-contraction consequently remained as a purely

History of special relativity ad-hoc hypothesis.[17] [18]

39

Lorentz's theory of electrons

Hendrik Antoon Lorentz

Lorentz (1892a) set the foundations of Lorentz aether theory, by assuming the existence of electrons which he separated from the aether, and by replacing the "Maxwell-Hertz" Equations by the "Maxwell-Lorentz" Equations. In his model, the aether is completely motionless and, contrary to Fresnel's theory, also is not partially dragged by matter. An important consequence of this notion was that the velocity of light is totally independent of the velocity of the source. Lorentz gave no statements about the mechanical nature of the aether and the electromagnetic processes, but, vice-versa, tried to explain the mechanical processes by electromagnetic ones and therefore created an abstract electromagnetic ther. In the framework of his theory, Lorentz calculated, like Heaviside, the contraction of the electrostatic fields.[19] Lorentz (1895) also introduced what he called the "Theorem of Corresponding States" for terms of first order in . This theorem states that a moving observer (relative to the aether) in his "fictitious" field makes the same observations as a resting observers in his "real" field. An important part of it was local time , which paved the way to the Lorentz Transformation and which he introduced independently of Voigt. With the help of this concept, Lorentz could explain the aberration of light, the Doppler Effect and the Fizeau experiment as well. However, Lorentz's local time was only an auxiliary mathematical tool to simplify the transformation from one system into another it was Poincar in 1900 who recognized that "local time" is actually indicated by moving watches.[20] [21] [22] Lorentz also recognized the fact that his theory violated the principle of action and reaction, since the aether acts on matter, but matter cannot act on the immobile aether.[23] A very similar model was created by Joseph Larmor (1897, 1900). Larmor was the first to put Lorentz's 1895-transformation into a form algebraically equivalent to the modern Lorentz transformations, however, he stated that his transformations preserved the form of Maxwell's equations only to second order of . Lorentz later noted that these transformations did in fact preserve the form of Maxwell's equations to all orders of . Larmor noticed on that occasion, that not only can length-contraction be derived from it, but he also calculated some sort of Time Dilation for electron orbits. Larmor specified his considerations in 1900.[14] [24] Independently of Larmor, also Lorentz (1899) extended his transformation for second order terms and noted a (mathematical) Time Dilation effect as well. However, besides Lorentz and Larmor also other physicists tried to develop a consistent model of electrodynamics. For example, Emil Cohn (1900, 1901) created an alternative Electrodynamics in which he, as one of the first,

History of special relativity discarded the existence of the aether (at least in the previous form) and would use, like Ernst Mach, the fixed stars as a reference frame instead. Due to internal failures (like different light speeds in different directions) his theory was superseded by Lorentz's and Einstein's.[25]

40

Electromagnetic mass
During his development of Maxwell's Theory, J. J. Thomson (1881) recognized that charged bodies are harder to set in motion than uncharged bodies. He also noticed that the mass of a body in motion is increased by a constant quantity. Electrostatic fields behave as if they add an "electromagnetic mass" to the mechanical mass of the bodies. I.e., according to Thomson, electromagnetic energy corresponds to a certain mass. This was interpreted as some form of self-inductance of the electromagnetic field.[26] [3] Thomson's work was continued and perfected by FitzGerald, Heaviside (1888), and George Frederick Charles Searle (1896, 1897). For the electromagnetic mass they gave in modern notation the formula , where is the electromagnetic mass and is the electromagnetic energy. Heaviside and Searle also recognized that the increase of the mass of a body is not constant and varies with its velocity. Consequently, Searle noted the impossibility of superluminal velocities, because infinite energy would be needed to exceed the speed of light. Also for Lorentz (1899), the integration of the speed-dependence of masses recognized by Thomson was especially important. He noticed that the mass not only varied due to speed, but is also dependent on the direction, and he introduced what Abraham later called "longitudinal" and "transverse" mass. (The transversal mass corresponds to what later was called Relativistic Mass).[27] Wilhelm Wien (1900) assumed (following the works of Thomson, Heaviside, and Searle) that the entire mass is of electromagnetic origin and the formula for the mass-energy-relationship is . This was formulated in the context that all forces of nature are electromagnetic ones (the Electromagnetic World View). Wien stated that, if it is assumed that gravitation is an electromagnetic effect too, then there has to be a proportionality between electromagnetic energy, inertial mass and gravitational mass.[28] In the same paper Henri Poincar (1900b) found another way of combining the concepts of mass and energy. He recognized that electromagnetic energy behaves like a fictitious fluid with mass density of (or ) and defined a fictitious electromagnetic momentum as well. However, he arrived at a radiation paradox which was fully explained by Einstein in 1905.[29] Walter Kaufmann (1901-1903) was the first to confirm the velocity dependence of electromagnetic mass by analyzing the ratio (where is the charge and the mass) of cathode rays. He found that the value of decreased with the speed, showing that, assuming the charge constant, the mass of the electron increased with the speed. He also believed that those experiments confirmed the assumption of Wien, that there is no "real" mechanical mass, but only the "apparent" electromagnetic mass, or in other words, the mass of all bodies is of electromagnetic origin.[30] Max Abraham (1902 - 1904), who was a supporter of the electromagnetic world view, quickly offered an explanation for Kaufmann's experiments by deriving expressions for the electromagnetic mass. Together with this concept, Abraham introduced (like Poincar in 1900) the notion of "Electromagnetic Momentum" which is proportional to . But unlike Poincar, he considered it as a real physical entity. Abraham also noted (like Lorentz in 1899) that this mass also depends on the direction and coined the names "Longitudinal" and "Transverse" Mass. In contrast to Lorentz, he didn't incorporated the Contraction Hypothesis into his theory, and therefore his mass terms differed from those of Lorentz. [31] Based on the preceding work on electromagnetic mass, Friedrich Hasenhrl suggested that part of the mass of a body (which he called apparent mass) can be thought of as radiation bouncing around a cavity. The apparent mass of radiation depends on the temperature (because every heated body emits radiation) and is proportional to its energy, and he first concluded that . Hasenhrl stated that this energy-apparent-mass relation only holds as long a body radiates, i.e., if the temperature of a body is greater than 0 K. However, Abraham and Hasenhrl himself in 1905 changed the result to , the same value as for the electromagnetic mass for a body at rest.[32]

History of special relativity

41

Absolute space and time

Some scientists started to criticize Newton's definitions of absolute space and time.[33] [34] [35] For example, Carl Neumann (1870) introduced a "Body alpha", which represents some sort of rigid and fixed body for defining inertial motion. Ernst Mach (1883) argued that absolute time and space are meaningless and only relative motion is a useful concept. He also said that even accelerated motion such as rotation could be related to the fixed stars without using Newton's absolute space. Based on the definition of Neumann, Heinrich Streintz (1883) argued that if gyroscopes don't measure any signs of rotation, then one can speak of inertial motion which is related to a "Fundamental body" and a "Fundamental Coordinate System". Eventually, Ludwig Lange (1885) was the first to coin the expression inertial frame of reference and inertial time scale as operational replacements for absolute space and time, by defining "a reference frame in which a mass point thrown from the same point in three different (non co-planar) directions follows rectilinear paths each time it is thrown is called a inertial frame". And in 1902, Henri Poincar published the philosophical and popular-science book "Science and Hypothesis", which included: philosophical assessments on the relativity of space, time, and simultaneity; the opinion that a violation of the Relativity Principle can never be detected; the possible non-existence of the aether but also some arguments supporting the aether; many remarks on non-Euclidean geometry. There were also some attempts to use time as a Fourth Dimension.[36] [37] This was done as early as 1754 by Jean le Rond d'Alembert in the Encyclopdie, as it was done by some authors in the 19th century like H. G. Wells in his novel The Time Machine (1895). And in 1901 a philosophical model was published by Menyhrt Palgyi, in which space and time were only two sides of some sort of "spacetime".[38] He used time as an imaginary fourth dimension, which he gave the form (where , i.e. imaginary number). However, Palagyi's time coordinate is not connected to the speed of light like it is in Lorentz's theory. He also rejected any connection with the existing constructions of n-dimensional spaces and non-Euclidean geometry and consequently rejected the spacetime formalism of Einstein and Minkowski, so physicists like Max Born argued that his model bears only little resemblance with relativity.[39]

Light constancy and the Principle of relative motion

In the second half of the 19th century there were many attempts to develop a worldwide clock network synchronized by electrical signals. On that occasion, the finite propagation speed of light had to be considered as well. So Henri Poincar (1898) in his paper The Measure of Time drew some important consequences of this process and explained that astronomers, in determining the speed of light, simply assume that light has a constant speed, and that this speed is the same in all directions. Without this postulate it would be impossible to infer the speed of light from astronomical observations, as Ole Rmer did based on observations of the moons of Jupiter. Poincar also noted that the propagation speed of light can be (and in practice often is) used to define simultaneity between spatially separate events. He concluded by saying, that "The simultaneity of two events, or the order of their succession, the equality of two durations, are to be so defined that the enunciation of the natural laws may be as simple as possible. In other words, all these rules, all these definitions are only the fruit of an unconscious opportunism."[40]

Henri Poincar

In some other papers, Poincar (1895, 1900a) argued that experiments like that of Michelson-Morley show the impossibility of detecting the absolute motion of matter or the relative motion of matter in relation to the aether. He

History of special relativity

42

called this the "principle of relative motion."[41] In the same year he interpreted Lorentz's local time as the result of a synchronization procedure based on light signals. He assumed that 2 observers A and B, which are moving in the aether, synchronize their clocks by optical signals. Since they believe themselves to be at rest, they must consider only the transmission time of the signals and then cross-reference their observations to examine whether their clocks are synchronous. However, from the point of view of an observer at rest in the aether, the clocks are not synchronous and indicate the local time . But because the moving observers do not know anything about their movement, they do not recognize this. So, contrary to Lorentz, Poincar-defined local time can be measured and indicated by clocks.[42] Therefore, in his recommendation of Lorentz for the Nobel Prize in 1902, Poincar argued that Lorentz has convincingly explained the negative outcome of the aether drift experiments by inventing the "diminished time", i.e. that two events at different place could appear as simultaneous, although they are not simultaneous in reality.[43] Like Poincar, Alfred Bucherer (1903) believed in the validity of the relativity principle within the domain of electrodynamics, but contrary to Poincar, Bucherer even assumed that this implies the nonexistence of the aether. However, the theory that was created by him later in 1906 was incorrect and not self-consistent, and the Lorentz transformation was absent within his theory as well.[44]

Lorentz's 1904 model

In his paper Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light, Lorentz (1904) was following the suggestion of Poincar and attempted to create a formulation of Electrodynamics, which explains the failure of all known aether drift experiments, i.e. the relativity principle. He tried to prove the validity of the Lorentz transformation for all orders, although he didn't succeed completely. Like Wien and Abraham, he argued that there exists only electromagnetic mass, not mechanical mass, and derived the correct expression for longitudinal and transverse mass, which were in agreement with Kaufmann's experiments. However, those experiments were not precise enough to distinguish between the theories of Lorentz and Abraham. And using the electromagnetic momentum, he could explain the negative result of the Trouton-Noble experiment, in which a charged parallel-plate capacitor moving through the aether should orient itself perpendicular to the motion. Another important step was the postulate that the Lorentz Transformation has to be valid for non-electrical forces as well.[45] At the same time, when Lorentz worked out his theory, Wien (1903) recognized an important consequence of the velocity dependence of mass. He argued that superluminal velocities were impossible, because that would require an infinite amount of energy the same was already noted by Thomson (1893) and Searle (1897). And in June 1904, after he had read Lorentz's 1904 paper, he noticed the same in relation to length contraction, because at superluminal velocities the factor becomes imaginary.[46] Lorentz's theory was criticized by Abraham, who demonstrated that on one side the theory obeys the relativity principle, and on the other side the electromagnetic origin of all forces is assumed. Abraham showed, that both assumptions were incompatible, because in Lorentz's theory of the contracted electrons, non-electric forces were needed in order to guarantee the stability of matter. However, in Abraham's theory of the rigid electron, no such forces were needed. Thus the question arose whether the Electromagnetic conception of the world (compatible with Abraham's theory) or the Relativity Principle (compatible with Lorentz's Theory) was correct.[47] In a September 1904 lecture in St. Louis named The Principles of Mathematical Physics, Poincar draw some consequences from Lorentz's theory and defined (in modification of Galileo's Relativity Principle and Lorentz's Theorem of Corresponding States) the following principle: "The Principle of Relativity, according to which the laws of physical phenomena must be the same for a stationary observer as for one carried along in a uniform motion of translation, so that we have no means, and can have none, of determining whether or not we are being carried along in such a motion." He also specified his clock synchronization method and explained the possibility of a "new method" or "new mechanics", in which no velocity can surpass that of light for all observers. However, he critically noted that the Relativity Principle, Newton's action and reaction, the Conservation of Mass and the Conservation of Energy are not fully established and are even threatened by some experiments.[48]

History of special relativity Also Emil Cohn (1904) continued to develop his alternative model (as described above), and while comparing his theory with that of Lorentz, he discovered some important physical interpretations of the Lorentz transformations. He illustrated (like Joseph Larmor in the same year) this transformation by using rods and clocks: If they are at rest in the aether, they indicate the true length and time, and if they are moving, they indicate contracted and dilated values. Like Poincar, Cohn defined local time as the time, which is based on the assumption of isotropic propagation of light. Contrary to Lorentz and Poincar it was noticed by Cohn, that within Lorentz's theory the separation of "real" and "apparent" coordinates is artificial, because no experiment can distinguish between them. Yet according to Cohn's own theory, the Lorentz transformed quantities would only be valid for optical phenomena, while mechanical clocks would indicate the "real" time.[25]

43

Poincar's Dynamics of the electron

On 5 June 1905, Henri Poincar submitted the summary of a work which closed the existing gaps of Lorentz's work. (This short paper contained the results of a more complete work which was published in January 1906). He showed that Lorentz's equations of electrodynamics were not fully Lorentz-covariant. So he pointed out the group characteristics of the transformation, and he corrected Lorentz's formulas for the transformations of charge density and current density (which implicitly contained the relativistic velocity-addition formula, which he elaborated in May in a letter to Lorentz). Poincar used for the first time the term "Lorentz transformation", and he gave them the symmetrical form which is used to this day. He introduced a non-electrical binding force (the so called "Poincar stresses") to ensure the stability of the electrons and to explain length contraction. He also sketched a Lorentz-invariant model of gravitation (including gravitational waves) by extending the validity of Lorentz-invariance to non-electrical forces.[49] [50] Eventually Poincar (independently of Einstein) finished a substantially extended work of his June paper (the so called Palermo paper, received 23 July, printed 14 December, published January 1906 ). He spoke literally of the postulate of relativity. He showed that the transformations are a consequence of the Principle of Least Action and developed the properties of the Poincar stresses. He demonstrated in more detail the group characteristics of the transformation, which he called the Lorentz group, and he showed that the combination is invariant. While elaborating his gravitational theory, he said the Lorentz transformation is merely a rotation in four-dimensional space about the origin, by introducing as a fourth imaginary coordinate (contrary to Palagyi, he included the speed of light), and he used an early form of four-vectors. He wrote that the discovery of magneto-cathode rays by Paul Ulrich Villard (1904) seems to threaten the entire theory of Lorentz, but this problem was quickly solved.[51] However, although in his philosophical writings Poincar rejected the ideas of absolute space and time, in his physical papers he continued to refer to an (undetectable) aether. He also continued (1900b, 1904, 1906, 1908b) to describe coordinates and phenomena as local/apparent (for moving observers) and true/real (for observers at rest in the aether).[22] [52] So with a few exceptions[53] [54] [55] most historians of science argue that Poincar did not invent what is now called special relativity, although it is admitted that Poincar anticipated much of Einstein's methods and terminology.[56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61]

History of special relativity

44

Special relativity
Einstein 1905
Electrodynamics of moving bodies In September 26, 1905 (received 30 June), Albert Einstein published his annus mirabilis paper on what is now called Special Relativity. Einstein's paper includes a fundamental new definition of space and time (all time and space coordinates in all reference frames are equal, so there is no "true" or "apparent" time) and the abolition of the aether. He identified two fundamental principles, the Principle of Relativity and the Principle of the Constancy of Light, which served as the axiomatic basis of his theory. To better understand Einstein's step, a summary of the situation before 1905, as it was described above, shall be given[62] (it must be remarked that Einstein was familiar with the 1895 theory of Lorentz, and "Science and Hypothesis" by Poincar, but not their papers of 1904-1905): a) Maxwell's electrodynamics, in the way as it was presented by Lorentz in 1895, was the most successful theory at this time. Here, the Albert Einstein, 1921 speed of light is constant in all directions in the stationary aether, and completely independent of the velocity of the source; b) The inability to find an absolute state of motion, which was the consequence of the negative results of all aether drift experiments, as well as the fact that effects like the moving magnet and conductor problem only depend on relative motion; c) The Fizeau experiment; d) The aberration of light. This had the following consequences for the speed of light and the theories known at that time: 1. The speed of light is not composed by the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of a preferred frame of reference, by b. This contradicts the theory of the (nearly) stationary aether. 2. The speed of light is not composed by the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of the light source, by a and c. This contradicts the emission theory. 3. The speed of light is not composed by the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of an aether that would be dragged within or in the vicinity of matter, by a, c, and d. This contradicts the hypothesis of the complete aether drag. 4. The speed of light in moving media is not composed by the speed of light when the medium is at rest, and the velocity of the medium, but is determined by Fresnel's dragging coefficient, by c.[63] To make the preceding theories tenable, the introduction of Ad hoc hypotheses would be required. Yet in science the assumption of a conspiracy of effects which prevent the discovery of other effects is considered to be very improbable, and it would violate Occam's razor as well.[64] So Einstein refused to invent auxiliary hypotheses, and draw the direct conclusions from the facts stated above: That the relativity principle is correct and the speed of light is constant in all inertial reference frames. Because of his axiomatic method, Einstein was able to derive all results of his predecessors and in addition the formulas for the Relativistic Doppler effect and Relativistic aberration on a few pages, while his predecessors needed years of long, complicated work to arrive at the same mathematical formalism. Lorentz and Poincar had also adopted these same principles, as necessary to achieve their final results, but didn't recognize that they were also sufficient, and hence that they obviated all the other assumptions (especially the stationary aether) underlying Lorentz's initial derivations.[60] [65] Another reason for Einstein's rejection of the aether was probably his work on quantum physics. Einstein found out that light can also be described as a particle, so the aether as the medium for electromagnetic "waves" (which was highly important for Lorentz and Poincar) had no

History of special relativity place in his theoretical concepts anymore.[66] It's notable that Einstein's paper contains no direct references to other papers. However, many historians of science like Holton,[64] Miller,[57] Stachel,[67] have tried to find out possible influences on Einstein. Einstein himself stated that his thinking was influenced by the empiricist philosophers David Hume and Ernst Mach. Regarding the Relativity Principle, the moving magnet and conductor problem (possibly after reading a book of August Fppl) and the various negative aether drift experiments were important for him to accept that principle but he denied any significant influence of the most important experiment: the Michelson-Morley experiment.[67] Other possible sources are Poincar's Science and Hypothesis, where he described the Principle of Relativity and which was read by Einstein in 1904,[68] and the writings of Max Abraham, from whom he borrowed the terms "Maxwell-Hertz equations" and "longitudinal and transverse mass".[69] Regarding his views on Electrodynamics and the Principle of the Constancy of Light, Einstein himself stated that Lorentz's theory of 1895 (or the Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics) and also the Fizeau experiment had considerable influence on his thinking. He said in 1909 and 1912 that he borrowed that principle from Lorentz's stationary aether (which implies validity of Maxwell's equations and the constancy of light in the aether frame), but he recognized that this principle together with the principle of relativity makes the aether useless.[70] As he wrote in 1907 and in later papers, the apparent contradiction between those principles can be solved if it is realized that Lorentz's local time is not an auxiliary quantity, but can simply be defined as time and is connected with signal velocity. Before Einstein, also Poincar developed a similar physical interpretation of local time and noticed the connection to signal velocity, but contrary to Einstein he continued to argue that clocks in the aether show the true time, and moving clocks show the apparent time. Eventually, in 1953 Einstein described the advances of his theory (although Poincar already stated in 1905 that Lorentz invariance is a general condition for any physical theory):[70]

45

There is no doubt, that the special theory of relativity, if we regard its development in retrospect, was ripe for discovery in 1905. Lorentz had already recognized that the transformations named after him are essential for the analysis of Maxwell's equations, and Poincar deepened this insight still further. Concerning myself, I knew only Lorentz's important work of 1895 [...] but not Lorentz's later work, nor the consecutive investigations by Poincar. In this sense my work of 1905 was independent. [..] The new feature of it was the realization of the fact that the bearing of the Lorentz transformation transcended its connection with Maxwell's equations and was concerned with the nature of space and time in general. A further new result was that the "Lorentz invariance" is a general condition for any physical theory. This was for me of particular importance because I had already previously found that Maxwell's theory did not account for the micro-structure of radiation and could therefore have no general validity.

Mass-energy equivalence Already in 10 of his paper on electrodynamics, Einstein used the formula

for the kinetic energy of an electron. In elaboration of this he published a paper (received 27 September, November 1905), in which Einstein showed that when a material body lost energy (either radiation or heat) of amount E, its mass decreased by the amount E/c2. This led to the famous massenergy equivalence formula: E=mc2. Einstein considered the equivalency equation to be of paramount importance because it showed that a massive particle possesses an energy, the "rest energy", distinct from its classical kinetic and potential energies.[29] As it was shown above, many authors before Einstein arrived at similar formulas (including a 4/3-factor) for the relation of mass to energy. However, their work was focused on electromagnetic energy which (as we know today) only represents a small part of the entire energy within matter. So it was Einstein who was the first a) to ascribe this relation to all forms of energy, and b) to understand the connection of Mass-energy equivalence with the relativity principle.

History of special relativity

46

Early reception
First assessments Walter Kaufmann (1905, 1906) was probably the first who referred to Einstein's work. He compared the theories of Lorentz and Einstein, and, although he said Einstein's method is to be preferred, he argued that both theories are observationally equivalent. Therefore, he spoke of the relativity principle as the "Lorentz-Einsteinian" basic assumption. The name "Lorentz-Einstein-Theory" was used by others for some years as well.[71] Shortly afterwards, Max Planck (1906a) was the first who publicly defended the theory, and who interested his students Max von Laue and Kurd von Mosengeil for this theory. He described Einstein's theory as a "generalization" of Lorentz's theory, and to this "Lorentz-Einstein-Theory" he gave the name "relative theory", while Alfred Bucherer changed Planck's notation into the now common "theory of relativity". On the other hand, Einstein himself and many others continued to simply refer to the new method as the "relativity principle". And in an important overview article on the relativity principle (1908a), Einstein described SR as a "union of Lorentz's theory and the relativity principle", including the fundamental assumption that Lorentz's local time can be described as real time. (Yet, Poincar's contributions were rarely mentioned in the first years after 1905.) All of those expressions (Lorentz-Einstein theory, relativity principle, relativity theory) were used by different physicists alternately in the next years.[72] Kaufmann-Bucherer experiments Kaufmann (1905, 1906) announced the results of his new experiments on the charge to mass ratio, i.e. the velocity dependence of mass. They represented, in his opinion, a clear refutation of the relativity principle and the Lorentz-Einstein-Theory, and a confirmation of Abraham's theory. For some years, Kaufmann's experiments represented a weighty objection against the relativity principle, although it was criticized by Planck and Adolf Bestelmeyer (1906). Following Kaufmann, other physicists like Alfred Bucherer (1908), and Gnther Neumann (1914) also examined the velocity-dependence of mass, and this time it was thought that the "Lorentz-Einstein theory" and the relativity principle is confirmed, and Abraham's theory is disproved. However, it was later pointed out that the Kaufmann-Bucherer-Neumann experiments only showed a qualitative mass increase of moving electron, but they were not precise enough to distinguish between the models of Lorentz-Einstein and Abraham. So it lasted until 1940, when experiments of this kind were repeated with sufficient accuracy for confirming the Lorentz-Einstein formula.[71] However, this problem occurred only for this kind of experiments. The investigations of the fine structure of the hydrogen lines already in 1917 provided a clear confirmation of the Lorentz-Einstein formula, and the refutation of Abraham's theory.[73]

History of special relativity Relativistic momentum and mass Planck (1906a) defined the relativistic momentum and gave the correct values for the longitudinal and transverse mass by correcting a slight mistake of the expression given by Einstein in 1905. Planck's expressions were in principle equivalent to those used by Lorentz in 1899.[74] Based on the work of Planck, the concept of relativistic mass was developed by Gilbert Newton Lewis and Richard C. Tolman (1908, 1909) by defining mass as the ratio of momentum to velocity. So the older definition of longitudinal and transverse mass, in which mass was defined as the ratio of force to acceleration, became superfluous. Finally, Tolman (1912) interpreted relativistic mass simply as the mass of the body.[75] However, many modern textbooks on relativity don't use the concept of relativistic mass anymore, and mass is considered as an invariant quantity. Mass and energy Einstein (1906) showed that the inertia of energy (mass-energy-equivalence) is a necessary and sufficient condition for the conservation of the center of mass theorem. On that occasion, he noted that the formal mathematical content of Poincar paper on the center of mass(1900b) and his own paper were mainly the same, although the physical interpretation was different in light of relativity.[29]
Max Planck

47

Kurd von Mosengeil (1906) by extending Hasenhrl's calculation of black-body-radiation in a cavity, derived the same expression for the additional mass of a body due to electromagnetic radiation as Hasenhrl. Hasenhrl's idea was that the mass of bodies included a contribution from the electromagnetic field, he imagined a body as a cavity containing light. His relationship between mass and energy, like all other pre-Einstein ones, contained incorrect numerical prefactors (see Electromagnetic mass). Eventually Planck (1907) derived the mass-energy-equivalence in general within the framework of special relativity, including the binding forces within matter. He acknowledged the priority of Einstein's 1905 work on , but Planck judged his own approach as more general than Einstein's.[76] Experiments by Fizeau and Sagnac As it was explained above, already in 1895 Lorentz succeeded in deriving Fresnel's dragging coefficient (to first order of v/c) and the Fizeau experiment by using the electromagnetic theory and the concept of local time. After first attempts by Jakob Laub (1907) to create a relativistic "optics of moving bodies", it was Max von Laue (1907) who derived the coefficient for terms of all orders by using the colinear case of the relativistic velocity addition law. In addition, Laue's calculation was much simpler than the complicated methods used by Lorentz.[23] In 1911 Laue also discussed a situation where on a platform a beam of light is split and the two beams are made to follow a trajectory in opposite directions. On return to the point of entry the light is allowed to exit the platform in such a way that an interference pattern is obtained. Laue calculated a displacement of the interference pattern if the platform is in rotation because the speed of light is independent of the velocity of the source, so one beam has covered less distance than the other beam. A experiment of this kind was performed by Georges Sagnac in 1913, who actually measured a displacement of the interference pattern (Sagnac effect). While Sagnac himself concluded that his theory confirmed the theory of an aether at rest, Laue's earlier calculation showed that it is compatible with special relativity as well because in both theories the speed of light is independent of the velocity of the source. This effect can be understood as the electromagnetic counterpart of the mechanics of rotation, for example in analogy to a Foucault pendulum[77] [Already in 190911, Franz Harress (1912) performed an experiment which can be

History of special relativity considered as a synthesis of the experiments of Fizeau and Sagnac. He tried to measure the dragging coefficient within glass. Contrary to Fizeau he used a rotating device so he found the same effect as Sagnac. While Harress himself misunderstood the meaning of the result, it was shown by Laue that the theoretical explanation of Harress' experiment is in accordance with the Sagnac effect.[78] ] Eventually, the MichelsonGalePearson experiment (1925, a variation of the Sagnac experiment) indicated the angular velocity of the Earth itself in accordance with special relativity and a resting aether. Relativity of simultaneity The first derivations of relativity of simultaneity by synchronization with light signals were also simplified.[79] Daniel Frost Comstock (1910) placed an observer in the middle between two clocks A and B. From this observer a signal is sent to both clocks, and in the frame in which A and B are at rest, they synchronously start to run. But from the perspective of a system in which A and B are moving, clock B is first set in motion, and then comes clock A so the clocks are not synchronized. Also Einstein (1917) created a model with an observer in the middle between A and B. However, in his description two signals are sent from A and B to the observer. From the perspective of the frame, in which A and B are at rest the signals are sent at the same time and the observer "is hastening towards the beam of light coming from B, whilst he is riding on ahead of the beam of light coming from A. Hence the observer will see the beam of light emitted from B earlier than he will see that emitted from A. Observers who take the railway train as their reference-body must therefore come to the conclusion that the lightning flash B took place earlier than the lightning flash A." Emission theories of light Walter Ritz (1908) and others sketched an emission theory, according to which the speed of light in all reference frames is only constant relative to the source of emission (and not to an aether), whereby he used the Galilei-Transformation instead of the Lorentz-Transformation (i.e., in systems where the source is moving at v, the light propagates with the velocity equal to c v). Also, Einstein briefly considered such a hypothesis before 1905. So this theory obeys the relativity principle and although it violates the constancy of light, it explains the Michelson-Morley-experiment. So the experiment cannot be considered as a direct proof of the constancy of the speed of light in all reference frames.[80] However, the solution provided by special relativity is preferred over an emission theory, for such a theory would require a complete reformulation of electrodynamics, which is not supported by the success of Maxwell's theory. And finally the emission theory is considered to be disproved by Willem de Sitter (1913), who showed that, for the case of a double-star system seen edge-on, light from the approaching star might be expected to travel faster than light from its receding companion and overtake it. If the distance was great enough for an approaching star's "fast" signal to catch up with and overtake the "slow" light that it had emitted earlier when it was receding, then the image of the star system should appear completely scrambled.[81] However, due to extinction that argument is invalid for optical wavelengths, but it was shown by Brecher (1977) that even at X-ray wavelengths, the velocity of light is independent of the velocity of the stars. Other effects that rule out the theory are the Sagnac effect and the experiments by Alvger, et al. (1964), who measured the velocity of -rays after the decay of 0-mesons the result show that the velocity of light is independent of the source.

48

History of special relativity

49

Spacetime physics
Minkowski's spacetime Poincar's attempt of a four-dimensional reformulation of the new mechanics was not continued by himself, because in his opinion that would entail too much effort.[51] So it was Hermann Minkowski (1907), who worked out the consequences of that notion. That was based on the work of many mathematicians of the 19th century like Arthur Cayley, Felix Klein, or William Kingdon Clifford, who contributed to Group theory, Invariant theory and Projective geometry.[82] Using similar methods, Minkowski succeeded in formulating a geometrical interpretation of the Lorentz transformation. He completed, for example, the concept of four vectors; he created the Minkowski diagram for the depiction of space-time; he was the first to use expressions like world line, proper time, Lorentz invariance/covariance, etc.; and most notably he presented a four-dimensional formulation of electrodynamics. Similar to Poincar he tried to formulate a Lorentz-invariant law of gravity, but that work was superseded by Einstein's elaborations on gravitation.

Hermann Minkowski

In 1907 Minkowski named four predecessors who contributed to the formulation of the relativity principle: Lorentz, Einstein, Poincar and Planck. And in his famous lecture Space and Time (1908) he mentioned Voigt, Lorentz and Einstein. Minkowski himself considered Einstein's theory as a generalization of Lorentz's and credited Einstein for completely stating the relativity of time, but he criticized his predecessors for not fully developing the relativity of space. However, modern historians of science argue that Minkowski's claim for priority was unjustified. That is because Minkowski (like Wien or Abraham) adhered to the electromagnetic world-picture and apparently didn't fully understand the difference between Lorentz's electron theory and Einstein's kinematics.[83] [84] In 1908, Einstein and Laub rejected the four-dimensional electrodynamics of Minkowski as too complicated and published a "more elementary", non-four-dimensional derivation of the basic-equations for moving bodies. But it was Minkowski's formalism which a) showed that special relativity is a complete and consistent theory, and b) served as a basis for further development of relativity.[85] Eventually, Einstein (1912) agreed on the importance of Minkowski's spacetime formalism and used it for his work on the foundations of general relativity. Today special relativity is seen as an application of linear algebra, but at the time special relativity was being developed the field of linear algebra was still in its infancy. There were no textbooks on linear algebra as modern vector space and transformation theory, and the matrix notation of Arthur Cayley (that unifies the subject) had not yet come into widespread use. In retrospect, we can see that the Lorentz transformations are simply hyperbolic rotations, as explicitly noted by Minkowski. Vector notation and closed systems Minkowski's space-time formalism was extended and therefore was quickly accepted.[84] For example, Arnold Sommerfeld (1910) replaced Minkowski's matrix notation by an elegant vector notation and coined the terms "four vector" and "six vector". He also introduced a trigonometric formulation of the relativistic velocity addition rule, which according to Sommerfeld, removes much of the strangeness of that concept. Other important contributions were made by Laue (1911, 1913), who used the spacetime formalism to create a relativistic theory of deformable bodies and elementary particle theory.[86] [87] He extended Minkowski's expressions for electromagnetic processes to all possible forces and thereby clarified the concept of mass-energy-equivalence. Laue also showed that non-electrical forces are needed for ensure the proper Lorentz transformation properties and for the stability of

History of special relativity matter he could show that the "Poincar stresses" are a natural consequence of relativity theory so that the electron be a closed system. Lorentz transformation without second postulate There were some attempts to derive the Lorentz transformation without the postulate of the constancy of the speed of light. Vladimir Ignatowski (1910) for example used for this purpose a) the principle of relativity, b) and homogeneity and isotropy of space c) the requirement of reciprocity. Philipp Frank and Hermann Rothe (1911) argued that this derivation is incomplete and needs additional assumptions. Their own calculation was based on the assumptions that a) the Lorentz transformation forms a homogeneous linear group, b) when changing frames, only the sign of the relative speed changes, c) length contraction solely depends on the relative speed. However, according to Pauli and Miller such models were insufficient to identify the invariant speed in their transformation with the speed of light for example, Ignatowski was forced to recourse to electrodynamics to include the speed of light. So Pauli and others argued that both postulates are needed to derive the Lorentz transformation.[88] [89] However, until today, others continued the attempts to derive special relativity without the light postulate. Non-euclidean formulations without imaginary time coordinate It was noted by Minkowski (1907) that his space-time formalism represents a "four-dimensional non-euclidean manifold", but in order to emphasize the formal similarity to the more familiar Euclidean geometry, Minkowski noted that the time coordinate could be treated as imaginary. This was just a way of representing a non-Euclidean metric while emphasizing the formal similarity to a Euclidean metric. However, many subsequent writers have dispensed with the imaginary time coordinate, and simply written the metric in explicitly non-Euclidean form (i.e., with a negative signature), since it makes no difference to the content or results of the equations. It merely affects (slightly) their appearance. Sommerfeld (1910) gave a trigonometric formulation of velocities, and Vladimir Variak (1912) emphasized the similarity of this formulation to (Bolyai-Lobachevskian) hyperbolic geometry and tried to reformulate relativity using that non-euclidean geometry. Alfred Robb (1911) introduced the concept of Rapidity as a hyperbolic angle to characterize frame velocity. Edwin Bidwell Wilson and Gilbert N. Lewis (1912) introduced a vector notation for spacetime. mile Borel (1913) derived the kinematic basis of Thomas precession.[90] Different authors have used the phrase hyperbolic plane to refer both to (Bolyai-Lobachevskian) hyperbolic geometry and Minkowski geometry but these are two different geometries. Space-time is described by Minkowski space, but the velocity space is described by hyperbolic geometry. In particular the hyperboloid model was identified with velocities by Minkowski (1908). Today one still finds texts on special relativity that make use of an imaginary time coordinate, but most have adopted real-valued coordinates and a metric with negative signature. (The implications of the two different formalisms in the context of general relativity - as in the recent work of Hawking - are beyond the scope of this article.) Time dilation and twin paradox Einstein (1907a) proposed a method for detecting the Transverse Doppler effect as a direct consequence of time dilation. And in fact, that effect was measured in 1938 by Herbert E. Ives and G. R. Stilwell (IvesStilwell experiment).[91] And Lewis and Tolman (1909) described the reciprocity of time dilation by using two light clocks A and B, traveling with a certain relative velocity to each other. The clocks consist of two plane mirrors parallel to one another and to the line of motion. Between the mirrors a light signal is bouncing, and for the observer resting in the same reference frame as A, the period of clock A is the distance between the mirrors divided by the speed of light. But if the observer looks at clock B, he sees that within that clock the signal traces out a longer, angled path, thus clock B is slower than A. However, for the observer moving alongside with B the situation is completely in reverse: Clock B is faster and A is slower. Also Lorentz (19101912) discussed the reciprocity of time dilation and analyzed a clock "paradox", which apparently occurs as a consequence of the reciprocity of time dilation. Lorentz showed that there is no paradox if one considers that in one system only one clock is used, while in the other system two clocks

50

History of special relativity are necessary. So the relativity of simultaneity has to be considered as well. A similar situation was created by Paul Langevin in 1911 with what was later called the "twin paradox", where he replaced the clocks by persons (Langevin never used the word "twins" but his description contained all other features of the paradox). Langevin solved the paradox by alluding to the fact that one twin accelerates and changes direction, so Langevin could show that the symmetry is broken and the accelerated twin is younger. However, Langevin himself interpreted this as a hint to the existence of an aether. Although Langevin's explanation is used in principle until today, his deductions regarding the aether were not accepted. Laue (1913) pointed out that the acceleration can be made arbitrarily small in relation to the inertial motion of the twin. So it is much more important that one twin travels within two inertial frames during his journey, while the other twin remains in one frame. Laue was also the first to visualize the situation using Minkowski diagrams he demonstrated how the world lines of inertially moving bodies maximize the proper time elapsed between two events.[92] Acceleration Einstein (1908) tried - preliminarily in the framework of special relativity - also to include accelerated motions within the relativity principle. In the course of this attempt he recognized that for any single moment of acceleration one can define an inertial reference frame, in which the accelerated body is temporarily at rest. It follows that in accelerated frames defined in this way, the application of the constancy of the speed of light to define simultaneity is restricted to small localities. However, the equivalence principle that was used by Einstein in the course of that investigation, which expresses the equality of inertial and gravitational mass and the equivalence of accelerated frames and homogeneous gravitational fields, transcended the limits of special relativity and resulted in the formulation of general relativity.[93] Nearly simultaneously with Einstein, also Minkowski (1908) considered the special case of uniform accelerations within the framework of his space-time formalism. He recognized that the world-line of such an accelerated body corresponds to an hyperbola. This notion was further developed by Born (1909) and Sommerfeld (1910) whereby Born introduced the expression "hyperbolic motion". He noted that uniform acceleration can be used as an approximation for any form of acceleration within special relativity. In addition, Harry Bateman and Ebenezer Cunningham (1910) showed that Maxwell's equations are invariant under a much wider group of transformation then the Lorentz-group, i.e., the so called "conformal transformations". Under those transformations the equations preserve their form for some types of accelerated motions. A general covariant formulation of electrodynamics in Minkowski space was eventually given by Friedrich Kottler (1912), whereby his formulation is also valid for general relativity. Concerning the further development of the description of accelerated motion in special relativity, the works by Langevin and others for rotating frames (Born coordinates), and by Wolfgang Rindler and others for uniform accelerated frames (Rindler coordinates) must be mentioned.[94] [95]

51

Max von Laue

History of special relativity Rigid bodies and Ehrenfest paradox Einstein (1907b) discussed the question of whether, in rigid bodies, as well as in all other cases, the velocity of information can exceed the speed of light, and explained that information could be transmitted under these circumstances into the past, and then causality would be violated. Since this contravenes radically against every experience, superluminal velocities are thought impossible. He added that a dynamics of the rigid body must be created in the framework of SR. Eventually, Max Born (1909) in the course of his above mention work concerning accelerated motion, tried to include the concept of rigid bodies into SR. However, Paul Ehrenfest (1909) showed that Born's concept lead the so called Ehrenfest paradox, according to which the circumference of a rotating disk is shortened because of length contraction by a constant radius. This question was also considered by Gustav Herglotz, Fritz Noether, and 1911 by Laue. It was recognize by Laue that the classic concept is not applicable in SR since a "rigid" body possesses infinitely many Degrees of freedom.[96] In connection to the Ehrenfest paradox, it was also discussed (by Vladimir Variak and others) whether length contraction is "real" or "apparent", and whether there is a difference between the dynamic contraction of Lorentz and the kinematic contraction of Einstein. However, it was rather a dispute over words because, as Einstein and Wolfgang Pauli said, the kinematic length contraction is "apparent" for an co-moving observer, but for an observer at rest it is "real" and the consequences are measurable. While Born's definition was not applicable on rigid bodies, it was very useful in describing rigid motions of bodies.[97] Gravitation The first attempt to formulate a relativistic theory of gravitation was undertaken by Poincar (1905). He tried to modify Newton's law of gravitation so that it assumes a Lorentz-covariant form. He noted that there were many possibilities for a relativistic law, whereby he discussed two of them. It was shown be Poincar that the argument of Pierre-Simon Laplace, who argued that the speed of gravity is many times faster then the speed of light, is not valid within an relativistic theory. That is, in a relativistic theory of gravitation, planetary orbit are stable even when the speed of gravity is equal to that of light. Similar models as that of Poincar were discussed by Minkowski (1907b) and Sommerfeld (1910). However, it was shown by Abraham (1912) that those models belong to the class of "vector theories" of gravitation. The fundamental defect of those theories is that they implicitly contain a negative value for the gravitational energy in the vicinity of matter, which would violate the energy principle. As an alternative, Abraham (1912) and Gustav Mie (1913) proposed different "scalar theories" of gravitation. While Mie never formulated his theory in a consistent way, Abraham completely gave up the concept of Lorentz-covariance (even locally), and therefore it was irreconcilable with relativity. In addition, all of those models violated the equivalence principle, and Einstein argued that is impossible to formulate a theory which is both Lorentz-covariant and satisfies the equivalence principle. However, Gunnar Nordstrm (1912, 1913) was able to create a model which fulfills both conditions. This was achieved by making both the gravitational and the inertial mass dependent on the gravitational potential. Nordstrm's theory of gravitation was remarkable because it was shown by Einstein and Adriaan Fokker (1914), that in this model gravitation can be completely described in terms of space-time curvature. Although Nordstrm's theory is without contradiction, from Einstein's point of view a fundamental problem persisted: It doesn't fulfill the important condition of general covariance, as in this theory preferred frames of referenced can still be formulated. So contrary to those "scalar theories", Einstein (1911-1915) developed a "tensor theory" (i.e. general relativity), which fulfills both the equivalence principle and general covariance. As a consequence, the notion of a complete "special relativistic" theory of gravitation has to be given up, as in general relativity the constancy of light speed (and Lorentz covariance) is only locally valid. The decision between those models was brought about by Einstein, when he was able to exactly derive the Perihelion precession of Mercury, while the other theories gave erroneous results. In addition, Einstein's theory was the only which gave the correct value for the deflection of light near the sun.[98] [99]

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History of special relativity Acceptance of special relativity Eventually, around 1911 most mathematicians and theoretical physicists accepted the results of special relativity. For example, already Planck (1909) compared the implications of the modern relativity principle especially Einstein's relativity of time with the revolution by the Copernican system.[100] As a result, the fundamental difference between the dynamical approach of Lorentz and the kinematical of Einstein was pointed out, and the term "Lorentz-Einstein-Theory" wasn't used anymore. Only a few theoretical physicists like Lorentz, Poincar, Abraham or Langevin, still believed in the existence of an aether in any form.[101] Another important reason for accepting special relativity was the extension of Minkowski's space-time formalism around 19101913[84] So in 1912 Wilhelm Wien recommended both Lorentz and Einstein for the Nobel Prize in Physics even though this prize was never awarded for special relativity. After formulating GR, Einstein in 1915, for the first time, used the expression "special theory of relativity" to distinguish between the theories.

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Priority
Some claim that Poincar (and Lorentz), not Einstein, are the true founders of special relativity. For more see the article on relativity priority dispute.

Criticisms
Some criticized Special Relativity for various reasons, such as lack of empirical evidence, internal inconsistencies, rejection of mathematical physics per se, philosophical reasons. Examples are: Max Abraham, Friedrich Adler, Henri Bergson, Herbert Dingle, Harald Nordenson, Hugo Dingler, Louis Essen, Herbert E. Ives, Emanuel Lasker, Hjalmar Mellin, Albert Abraham Michelson, Menyhrt Palgyi, Walter Ritz, Georges Sagnac. Other reasons were Antisemitism within the Deutsche Physik. Examples are: Ernst Gehrcke, Philipp Lenard, Johannes Stark, Bruno Thring, and, relating to his reception history, Hans Hrbiger, whose Welteislehre was referred to as the "German Theory of Relativity" among German right-wing circles during the Weimar Republic. One early criticism was the assertion that light simply travels with the earth in a so-called "co-moving luminiferous aether". In the process of traveling through its "immediately surrounding physical reality", the speed light attains appears different for observers who move at different speeds relative to each other, the same as with every other known phenomenon. Critics asserted the Michelson-Morley experiment null result was not the theoretical enigma some scientists believed. So the then-current understanding of light apparently needed to be changed according to this new belief: the medium for light was not rigid after all. But other critics had already concluded, from stellar aberration, that there had to be a rigid aether which carried the light as the Earth moved through it. The two results suggested contradictory conclusions: was the aether local and fluid, or was it universal and rigid? Lorentz's solution made the Earth shorter in the direction of travel around the Sun, and later also modified the speed of time. This was criticized by scientists at first, but Einstein's and Minkowski's interpretations implied Lorentz's hypothesis as the natural consequence of some postulates. Although there still are critics of relativity outside the scientific mainstream, the overwhelming majority of scientists agree that Special Relativity has been verified in many different ways and there are no inconsistencies within the theory.[102]

History of special relativity

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See also
Lorentz ether theory Aether theories History of Lorentz transformations Relativity priority dispute Massenergy equivalence

References
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History of special relativity Cunningham, Ebenezer (1909/10), "The principle of Relativity in Electrodynamics and an Extension Thereof", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 8: 7798, doi:10.1112/plms/s2-8.1.77. De Sitter, Willem (1913), "A proof of the constancy of the velocity of light", Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences 15 (2): 12971298 De Sitter, Willem (1913), "On the constancy of the velocity of light", Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences 16 (1): 395396 Ehrenfest, Paul (1909), "Uniform Rotation of Rigid Bodies and the Theory of Relativity", Physikalische Zeitschrift 10: 918 Einstein, Albert (1905a), "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Krper", Annalen der Physik 322 (10): 891921, doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004. See also: English translation [108]. Einstein, Albert (1905b), "Ist die Trgheit eines Krpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhngig?", Annalen der Physik 323 (13): 639643, doi:10.1002/andp.19053231314. See also the English translation [109]. Einstein, Albert (1906), "Das Prinzip von der Erhaltung der Schwerpunktsbewegung und die Trgheit der Energie", Annalen der Physik 325 (8): 627633, doi:10.1002/andp.19063250814 Einstein, Albert (1907), "ber die vom Relativittsprinzip geforderte Trgheit der Energie", Annalen der Physik 328 (7): 371384, doi:10.1002/andp.19073280713 Einstein, Albert (1908a), "ber das Relativittsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitt und Elektronik 4: 411462 Einstein, Albert & Laub, Jakob (1908b), "ber die elektromagnetischen Grundgleichungen fr bewegte Krper" [110] , Annalen der Physik 331 (8): 532540, doi:10.1002/andp.19083310806 Einstein, Albert (1909), "The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation", Physikalische Zeitschrift 10 (22): 817825 Einstein, Albert (1912), "Relativitt und Gravitation. Erwiderung auf eine Bemerkung von M. Abraham" [111], Annalen der Physik 38: 10591064, doi:10.1002/andp.19123431014 Einstein A. (1916), Relativity: The Special and General Theory, Springery Einstein, Albert (1922), Ether and the Theory of Relativity, Methuen & Co. FitzGerald, George Francis (1889), "The Ether and the Earth's Atmosphere", Science 13 (328): 390, doi:10.1126/science.ns-13.328.390, PMID17819387 Fizeau, Hippolyte (1851), "Sur les hypothses relatives l'ther lumineux" [112], Comptes Rendus 33: 349355 Frank, Philipp & Rothe, Hermann (1910), "ber die Transformation der Raum-Zeitkoordinaten von ruhenden auf bewegte Systeme" [113], Annalen der Physik 339 (5): 825855, doi:10.1002/andp.19113390502 Fresnel, Augustin (1816), "Sur la diffraction de la lumire" [114], Annales de chimie et de physique 2: 239281 Hasenhrl, Friedrich (1904), "Zur Theorie der Strahlung in bewegten Krpern", Annalen der Physik 320 (12): 344370, doi:10.1002/andp.19043201206 Hasenhrl, Friedrich (1905), "Zur Theorie der Strahlung in bewegten Krpern. Berichtigung", Annalen der Physik 321 (3): 589592, doi:10.1002/andp.19053210312 Heaviside, Oliver (1888/1894), "Electromagnetic waves, the propagation of potential, and the electromagnetic effects of a moving charge", Electrical papers, 2, pp.490499 Heaviside, Oliver (1889), "On the Electromagnetic Effects due to the Motion of Electrification through a Dielectric", Philosophical Magazine, 5 27 (167): 324339 Hertz, Heinrich (1890a), "ber die Grundgleichungen der Elektrodynamik fr ruhende Krper", Annalen der Physik 276 (8): 577

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History of special relativity Hertz, Heinrich (1890b), "ber die Grundgleichungen der Elektrodynamik fr bewegte Krper", Annalen der Physik 277 (11): 369399 Ignatowsky, Waldemar von (1910), "Einige allgemeine Bemerkungen zum Relativittsprinzip", Physikalische Zeitschrift 11: 172 Kaufmann, Walter (1902), "Die elektromagnetische Masse des Elektrons", Physikalische Zeitschrift 4 (1b): 5456 Kaufmann, Walter (1905), "ber die Konstitution des Elektrons", Sitzungsberichte der Kniglich Preuische Akademie der Wissenschaften 45: 949956 Kaufmann, Walter (1906), "ber die Konstitution des Elektrons", Annalen der Physik 324 (3): 487553, doi:10.1002/andp.19063240303 Lange, Ludwig (1885), "Ueber die wissenschaftliche Fassung des Galileischen Beharrungsgesetzes" [115], Philosophische Studien 2: 266297 Langevin, Paul (1904/1908), "The Relations of Physics of Electrons to Other Branches of Science", International Congress of Arts and Science 7: 121156 Langevin, Paul (1905), "Sur l'impossibilit physique de mettre en vidence le mouvement de translation de la Terre", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des sances de l'Acadmie des sciences 140: 11711173 Langevin, Paul (1911), "The Evolution of Space and Time", Scientia 10: 3154 Larmor, Joseph (1897), "On a Dynamical Theory of the Electric and Luminiferous Medium, Part 3, Relations with material media", Philosophical transactions of the Royal society of London 190: 205300 Larmor, Joseph (1900), Aether and Matter, Cambridge University Press Laub, Jakob (1907), "Zur Optik der bewegten Krper", Annalen der Physik 328 (9): 738744, doi:10.1002/andp.19073280910 Laue, Max von (1907), "The Entrainment of Light by Moving Bodies According to the Principle of Relativity", Annalen der Physik 328 (10): 989990, doi:10.1002/andp.19073281015 Laue, Max von (1911a), Das Relativittsprinzip [116] at the Internet Archive, Braunschweig: Vieweg Laue, Max von (1911b), "Zur Diskussion ber den starren Krper in der Relativittstheorie", Physikalische Zeitschrift 12: 8587 Laue, Max von (1911c), "On an Experiment on the Optics of Moving Bodie", Mnchener Sitzungsberichte 1911: 405412 Laue, Max von (1913), Das Relativittsprinzip (2 ed.), Braunschweig: Vieweg Lewis, Gilbert N. (1908), "A revision of the Fundamental Laws of Matter and Energy", Philosophical Magazine 16: 705717 Lewis, Gilbert N. & Tolman, Richard C. (1909), "The Principle of Relativity, and Non-Newtonian Mechanics", Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 44: 709726 Lewis, Gilbert N. & Wilson, Edwin B. (1912), "The Space-time Manifold of Relativity. The Non-Euclidean Geometry of Mechanics and Electromagnetics [117] at the Internet Archive", Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 48: 387507 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1886), "De l'influence du mouvement de la terre sur les phnomnes lumineux", Archives nerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles 21: 103176 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1892a), "La Thorie electromagntique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants [118] at the Internet Archive", Archives nerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles 25: 363552 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1892b), "The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Aether", Zittingsverlag Akad. v. Wet. 1: 74-79

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History of special relativity Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1895), Versuch einer Theorie der electrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Krpern, Leiden: E.J. Brill Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1899), "Simplified Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Systems", Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences 1: 427442 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1900), "Considerations on Gravitation", Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences 2: 559574 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1904a), "Weiterbildung der Maxwellschen Theorie. Elektronentheorie." [119], Encyclopdie der mathematischen Wissenschaften 5 (2): 145288 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1904b), "Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light", Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences 6: 809831 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1910/1931), Lecture on theoretical physics, Vol.3, London: MacMillan Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon & Einstein, Albert & Minkowski, Hermann (1913), Das Relativittsprinzip. Eine Sammlung von Abhandlungen. [120] at the Internet Archive, Leipzig & Berlin: B.G. Teubner Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1914), Das Relativittsprinzip. Drei Vorlesungen gehalten in Teylers Stiftung zu Haarlem, Leipzig and Berlin: B.G. Teubner Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1914), "La Gravitation" [121], Scientia 16: 2859 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1916), The theory of electrons and its applications to the phenomena of light and radiant heat [122] at the Internet Archive, Leipzig & Berlin: B.G. Teubner Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1921), "Two Papers of Henri Poincar on Mathematical Physics", Acta Mathematica 38: 293308, doi:10.1007/BF02392073; Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon; Lorentz, H. A.; Miller, D. C.; Kennedy, R. J.; Hedrick, E. R.; Epstein, P. S. (1928), "Conference on the Michelson-Morley Experiment" [123], The Astrophysical Journal 68: 345351, doi:10.1086/143148 Mach, Ernst (1883/1912), Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwicklung [124], Leipzig: Brockhaus Maxwell, James Clerk (1864), "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field.pdf", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 155: 459512, doi:10.1098/rstl.1865.0008 Maxwell, James Clerk (1873), " 792", A Treatise on electricity and magnetism [125] at the Internet Archive, 2, London: Macmillan & Co., pp.391 Michelson, Albert Abraham (1881), "The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether", American Journal of Science 22: 120129 Michelson, Albert Abraham & Morley, Edward Williams (1886), "Influence of Motion of the Medium on the Velocity of Light", American Journal of Science 31: 377386 Michelson, Albert Abraham & Morley, Edward Williams (1887), "On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether", American Journal of Science 34: 333345 Michelson, Albert Abraham & Gale, Henry G. (1925), "The Effect of the Earth's Rotation on the Velocity of Light" [126], The Astrophysical Journal 61: 140145, doi:10.1086/142879 Minkowski, Hermann (1907/1915), "Das Relativittsprinzip", Annalen der Physik 352 (15): 927938, doi:10.1002/andp.19153521505 Minkowski, Hermann (1908), "The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies", Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse: 53111 (English translation in 1920 by Meghnad Saha. Minkowski, Hermann (1908/9), "Space and Time", Physikalische Zeitschrift 10: 7588 (English translation in 1920 by Meghnad Saha.

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History of special relativity Mosengeil, Kurd von (1907), "Theorie der stationren Strahlung in einem gleichfrmig bewegten Hohlraum", Annalen der Physik 327 (5): 867904, doi:10.1002/andp.19073270504 Neumann, Carl (1870), Ueber die Principien der Galilei-Newtonschen Theorie [127] at the Internet Archive, Leipzig: B.G. Teubner Neumann, Gnther (1914), "Die trge Masse schnell bewegter Elektronen" [128], Annalen der Physik 350 (20): 529579, doi:10.1002/andp.19143502005 Nordstrm, Gunnar (1913), "Zur Theorie der Gravitation vom Standpunkt des Relativittsprinzips" [129], Annalen der Physik 347 (13): 533554, doi:10.1002/andp.19133471303. Palagyi, Menyhrt (1901), Neue Theorie des Raumes und der Zeit, Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann Planck, Max (1906a), "The Principle of Relativity and the Fundamental Equations of Mechanics", Verhandlungen Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft 8: 136141 Planck, Max (1906b), "The Measurements of Kaufmann on the Deflectability of -Rays in their Importance for the Dynamics of the Electrons", Physikalische Zeitschrift 7: 753761 Planck, Max (1907), "On the Dynamics of Moving Systems", Sitzungsberichte der Kniglich-Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin Erster Halbband (29): 542570 Planck, Max (1908), "Notes on the Principle of Action and Reaction in General Dynamics", Physikalische Zeitschrift 9 (23): 828830 Planck, Max (1909/1915), "General Dynamics. Principle of Relativity", Eight lectures on theoretical physics, New York: Columbia University Press Poincar, Henri (1889), Thorie mathmatique de la lumire, 1, Paris: G. Carr & C. Naud Preface partly reprinted in "Science and Hypothesis", Ch. 12. Poincar, Henri (1895), "A propos de la Thorie de M. Larmor" [130], L'clairage lectrique 5: 514. Reprinted in Poincar, Oeuvres, tome IX, pp.395413 Poincar, Henri (1898/1913), "The Measure of Time", The Foundations of Science (The Value of Science), New York: Science Press, pp.222234 Poincar, Henri (1900a), "Les relations entre la physique exprimentale et la physique mathmatique" [131], Revue gnrale des sciences pures et appliques 11: 11631175. Reprinted in "Science and Hypothesis", Ch. 910. Poincar, Henri (1900b), "La thorie de Lorentz et le principe de raction", Archives nerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles 5: 252278. See also the English translation [132]. Poincar, Henri (1901a), "Sur les principes de la mcanique", Bibliothque du Congrs international de philosophie: 457494. Reprinted in "Science and Hypothesis", Ch. 67. Poincar, Henri (1901b), lectricit et optique [133] at the Internet Archive, Paris: Gauthier-Villars Poincar, Henri (1902), Science and Hypothesis, London and Newcastle-on-Cyne (1905): The Walter Scott publishing Co. Poincar, Henri (1904/6), "The Principles of Mathematical Physics", Congress of arts and science, universal exposition, St. Louis, 1904, 1, Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, pp.604622 Poincar, Henri (1905b), "On the Dynamics of the Electron", Comptes Rendus 140: 15041508. (Wikisource translation) Poincar, Henri (1906), "On the Dynamics of the Electron", Rendiconti del Circolo matematico di Palermo 21: 129176 (Wikisource translation) Poincar, Henri (1908/13), "The New Mechanics", The foundations of science (Science and Method), New York: Science Press, pp.486522 Poincar, Henri (1909), "La Mcanique nouvelle (Lille)", Revue scientifique (Paris) 47: 170177}}

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History of special relativity Poincar, Henri (1909/10), "La Mcanique nouvelle (Gttingen)", Sechs Vortrge ber ausgewhlte Gegenstnde aus der reinen Mathematik und mathematischen Physik, Leipzig und Berlin: B.G.Teubner, pp.4147 Poincar, Henri (1910/1), Die neue Mechanik (Berlin), Leipzig & Berlin: B.G. Teubner Poincar, Henri (1912), "L'hypothse des quanta", Revue scientifique 17: 225232 Reprinted in Poincar 1913, Ch. 6. Poincar, Henri (1913), Last Essays [134] at the Internet Archive, New York: Dover Publication (1963) Ritz, Walter (1908), "Recherches critiques sur l'lectrodynamique Gnrale" [135], Annales de Chimie et de Physique 13: 145275, see English translation [136]. Robb, Alfred A. (1911), Optical Geometry of Motion: A New View of the Theory of Relativity [137] at the Internet Archive, Cambridge: W. Heffer Sagnac, Georges (1913), "Lther lumineux dmontr par leffet du vent relatif dther dans un interfromtre en rotation uniforme", Comptes Rendus 157: 708710 Sagnac, Georges (1913), "Sur la preuve de la ralit de lther lumineux par lexprience de linterfrographe tournant", Comptes Rendus 157: 14101413 Searle, George Frederick Charles (1897), "On the Steady Motion of an Electrified Ellipsoid", Philosophical Magazine, 5 44 (269): 329341 Sommerfeld, Arnold (1910), "On the Theory of Relativity I: Four-dimensional Vector Algebra", Annalen der Physik 337 (9): 749776, doi:10.1002/andp.19103370904 Sommerfeld, Arnold (1910), "Zur Relativittstheorie II: Vierdimensionale Vektoranalyis", Annalen der Physik 338 (14): 649689, doi:10.1002/andp.19103381402 Stokes, George Gabriel (1845), "On the Aberration of Light", Philosophical Magazine 27: 915 Streintz, Heinrich (1883), Die physikalischen Grundlagen der Mechanik [138] at the Internet Archive, Leipzig: B.G. Teubner Thomson, Joseph John (1881), "On the Effects produced by the Motion of Electrified Bodies", Philosophical Magazine, 5 11 (68): 229249 Tolman, Richard Chase (1912), "The mass of a moving body", Philosophical Magazine 23: 375380 Variak, Vladimir (1911), "Zum Ehrenfestschen Paradoxon", Physikalische Zeitschrift 12: 169 Variak, Vladimir (1912), "On the Non-Euclidean Interpretation of the Theory of Relativity", Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung 21: 103127 Voigt, Woldemar (1887), "On the Principle of Doppler", Nachrichten von der Knigl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften und der Georg-Augusts-Universitt zu Gttingen (2): 4151 Wien, Wilhelm (1900), "ber die Mglichkeit einer elektromagnetischen Begrndung der Mechanik", Annalen der Physik 310 (7): 501513, doi:10.1002/andp.19013100703 Wien, Wilhelm (1904a), "ber die Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik fr bewegte Krper. I", Annalen der Physik 318 (4): 641662, doi:10.1002/andp.18943180402 Wien, Wilhelm (1904a), "ber die Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik fr bewegte Krper. II", Annalen der Physik 318 (4): 663668, doi:10.1002/andp.18943180403 Wien, Wilhelm (1904b), "Erwiderung auf die Kritik des Hrn. M. Abraham", Annalen der Physik 319 (8): 635637, doi:10.1002/andp.19043190817

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60

Notes and Secondary sources

[1] Whittaker (1951), 128ff [2] Whittaker (1951), 240ff [3] Miller (1981), 46 [4] Whittaker (1951), 319ff [5] Janssen/Stachel (2004), 20 [6] Whittaker (1951), 107ff [7] Whittaker (1951), 386f [8] Janssen/Stachel (2004), 415 [9] Whittaker (1951), 390f [10] Whittaker (1951), 386ff [11] Janssen/Stachel (2004), 1819 [12] Janssen/Stachel (2004), 1920 [13] Miller (1981), 114115 [14] Pais (1982), Chap. 6b [15] Miller (1981), 99100 [16] Brown (2001) [17] Miller (1981), 2729 [18] Janssen (1995), Chap. 3.3 [19] Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.3 [20] Miller (1982) [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] Zahar (1989) Galison (2002) Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.1 Macrossan (1986) Janssen/Stachel (2004), 3132 Whittaker (1951), 306ff; (1953) 51f Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.4 Miller (1981), 46, 103 Darrigol (2005), 1821 Miller (1981), 4754 Miller (1981), 6167 Miller (1981), 359360 Lange (1886) Giulini (2001), Ch. 4 DiSalle (2002) Goenner (2008) Archibald (1914) Boyce Gibson (1928) Hentschel (1990), 153f. Galison (2003) Katzir (2005), 272275 Darrigol (2005), 1011 Galison (2002), Ch. 4 Etherial Time Darrigol (2000), 369372 Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.3, 3.4 Miller (1981), Chap. 1, Footnote 57 Miller (1981), 75ff Katzir (2005), 275277 Miller (1981), 7986 Katzir (2005), 280288 Walter (2007), Ch. 1 Miller (1981), 216217 Whittaker (1953), 2777 Zahar (1989), 149200 Logunov (2004) Holton (1973/1988), 196206 Miller (1981) Pais (1982), 126128

History of special relativity

[59] Hentschel (1990), 313 [60] Darrigol (2005), 1518 [61] Katzir (2005), 286288 [62] Whittaker (1951) [63] For many other experiments on light constancy and relativity, see PhysicsFaq: What is the experimental basis of special relativity? (http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ physics/ Relativity/ SR/ experiments. html) [64] Holton (1988) [65] Janssen (1995), Ch. 4 [66] Rynasiewicz/Renn (2006) [67] Stachel (1982) [68] Darrigol (2004), 624 [69] Miller (1981), 8692 [70] Born (1956), 193 [71] Miller (1981), 334352 [72] Miller (1981), 88 [73] Pauli (1921), 636637 [74] Miller (1981), 329330 [75] Pauli (1921), 634636 [76] Miller (1981), 359367 [77] Laue (1921), pp. 25 & 146148 [78] Laue (1921), pp. 2526 & 204206 [79] Bjerknes (2002) [80] Norton (2004) [81] Pauli (1921), 549553 [82] Klein (1910) [83] Miller (1981), Ch. 7.4.6 [84] Walter (1999b), Ch. 3 [85] Walter (1999a), 49 [86] Miller (1981), Ch. 12.5.8 [87] Janssen/Mecklenburg (2007) [88] Pauli (1921), 555556 [89] Miller (1981), 218219 [90] Walter (1999b) [91] Miller (1981), 245253 [92] Miller (1981), 257264 [93] Pais (2000), pp. 177-183 [94] Pauli (1921), 690691 [95] Rindler (2001) [96] Pauli (1921), 690691 [97] Pauli (1921), 556557 [98] Norton (2005) [99] Walter (2007) [100] Pais (1982), 11a [101] Miller (1981), Ch. 7.4.12 [102] CosmosMagazine: Was Einstein a fake? (http:/ / www. cosmosmagazine. com/ node/ 1162) [103] http:/ / libcoll. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ elib/ all_documents/ Abrah_Neuer_01_1915 [104] http:/ / fisicavolta. unipv. it/ percorsi/ pdf/ press. pdf [105] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k3109m/ f215. chemindefer [106] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k31103/ f703. table [107] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k15334h/ f7. table [108] http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/ specrel/ [109] http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/ E_mc2/ www/ [110] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1908_26_532-540. pdf [111] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1912_38_1059-1064. pdf [112] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k29901/ f351. chemindefer [113] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k15337j/ f845. table [114] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k883998 [115] http:/ / vlp. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ references?id=lit4135 [116] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ dasrelativittsp00lauegoog

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[117] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ proceedingsofamer48amer [118] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ lathorielectrom00loregoog [119] http:/ / gdz. sub. uni-goettingen. de/ no_cache/ dms/ load/ img/ ?IDDOC=201792 [120] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ dasrelativittsp00minkgoog [121] http:/ / diglib. cib. unibo. it/ diglib. php?inv=7& int_ptnum=16& term_ptnum=36& format=jpg [122] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ electronstheory00lorerich [123] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1928ApJ. . . . 68. . 341M [124] http:/ / www. jwdt. com/ ~paysan/ mach. pdf [125] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ electricandmag02maxwrich [126] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1925ApJ. . . . 61. . 140M [127] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ ueberdieprincip00neumgoog [128] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k153486/ f542. table [129] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k153455. image. f545 [130] http:/ / www. new. dli. ernet. in/ scripts/ FullindexDefault. htm?path1=/ data/ upload/ 0050/ 246& first=412& last=724& barcode=1990050050241 [131] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k17075r/ f1167. table [132] http:/ / www. physicsinsights. org/ poincare-1900. pdf [133] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ electriciteetopt019479mbp [134] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ mathematicsandsc001861mbp [135] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k349439/ f143. table [136] http:/ / www. datasync. com/ ~rsf1/ crit/ 1908a. htm [137] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ opticalgeometryo00robbrich [138] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ diephysikalisch00stregoog

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Archibald, R.C. (1914), "Time as a fourth dimension" (http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.bams/1183422749), Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 20: 409412, doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1914-02511-X Born, Max (1964), Einstein's Theory of Relativity, Dover Publications, ISBN0486607690 Born, Max (1956), Physics in my generation (http://www.archive.org/details/physucsinmygener006567mbp), London & New York: Pergamon Press, pp.189206 Brown, Harvey R. (2001), "The origins of length contraction: I. The FitzGerald-Lorentz deformation hypothesis" (http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00000218/), American Journal of Physics 69 (10): 10441054, doi:10.1119/1.1379733 Darrigol, Olivier (2000), Electrodynamics from Ampre to Einstein, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN0198505949 Darrigol, Olivier (2004), "The Mystery of the Einstein-Poincar Connection", Isis 95 (4): 614626, doi:10.1086/430652, PMID16011297 Darrigol, Olivier (2005), "The Genesis of the theory of relativity" (http://www.bourbaphy.fr/darrigol2.pdf), Sminaire Poincar 1: 122 Robert DiSalle (Summer 2002), "Space and Time: Inertial Frames" (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/ sum2002/entries/spacetime-iframes/), in Edward N. Zalta, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Einstein, Albert (1989), "The Swiss Years: Writings, 19001909", in Stachel, John et al., The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, 2, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN0-691-08526-9 Galison, Peter (2003), Einstein's Clocks, Poincar's Maps: Empires of Time, New York: W.W. Norton, ISBN0393326047 Giulini, Domenico (2001), "Das Problem der Trgheit" (http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P190. PDF), Preprint, Max-Planck Institut fr Wissenschaftsgeschichte 190: 1112, 2526 Goenner, Hubert (2008), "On the history of geometrization of space-time", 414. Heraeus-Seminar, arXiv:0811.4529. Hentschel, Klaus (1990), Interpretationen und Fehlinterpretationen der speziellen und der allgemeinen Relativittstheorie durch Zeitgenossen Albert Einsteins, Basel Boston Bonn: Birkhuser, ISBN3764324384

History of special relativity Holton, Gerald (1988), Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought: Kepler to Einstein, Harvard University Press, ISBN0674877470 Janssen, Michel (1995), A Comparison between Lorentz's Ether Theory and Special Relativity in the Light of the Experiments of Trouton and Noble, (thesis) (http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/litserv/diss/janssen_diss/) Janssen, Michel & Mecklenburg, Matthew (2007), "From classical to relativistic mechanics: Electromagnetic models of the electron" (http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00001990/), in V. F. Hendricks, et al., Interactions: Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy, Dordrecht: Springer, pp.65134 Janssen, Michel & Stachel, John (2008), The Optics and Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies (http://www. mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P265.PDF) Katzir, Shaul (2005), "Poincar's Relativistic Physics: Its Origins and Nature", Phys. Perspect. 7: 268292, doi:10.1007/s00016-004-0234-y Keswani, G. H., Kilmister, C. W. (1983), "Intimations Of Relativity: Relativity Before Einstein" (http://osiris. sunderland.ac.uk/webedit/allweb/news/Philosophy_of_Science/PIRT2002/Intimations of Relativity.doc), Brit. J. Phil. Sci. 34: 343354, doi:10.1093/bjps/34.4.343 Klein, Felix (1910/21), "ber die geometrischen Grundlagen der Lorentzgruppe", Gesammelte mathematische Abhandlungen 1: 533552 Lange, Ludwig (1886), Die geschichtliche Entwicklung des Bewegungsbegriffes (http://www.archive.org/ details/diegeschichtlic00langgoog), Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann Laue, Max von (1921), Die Relativittstheorie, Braunschweig: Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn. = 4. Edition of Laue (1911). Macrossan, M. N. (1986), "A Note on Relativity Before Einstein" (http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view. php?pid=UQ:9560), Brit. J. Phil. Sci. 37: 232234 Miller, Arthur I. (1981), Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (19051911), Reading: AddisonWesley, ISBN0-201-04679-2 Norton, John D. (2004), "Einstein's Investigations of Galilean Covariant Electrodynamics prior to 1905" (http:// philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00001743/), Archive for History of Exact Sciences 59: 45105, doi:10.1007/s00407-004-0085-6 Norton, John D. (2005), "Einstein, Nordstrm and the early demise of scalar, lorentz covariant theories of gravitation" (http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/papers/Nordstroem.pdf), in Renn, Jrgen, The Genesis of General Relativity (Vol. 1), Printed in the Netherlands: Kluwer Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN0-19-520438-7 Pauli, Wolfgang (1921), "Die Relativittstheorie" (http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/no_cache/dms/load/img/ ?IDDOC=201990), Encyclopdie der mathematischen Wissenschaften 5 (2): 539776 Polanyi, Michael (1974), Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy, Chicago: University Press, ISBN0226672883 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity: Special, General, and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, ISBN0-19-850836-0 Rynasiewicz, Robert; Renn, Jrgen. (2006), "The turning point for Einstein's annus mirabilis." (http:// philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00002567/), Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 31 (1): 535 Schaffner, Kenneth F. (1972), Nineteenth-century aether theories, Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp.99117 und 255273, ISBN0-08-015674-6

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History of special relativity Stachel, John (1982), "Einstein and Michelson: the Context of Discovery and Context of Justification" (http:// adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982AN....303...47S), Astronomische Nachrichten 303: 4753, doi:10.1002/asna.2103030110 Stachel, John (2002), Einstein from "B" to "Z", Boston: Birkhuser, ISBN0-8176-4143-2 Staley, Richard (2009), Einstein's generation. The origins of the relativity revolution, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN0226770575 Walter, Scott (1999a), "Minkowski, mathematicians, and the mathematical theory of relativity" (http://www. univ-nancy2.fr/DepPhilo/walter/papers/mmm.xml), in H. Goenner, J. Renn, J. Ritter, and T. Sauer, Einstein Studies, 7, Birkhuser, pp.4586 Walter, Scott (1999b), "The non-Euclidean style of Minkowskian relativity" (http://www.univ-nancy2.fr/ DepPhilo/walter/papers/nes.xml), in J. Gray, The Symbolic Universe: Geometry and Physics, Oxford University Press, pp.91127 Walter, Scott (2005), "Henri Poincar and the theory of relativity" (http://www.univ-nancy2.fr/DepPhilo/ walter/papers/hpeinstein2005.htm), in Renn, J., Albert Einstein, Chief Engineer of the Universe: 100 Authors for Einstein, 3, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, pp.162165 Walter, Scott (2007), "Breaking in the 4-vectors: the four-dimensional movement in gravitation, 19051910" (http://www.univ-nancy2.fr/DepPhilo/walter/papers/breaking2007.pdf), in Renn, J., The Genesis of General Relativity, 3, Berlin: Springer, pp.193252 Warwick, Andrew (2003), Masters of Theory: Cambridge and the Rise of Mathematical Physics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN0226873757 Whittaker, Edmund Taylor (1910), A History of the theories of aether and electricity (http://www.archive.org/ details/historyoftheorie00whitrich) (1. ed.), Dublin: Longman, Green and Co. Whittaker, Edmund Taylor (1951), A History of the theories of aether and electricity Vol. 1: The classical theories (2. ed.), London: Nelson Whittaker, Edmund Taylor (1953), "The relativity theory of Poincar and Lorentz", A History of the theories of aether and electricity; Vol. 2: The modern theories 19001926, London: Nelson, pp.2777 Zahar, Elie (1989), Einstein's Revolution: A Study in Heuristic, Chicago: Open Court Publishing Company, ISBN0812690672 Non mainstream Bjerknes, Christopher Jon (2002), "A Short History of the Concept of Relative Simultaneity in the Special Theory of Relativity" (http://itis.volta.alessandria.it/episteme/ep6/ep6-bjerk3.htm), Episteme 6 Logunov, A.A. (2004), Henri Poincar and relativity theory, Moscow: Nauka, arXiv:physics/0408077, ISBN5-02-033964-4

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External links
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Special relativity" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/ HistTopics/Special_relativity.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. Mathpages: Corresponding States (http://www.mathpages.com/rr/s1-05/1-05.htm), The End of My Latin (http://www.mathpages.com/rr/s3-06/3-06.htm), Who Invented Relativity? (http://www.mathpages.com/ rr/s8-08/8-08.htm), Poincar Contemplates Copernicus (http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath305/ kmath305.htm)

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Light and general relativity

History of general relativity
Creation of General Relativity
Early investigations
As Albert Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.[1] So in 1908 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article, he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a freefalling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the Equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomenon of gravitational time dilation. In 1911, Einstein published another article expanding on the 1907 article, in which additional effects such as the deflection of light by massive bodies were predicted. General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses. Before the advent of general relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation had been accepted for more than two hundred years as a valid description of the gravitional force between masses, even though Newton himself did not regard the theory as the final word on the nature of gravity. Within a century of Newton's formulation, careful astronomical observation revealed unexplainable variations between the theory and the observations. Under Newton's model, gravity was the result of an attractive force between massive objects. Although even Newton was bothered by the unknown nature of that force, the basic framework was extremely successful at describing motion. However, experiments and observations show that Einstein's description accounts for several effects that are unexplained by Newton's law, such as minute anomalies in the orbits of Mercury and other planets. General relativity also predicts novel effects of gravity, such as gravitational waves, gravitational lensing and an effect of gravity on time known as gravitational time dilation. Many of these predictions have been confirmed by experiment, while others are the subject of ongoing research. For example, although there is indirect evidence for gravitational waves, direct evidence of their existence is still being sought by several teams of scientists in experiments such as the LIGO and GEO 600 projects. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. Their strong gravity is thought to be responsible for the intense radiation emitted by certain types of astronomical objects (such as active galactic nuclei or microquasars). General relativity is also part of the framework of the standard Big Bang model of cosmology.

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General covariance and the hole argument

By 1912, Einstein was actively seeking a theory in which gravitation was explained as a geometric phenomenon. At the urging of Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began by exploring the use of general covariance (which is essentially the use of curvature tensors) to create a gravitational theory. However, in 1913 Einstein abandoned that approach, arguing that it is inconsistent based on the "hole argument". In 1914 and much of 1915, Einstein was trying to create field equations based on another approach. When that approach was proven to be inconsistent, Einstein revisited the concept of general covariance and discovered that the hole argument was flawed.

The development of the Einstein field equations

When Einstein realized that general covariance was actually tenable, he quickly completed the development of the field equations that are named after him. However, he made a now-famous mistake. The field equations he published in October 1915 were , where is the Ricci tensor, and the energy-momentum tensor. This predicted the non-Newtonian perihelion

precession of Mercury, and so had Einstein very excited. However, it was soon realized that they were inconsistent with the local conservation of energy-momentum unless the universe had a constant density of mass-energy-momentum. In other words, air, rock and even a vacuum should all have the same density. This inconsistency with observation sent Einstein back to the drawing board. However, the solution was all but obvious, and in November 1915 Einstein published the actual Einstein field equations: , where is the Ricci scalar and the metric tensor. With the publication of the field equations, the issue became

one of solving them for various cases and interpreting the solutions. This and experimental verification have dominated general relativity research ever since.

Einstein and Hilbert

Although Einstein is credited with finding the field equations, the German mathematician David Hilbert published them in an article before Einstein's article. This has resulted in accusations of plagiarism against Einstein (never from Hilbert), and assertions that the field equations should be called the "Einstein-Hilbert field equations". However, Hilbert did not press his claim for priority and some have asserted that Einstein submitted the correct equations before Hilbert amended his own work to include them. This suggests that Einstein developed the correct field equations first, though Hilbert may have reached them later independently (or even learned of them afterwards through his correspondence with Einstein).[2] However, others have criticized those assertions.[3]

Sir Arthur Eddington

In the early years after Einstein's theory was published, Sir Arthur Eddington lent his considerable prestige in the British scientific establishment in an effort to champion the work of this German scientist. Because the theory was so complex and abstruse (even today it is popularly considered the pinnacle of scientific thinking; in the early years it was even more so), it was rumored that only three people in the world understood it. There was an illuminating, though probably apocryphal, anecdote about this. As related by Ludwik Silberstein,[4] during one of Eddington's lectures he asked "Professor Eddington, you must be one of three persons in the world who understands general relativity." Eddington paused, unable to answer. Silberstein continued "Don't be modest, Eddington!" Finally, Eddington replied "On the contrary, I'm trying to think who the third person is."

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Solutions
The Schwarzschild solution
Since the field equations are non-linear, Einstein assumed that they were insoluble. However, in 1916 Karl Schwarzschild discovered an exact solution for the case of a spherically symmetric spacetime surrounding a massive object in spherical coordinates. This is now known as the Schwarzschild solution. Since then, many other exact solutions have been found.

The expanding universe and the cosmological constant

In 1922, Alexander Friedmann found a solution in which the universe may expand or contract, and later Georges Lematre derived a solution for an expanding universe. However, Einstein believed that the universe was apparently static, and since a static cosmology was not supported by the general relativistic field equations, he added a cosmological constant to the field equations, which became . This permitted the creation of steady-state solutions, but they were unstable: the slightest perturbation of a static state would result in the universe expanding or contracting. In 1929, Edwin Hubble found evidence for the idea that the universe is expanding. This resulted in Einstein dropping the cosmological constant, referring to it as "the biggest blunder in my career". At the time, it was an ad hoc hypothesis to add in the cosmological constant, as it was only intended to justify one result (a static universe).

More exact solutions

Progress in solving the field equations and understanding the solutions has been ongoing. The solution for a spherically symmetric charged object was discovered by Reissner and later rediscovered by Nordstrm, and is called the Reissner-Nordstrm solution. The black hole aspect of the Schwarzschild solution was very controversial, and Einstein did not believe that singularities could be real. However, in 1957 (two years after Einstein's death in 1955), Martin Kruskal published a proof that black holes are called for by the Schwarzschild Solution. Additionally, the solution for a rotating massive object was obtained by Kerr in the 1960s and is called the Kerr solution. The Kerr-Newman solution for a rotating, charged massive object was published a few years later.

Testing the theory

The perihelion precession of Mercury was the first evidence that general relativity is correct. Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington's 1919 expedition in which he confirmed Einstein's prediction for the deflection of light by the Sun during the total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919 helped to cement the status of general relativity as a likely true theory. Since then many observations have confirmed the correctness of general relativity. These include studies of binary pulsars, observations of radio signals passing the limb of the Sun, and even the GPS system. For more information, see the Tests of general relativity article.

Alternative theories
Finally, there have been various attempts through the years to find modifications to general relativity. The most famous of these are the Brans-Dicke theory (also known as scalar-tensor theory), and Rosen's bimetric theory. Both of these theories proposed changes to the field equations, and both suffer from these changes permitting the presence of bipolar gravitational radiation. As a result, Rosen's original theory has been refuted by observations of binary pulsars. As for Brans-Dicke (which has a tunable parameter such that = is the same as general relativity), the amount by which it can differ from general relativity has been severely constrained by these observations. However,

History of general relativity general relativity and quantum mechanics (a theory that has been experimentally verified more than GR) are known to be inconsistent. Much speculation exists that modifications of GR (but not QM) are needed on the smallest scales (as GR has not been tested rigorously on the smallest scales). In the other camp, speculation exists that QM needs to be modified (for example, it usually assumes a fixed (flat) spacetime background). Most researchers believe that both theories are in need of modification.

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More about GR history

The study of general relativity, entered the mainstream of theoretical physics. Terms were introduced, including black holes and 'gravitational singularity'. At the same time, the study of physical cosmology entered the mainstream including the Big Bang. Role of curvature in general relativity; Theoretical importance of the black holes; Importance of geometrical machinery and levels of mathematical structure, especially local versus global spacetime structure; Overall legitimacy of cosmology by the wider physics community. A competitor to general relativity (the Brans-Dicke theory), and the first "precision tests" of gravitation theories. Discoveries in observational astronomy are: Quasars (objects the size of the solar system and as luminous as a hundred modern galaxies, so distant that they date from the early years of the universe); Pulsars (soon interpreted as spinning neutron stars); The first credible candidate black hole, Cygnus X-1; The cosmic background radiation, hard evidence of the Big Bang and the subsequent expansion of the universe.

Timeline
1950s 1953: P. C. Vaidya Newtonian time in general relativity, Nature, 171, p260. 1956: John Lighton Synge publishes the first relativity text emphasizing spacetime diagrams and geometrical methods, 1957: Felix A. E. Pirani uses Petrov classification to understand gravitational radiation, 1957: Richard Feynman introduces sticky bead argument, 1959: Pound-Rebka experiment, first precision test of gravitational redshift, 1959: Lluis Bel introduces Bel-Robinson tensor and the Bel decomposition of the Riemann tensor, 1959: Arthur Komar introduces the Komar mass, 1960s 1960: Martin Kruskal and George Szekeres independently introduce the Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates for the Schwarzschild vacuum, 1960: Shapiro effect confirmed, 1960: Thomas Matthews and Allan R. Sandage associate 3C 48 with a point-like optical image, show radio source can be at most 15 light minutes in diameter, 1960: Carl H. Brans and Robert H. Dicke introduce Brans-Dicke theory, the first viable alternative theory with a clear physical motivation, 1960: Joseph Weber reports observation of gravitational waves (a claim now generally discounted), 1960: Ivor M. Robinson and Andrzej Trautman discover the Robinson-Trautman null dust solution [5] 1961: Pascual Jordan and Jrgen Ehlers develop the kinematic decomposition of a timelike congruence,

History of general relativity 1962: Roger Penrose and Ezra T. Newman introduce the Newman-Penrose formalism, 1962: Ehlers and Wolfgang Kundt classify the symmetries of Pp-wave spacetimes, 1962: Joshua Goldberg and Rainer K. Sachs prove the Goldberg-Sachs theorem, 1962: Ehlers introduces Ehlers transformations, a new solution generating method, 1962: Cornelius Lanczos introduces the Lanczos potential for the Weyl tensor, 1962: R. Arnowitt, Stanley Deser, and Charles W. Misner introduce the ADM reformulation and global hyperbolicity, 1962: Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat on Cauchy problem and global hyperbolicity, 1962: Istvan Ozsvath and Englbert Schcking rediscover the circularly polarized monochromomatic gravitational wave, 1962: Hans Adolph Buchdahl discovers Buchdahl's theorem, 1962: Hermann Bondi introduces Bondi mass, 1963: Roy Kerr discovers the Kerr vacuum solution of Einstein's field equations, 1963: Redshifts of 3C 273 and other quasars show they are very distant; hence very luminous, 1963: Newman, T. Unti and L.A. Tamburino introduce the NUT vacuum solution, 1963: Roger Penrose introduces Penrose diagrams and Penrose limits, 1963: First Texas Symposium on Gravitational Astrophysics held in Dallas, December 1618, 1964: R. W. Sharp and Misner introduce the Misner-Sharp mass, 1964: M. A. Melvin discovers the Melvin electrovacuum solution (aka the Melvin magnetic universe), 1965: Roger Penrose proves first of the singularity theorems, 1965: Newman and others discover the Kerr-Newman electrovacuum solution, 1965: Penrose discovers the structure of the light cones in gravitational plane wave spacetimes, 1965: Kerr and Alfred Schild introduce Kerr-Schild spacetimes, 1965: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar determines a stability criterion, 1965: Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discover the cosmic microwave background radiation, 1966: Sachs and Ronald Kantowski discover the Kantowski-Sachs dust solution, 1967: Jocelyn Bell and Antony Hewish discover pulsars, 1967: Robert H. Boyer and R. W. Lindquist introduce Boyer-Lindquist coordinates for the Kerr vacuum, 1967: Bryce DeWitt publishes on canonical quantum gravity, 1967: Werner Israel proves the no hair theorem, 1967: Kenneth Nordtvedt develops PPN formalism, 1967: Mendel Sachs publishes factorization of Einstein's field equations, 1967: Hans Stephani discovers the Stephani dust solution, 1968: F. J. Ernst discovers the Ernst equation, 1968: B. Kent Harrison discovers the Harrison transformation, a solution-generating method, 1968: Brandon Carter solves the geodesic equations for Kerr-Newmann electrovacuum, 1968: Hugo D. Wahlquist discovers the Wahlquist fluid, 1969: William B. Bonnor introduces the Bonnor beam, 1969: Penrose proposes the (weak) cosmic censorship hypothesis and the Penrose process, 1969: Stephen W. Hawking proves area theorem for black holes, 1969: Misner introduces the mixmaster universe,

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History of general relativity 1970s 1970: Franco J. Zerilli derives the Zerilli equation, 1970: Vladimir A. Belinski, Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov, and Evgeny Lifshitz introduce the BKL conjecture, 1970: Chandrasekhar pushes on to 5/2 post-Newtonian order, 1970: Hawking and Penrose prove trapped surfaces must arise in black holes, 1970: the Kinnersley-Walker photon rocket, 1970: Peter Szekeres introduces colliding plane waves, 1971: Peter C. Aichelburg and Roman U. Sexl introduce the Aichelburg-Sexl ultraboost, 1971: Introduction of the Khan-Penrose vacuum, a simple explicit colliding plane wave spacetime, 1971: Robert H. Gowdy introduces the Gowdy vacuum solutions (cosmological models containing circulating gravitational waves), 1971: Cygnus X-1, the first solid black hole candidate, discovered by Uhuru satellite, 1971: William H. Press discovers black hole ringing by numerical simulation, 1971: Harrison and Estabrook algorithm for solving systems of PDEs, 1971: James W. York introduces conformal method generating initial data for ADM initial value formulation, 1971: Robert Geroch introduces Geroch group and a solution generating method,

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1972: Jacob Bekenstein proposes that black holes have a non-decreasing entropy which can be identified with the area, 1972: Carter, Hawking and James M. Bardeen propose the four laws of black hole mechanics, 1972: Sachs introduces optical scalars and proves peeling theorem, 1972: Rainer Weiss proposes concept of interferometric gravitational wave detector, 1972: J. C. Hafele and R. E. Keating perform Hafele-Keating experiment, 1972: Richard H. Price studies gravitational collapse with numerical simulations, 1972: Saul Teukolsky derives the Teukolsky equation, 1972: Yakov B. Zel'dovich predicts the transmutation of electromagnetic and gravitational radiation, 1973: P. C. Vaidya and L. K. Patel introduce the Kerr-Vaidya null dust solution, 1973: Publication by Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne and John A. Wheeler of the treatise Gravitation, the first modern textbook on general relativity, 1973: Publication by Stephen W. Hawking and George Ellis of the monograph The Large Scale Structure of Spacetime, 1973: Geroch introduces the GHP formalism, 1974: Russell Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. discover the Hulse-Taylor binary pulsar, 1974: James W. York and Niall Murchadha present the analysis of the initial value formulation and examine the stability of its solutions, 1974: R. O. Hansen introduces Hansen-Geroch multipole moments, 1974: Tullio Regge introduces the Regge calculus, 1974: Hawking discovers Hawking radiation, 1975: Chandrasekhar and Steven Detweiler compute quasinormal modes, 1975: Szekeres and D. A. Szafron discover the Szekeres-Szafron dust solutions, 1976: Penrose introduces Penrose limits (every null geodesic in a Lorentzian spacetime behaves like a plane wave), 1978: Penrose introduces the notion of a thunderbolt, 1978: Belinski and Zakharov show how to solve Einstein's field equations using the inverse scattering transform; the first gravitational solitons, 1979: Richard Schoen and Shing-Tung Yau prove the positive mass theorem.

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See also
Contributors to general relativity History of general relativity Golden age of physics Golden age of cosmology

Notes
[1] Albert Einstein, Nobel lecture (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1921/ einstein-lecture. html) in 1921 [2] Leo Corry, Jrgen Renn, John Stachel: "Belated Decision in the Hilbert-Einstein Priority Dispute", SCIENCE, Vol. 278, 14 November 1997 article text (http:/ / www. tau. ac. il/ ~corry/ publications/ articles/ science. html) [3] Friedwart Winterberg's response to the Cory-Renn-Stachel paper (http:/ / physics. unr. edu/ faculty/ winterberg/ Hilbert-Einstein. pdf) as printed in "Zeitschrift fr Naturforschung" 59a (http:/ / www. znaturforsch. com/ c59a. htm), 715-719. [4] John Waller (2002), Einstein's Luck, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-860719-9 [5] http:/ / cdsads. u-strasbg. fr/ abs/ 1960PhRvL. . . 4. . 431R

References
Pais, Abraham (1982). Subtle is the lord: the science and life of Albert Einstein. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-853907-X. Genesis of general relativity series (http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~suchii/gen.GR.html)

Relativity priority dispute

Albert Einstein presented the theories of Special Relativity and General Relativity in groundbreaking publications that either contained no formal references to previous literature, or referred only to a small number of his predecessors for fundamental results on which he based his theories, most notably to the work of Hendrik Lorentz for special relativity, and to the work of Gauss, Riemann, and Mach for general relativity. Subsequently claims have been put forward about both theories, asserting that they were formulated, either wholly or in part, by others before Einstein. At issue is the extent to which Einstein and various other individuals should be credited for the formulation of these theories, based on priority considerations. The general history of the development of these theories, including the contributions made by many other scientists, is found at History of special relativity and History of general relativity.

The candidates for credit

Concerning special relativity, the most important names that are mentioned in discussions about the distribution of credit are Albert Einstein, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincar, and Hermann Minkowski. Consideration is also given to numerous other scientists for either anticipations of some aspects of the theory, or else for contributions to the development or elaboration of the theory. These include Larmor, Hasenohrl, Foppl, Planck, von Laue, Lewis and Tolmann, etc. In addition, polemics exist about alleged contributions of others such as the Italian Olinto De Pretto and Einstein's wife Mileva Mari, although these are not considered to have any foundation by serious scholars. Concerning general relativity, it is generally accepted that Einstein should be credited for it, although many others (such as Gauss, Riemann, Ricci, and Levi-Cevita) contributed to the development of the mathematical tools and geometrical ideas underlying the theory. Also, there is a controversy about the amount of credit that should go to David Hilbert.

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Undisputed and well known facts

The following facts are undisputed and generally known:

Special relativity
In 1889, ([Poi89]), Henri Poincar argued that the ether might be unobservable, in which case the existence of the ether is a metaphysical question, and he suggested that some day the ether concept would be thrown aside as useless. However, in the same book (Ch. 10) he considered the ether a "convenient hypothesis" and continued to use the concept also in later papers in 1908 ([Poi08], Book 3) and 1912 ([Poi13], Ch. 6). In 1895, Poincar argued that experiments like that of Michelson-Morley show that it seems to be impossible to detect the absolute motion of matter or the relative motion of matter in relation to the ether. In [Poi00] he called this the Principle of Relative Motion, i.e., that the laws of movement should be the same in all inertial frames. Alternative terms used by Poincar were "relativity of space" and "principle of relativity".[1] In 1904 he expanded that principle by saying: "The principle of relativity, according to which the laws of physical phenomena must be the same for a stationary observer as for one carried along in a uniform motion of translation, so that we have no means, and can have none, of determining whether or not we are being carried along in such a motion." However, he also stated that we do not know if this principle will turn out to be true, but that it is interesting to determine what the principle implies. In [Poi00], Poincar published a paper in which he said that radiation could be considered as a fictitious fluid with an equivalent mass of . He derived this interpretation from Lorentz's 'theory of electrons' which incorporated Maxwell's radiation pressure. Poincar had described a synchronization procedure for clocks at rest relative to each other in [Poi00] and again in [Poi04]. So two events, which are simultaneous in one frame of reference, are not simultaneous in another frame. It is very similar to the one later proposed by Einstein.[2] However, Poincar distinguished between "local" or "apparent" time of moving clocks, and the "true" time of resting clocks in the ether. Lorentz' paper [Lor04] containing the transformations bearing his name appeared in 1904. Albert Einstein in [Ein05c] derived the Lorentz equations by using the principle of constancy of velocity of light and the relativity principle. He was the first to argue that those principles (along with certain other basic assumptions about the homogeneity and isotropy of space, usually taken for granted by theorists) are sufficient to derive the theory. See Postulates of special relativity. He said: "The introduction of a luminiferous ether will prove to be superfluous inasmuch as the view here to be developed will not require an absolutely stationary space provided with special properties, nor assign a velocity-vector to a point of the empty space in which electromagnetic processes take place." * Einstein's Elektrodynamik paper [Ein05c] contains no formal references to other literature. It does mention, in 9, part II, that the results of the paper are in agreement with Lorentz's electrodynamics. Poincar is not mentioned in this paper, although he is cited formally in a paper on special relativity written by Einstein the following year. In 1905 Einstein was the first to suggest that when a material body lost energy (either radiation or heat) of amount , its mass decreased by the amount .[3] Hermann Minkowski showed in 1907 that the theory of special relativity could be elegantly described using a four-dimensional spacetime, which combines the dimension of time with the three dimensions of space.

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General relativity
The proposal to describe gravity by means of a pseudo-Riemannian metric was first made by Einstein and Grossmann in the so called Entwurf theory published 1913 . This was followed by several attempts of Einstein to find valid field equations for this theory of gravity. David Hilbert invited Einstein to Gttingen for a week to give six 2-hour lectures on general relativity, which he did in June-July 1915. Einstein stayed at Hilbert's house during this visit. Hilbert started working on a combined theory of gravity and electromagnetism, and Einstein and Hilbert exchanged correspondence until November 1915. Einstein gave four lectures on his theory on Nov 4, Nov 11, Nov 18 and Nov 25 in Berlin, published as Einstein (1915a, 1915b, 1915c, 1915d) November 4, Einstein published non-covariant field equations and on November 11 returned to the field equations of the "Entwurf" papers, which he now made covariant by the assumption that the trace of the energy-momentum tensor was zero, as it was for electromagnetism. Einstein sent Hilbert proofs of his papers of Nov 4 and Nov 11. (Sauer 99, notes 63, 66) Nov 15 Invitation issued for Nov 20 meeting at the Academy in Gttingen. "Hilber legt vor in die Nachrichten: Grundgleichungen der Physik". (Sauer 99, note 73) Nov 16 Hilbert spoke at the Gttingen Mathematical Society "Grundgleichungen der Physik" (Sauer 99, note 68). Talk not published. Nov 16 or Nov 17 Hilbert sent Einstein some information about his talk of Nov 16 (letter lost) Nov 18 Einstein replies to Hilbert's letter (received by Hilbert Nov 19) saying as far as he (Einstein) could tell Hilbert's system was equivalent to the one he (Einstein) had found in the preceding weeks. (Sauer 99, note 72). Einstein also told Hilbert in this letter that he (Einstein) had "considered the only possible generally covariant field equations three years earlier", adding that "The difficulty was not to find generally covariant equations for the ;this is easy with the help of the Riemann tensor. What was difficult instead was to recognize that these equations form a generalization, and that is, a simple and natural generalization of Newton's law" (A. Einstein to D. Hilbert, 18 Nov, Einstein Archives Call No. 13-093). Einstein also told Hilbert in that letter that he (Einstein) had calculated the correct perihelion advance for Mercury, using covariant field equations based on the assumption that the trace of the energy momentum tensor vanished as it did for electromagnetism. Nov 18 Einstein presents the calculation of the perihelion advance to Prussian Academy. Nov 20 Hilbert lectured to the Gttingen Academy. The proofs of his paper show that Hilbert proposed a non-covariant set of equations as the fundamental equations of physics. Thus he wrote "in order to keep the deterministic characteristic of the fundamental equations of physics [...] four further non-covariant equations ... [are] unavoidable." (proofs, pages 3 and 4. quoted by Corry et al.). Hilbert then derives these four extra equations and continues "these four differential equations [...] supplement the gravitational equations [...] to yield a system of 14 equations for the 14 potentials : the system of fundamental equations of physics". (proofs, page 7, quoted by Corry et al.). In his last lecture on Nov 25 Einstein submitted the correct field equations. The published paper (Einstein 1915d) appeared on December 2, and it did not mention Hilbert. Hilbert's paper took considerably longer to appear. He had galley proofs that were marked "December 6" by the printer in December 1915. Most of the galley proofs have been preserved, but about a quarter of a page is missing.[4] The extant part of the proofs contains Hilbert's action from which the field equations can be obtained by taking a variational derivative, and using the contracted Bianchi identity derived in theorem III of Hilbert's paper, though this was not done in the extant proofs. Hilbert rewrote his paper for publication (in Mar 1916), changing the treatment of the energy theorem, dropping a non-covariant gauge condition on the coordinates to produce a covariant theory, and adding a new credit to Einstein for introducing the gravitational potentials into the theory of gravity. In the final paper he said his differential equations seemed to agree with the "magnificent theory of general relativity established by Einstein in his later papers"[5]

Relativity priority dispute The events of late November through December 1915 caused bad feelings from Einstein towards Hilbert. In a November 25 letter to Zangger, Einstein accused Hilbert (without mentioning his name) of attempts to appropriate ('nostrify') his theory. On Dec 4, Hilbert nominated Einstein for election as a corresponding member of the Gttingen Mathematical Society. In a December 20 letter to Hilbert, Einstein proposed to settle the dispute. The 1916 paper was rewritten and republished in 1924 [Hil24], where Hilbert wrote: Einstein [...] kehrt schlielich in seinen letzten Publikationen geradewegs zu den Gleichungen meiner Theorie zurck. (Einstein [...] in his most recent publications, returns directly to the equations of my theory.)[6]

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Disputed claims
The following things seem to be unclear, unknown or disputed:

Special relativity
To what degree Einstein was familiar with Poincar's work It is known that Einstein was familiar with [Poi02], but it is not known to what extent he was familiar with other work of Poincar in 1905. However it is known that he knew [Poi00] in 1906, because he quoted it in [Ein06]. Lorentz' paper [Lor04] containing the transformations bearing his name appeared in 1904. The question is whether Einstein was familiar in 1905 with either this paper itself or a review of it (which appeared in the Annalen der Physik). To what degree Einstein was following other physicists' work at the time. Some authors claim that Einstein worked in relative isolation and with restricted access to the physics literature in 1905. Others, however, disagree; a personal friend of Einstein, Maurice Solovine, later acknowledged that he and Einstein both pored for weeks over Poincar's 1902 book, keeping them "breathless for weeks on end" [Rot06]. To what degree his wife, Mileva Mari, may have contributed to Einstein's work.

General relativity
Before 1997, "the commonly accepted view was that David Hilbert completed the general theory of relativity at least 5 days before Albert Einstein submitted his conclusive paper on this theory on 25 November 1915. Hilbert's article, bearing the date of submission 20 November 1915 but published only on 31 March 1916, presents a generally covariant theory of gravitation, including field equations essentially equivalent to those in Einstein's paper" (Corry, Renn and Stachel, 1997). Since the discovery of printer's proofs of Hilbert's paper of Nov 20, dated 6 Dec 1915, which show a number of differences from the finally published paper, this 'commonly accepted view' has been challenged. Whether Einstein got the correct mathematical formulation for general relativity from Hilbert, or formulated it independently. Points at issue: The content of Hilbert's November 16 letter/postcard to Einstein is not known. It is however, clear from Einstein's response that it was an account of Hilbert's work. It is not known what was on the missing part of Hilbert's printer proofs. The missing portion is large enough to have contained the field equations in an explicit form. There are several competing speculations about the content of the missing piece. Based on the above, it is not known whether Hilbert had formulated the field equations in an explicit form before December 6 (the date of the printer's proofs) or not. It is known from the proofs that Hilbert introduced four non-covariant equations in order to specify the gravitational potentials and that this approach was dropped from his revised paper. Whether Hilbert ever tried to claim priority for the field equations - it seems clear that he regarded the theory of general relativity as Einstein's theory.

Relativity priority dispute What Hilbert thought he was referring to when he used the term "equations of my theory" about Einstein's research. Hilbert made a similar remark in a letter to Karl Schwarzschild.[7] There are a large number of opinions related to these involving questions of "who should get the credit" - these are not enumerated here.

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Special Relativity
Historians of special relativity
In his History of the theories of ether and electricity from 1953, E. T. Whittaker claimed that relativity is the creation of Lorentz and Poincar and attributed to Einstein's papers only little importance.[8] However, most historians of science, like Gerald Holton, Arthur I. Miller, Abraham Pais, John Stachel, or Olivier Darrigol have other points of view. They admit that Lorentz and Poincar developed the mathematics of special relativity, and many scientists originally spoke about the Lorentz-Einstein theory. But they argue that it was Einstein who completely eliminated the classical ether and demonstrated the relativity of space and time. They also argue that Poincar demonstrated the relativity of space and time only in his philosophical writings, but in his physical papers he maintained the ether as a privileged frame of reference that is perfectly undetectable, and continued (like Lorentz) to distinguish between "real" lengths and times measured by observers at rest within the aether, and "apparent" lengths and times measured by observers in motion within the aether.[9] [10] [11] [12] Darrigol summarizes: Most of the components of Einstein's paper appeared in others' anterior works on the electrodynamics of moving bodies. Poincar and Alfred Bucherer had the relativity principle. Lorentz and Larmor had most of the Lorentz transformations, Poincar had them all. Cohn and Bucherer rejected the ether. Poincar, Cohn, and Abraham had a physical interpretation of Lorentz's local time. Larmor and Cohn alluded to the dilation of time. Lorentz and Poincar had the relativistic dynamics of the electron. None of these authors, however, dared to reform the concepts of space and time. None of them imagined a new kinematics based on two postulates. None of them derived the Lorentz transformations on this basis. None of them fully understood the physical implications of these transformations. It all was Einstein's unique feat.[13]

Comments by Lorentz, Poincar, and Einstein

Lorentz, Poincar In a paper that was written in 1914 and published in 1921,[14] Lorentz appreciated the Palermo paper (1906)[15] of Poincar on relativity. Lorentz stated:

Indeed I have not given the most appropriate transformation for some physical quantities encountered in the formulae. This was done by Poincar and later by Einstein and Minkowski. [..] I had not thought of the straight path leading to them, since I considered there was an essential difference between the reference systems x, y, z, t and x', y', z', t'. In one of them were used - such was my reasoning - coordinate axes with a definite position in ether and what could be termed true time; in the other, on the contrary, one simply dealt with auxiliary quantities introduced with the aid of a mathematical trick. [..] I have not established the principle of relativity as rigorously and universally true. Poincar, on the other hand, has obtained a perfect invariance of the electro-magnetic equations, and he has formulated 'the postulate of relativity', terms which he was the first to employ. [..] Let's add that while thus correcting the imperfections of my work he never blamed me [16] for them.

However, a 1916 reprint of his main work "The theory of electrons" contains notes (written in 1909 and 1915) in which Lorentz sketched the differences between his results and that of Einstein as follows:[17]

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[p. 230]: the chief difference [is] that Einstein simply postulates what we have deduced, with some difficulty and not altogether satisfactorily, from the fundamental equations of the electromagnetic field. [p. 321]: The chief cause of my failure was my clinging to the idea that the variable t only can be considered as the true time and that my local time t' must be regarded as no more than an auxiliary mathematical quantity. In Einstein's theory, on the contrary, t' plays the same part as t; if we want to describe phenomena in terms of x', y', z', t' we must work with these variables exactly as we could do with x, y, z, t.

Regarding the fact, that in this book Lorentz only mentioned Einstein and not Poincar in connection with a) the synchronisation by light signals, b) the reciprocity of the Lorentz transformation, and c) the relativistic transformation law for charge density, Janssen comments:[18]

[p.90]: My guess is that it has to do with the fact that Einstein made the physical interpretation of the Lorentz transformation the basis for a remarkably clear and simple discussion of the electrodynamics of moving bodies, whereas Poincars remarks on the physical interpretation of Lorentz transformed quantities may have struck Lorentz as inconsequential philosophical asides in expositions that otherwise closely followed his own. I also have a sense that Lorentz found Einsteins physically very intuitive approach more appealing than Poincars rather abstract but mathematically more elegant approach.

And at a conference on the Michelson-Morley experiment in 1927 at which Lorentz and Michelson were present, Michelson suggested that Lorentz was the initiator of the theory of relativity. Lorentz then replied:[19]

I considered my time transformation only as a heuristic working hypothesis. So the theory of relativity is really solely Einstein's work. And there can be no doubt that he would have conceived it even if the work of all his predecessors in the theory of this field had not been done at all. His work is in this respect independent of the previous theories.

Poincar Poincar attributed the development of the new mechanics almost entirely to Lorentz. He only mentioned Einstein in connection with the photoelectric effect,[20] but not in connection with special relativity. For example, in 1912 Poincar raises the question whether "the mechanics of Lorentz" will still exist after the development of the quantum theory. He wrote:[20]

In all instances in which it differs from that of Newton, the mechanics of Lorentz endures. We continue to believe that no body in motion will ever be able to exceed the speed of light; that the mass of a body is not a constant, but depends on its speed and the angle formed by this speed with the force which acts upon the body; that no experiment will ever be able to determine whether a body is at rest or in absolute motion either in relation to absolute space or even in relation to the ether.

Einstein It is now known that Einstein was well aware of the scientific research of his time. The well known historian of science, Jrgen Renn, Director of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science wrote on Einstein's contributions to the Annalen der Physik:[21]

The Annalen also served as a source of modest additional income for Einstein, who wrote more than twenty reports for its Beibltter - mainly [22] on the theory of heat - thus demonstrating an impressive mastery of the contemporary literature. This activity started in 1905. and probably resulted from his earlier publications in the Annalen in this field. Going by his publications between 1900 and early 1905, one would conclude that Einstein's specialty was thermodynamics.

Einstein wrote in 1907[23] that one needed only to realize that an auxiliary quantity that was introduced by Lorentz and that he called "local time" can simply be defined as "time." And in 1910[24] and 1912[25] Einstein explained that he borrowed the principle of the constancy of light from Lorentz's immobile ether, but he recognized that this principle together with the principle of relativity makes the ether useless and leads to special relativity. It is also known[26] that he read Poincar's 1902-book Science and hypothesis before 1905, which included: philosophical assessments on the relativity of space, time, and simultaneity the definition of the principle of relativity and the opinion that a violation of that principle can never be detected the possible non-existence of the ether

Relativity priority dispute many remarks on the non-Euclidean geometry. Einstein refers to Poincar in connection with the inertia of energy in 1906[27] and the non-Euclidean geometry in 1921,[28] but not in connection with the Lorentz transformation, the relativity principle or the synchronisation procedure by light signals. However, in the last years before Einstein's death he acknowledged some of Poincar's contributions (according to Darrigol, maybe because his biographer Pais in 1950 sent him a copy of Poincar's Palermo paper, which he said that he had not read before). Einstein wrote in 1953:[29]

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There is no doubt, that the special theory of relativity, if we regard its development in retrospect, was ripe for discovery in 1905. Lorentz had already recognized that the transformations named after him are essential for the analysis of Maxwells equations, and Poincar deepened this insight still further. Concerning myself, I knew only Lorentz's important work of 1895 [...] but not Lorentz's later work, nor the consecutive investigations by Poincar. In this sense my work of 1905 was independent. [..] The new feature of it was the realization of the fact that the bearing of the Lorentz transformation transcended its connection with Maxwell's equations and was concerned with the nature of space and time in general. A further new result was that the "Lorentz invariance" is a general condition for any physical theory.

General Relativity
Did Hilbert claim priority for parts of General Relativity?
Kip Thorne concludes, based on Hilbert's 1924 paper, that Hilbert regarded the General Theory of relativity as Einstein's: "Quite naturally, and in accord with Hilbert's view of things, the resulting law of warpage was quickly given the name the Einstein field equation rather than being named after Hilbert. Hilbert had carried out the last few mathematical steps to its discovery independently and almost simultaneously with Einstein, but Einstein was responsible for essentially everything that preceded those steps...".[30] However, Kip Thorne also stated, "Remarkably, Einstein was not the first to discover the correct form of the law of warpage[. . . .] Recognition for the first discovery must go to Hilbert."[31] Arguments have been made that Hilbert claimed priority for the field equations themselves; the sources cited for this are: Hilbert's article (dated 20 November 1915), when it appeared in 1916, contained the text "Die so zu Stande kommenden Differentialgleichungen der Gravitation sind, wie mir scheint, mit der von Einstein in seinen spteren Abhandlungen aufgestellten grozgigen Theorie der allgemeinen Relativitt in gutem Einklang." - in translation, "The differential equations of gravity arrived at in this way are, I think, in good agreement with those of Einstein in his later papers in which he presented his comprehensive theory of general relativity." Hilbert refers here to the "later papers" of Einstein, obviously to distinguish them from the Entwerf theory of 1913 and the preliminary papers prior to the end of November 1915 when Einstein published the equations of general relativity in their final form. Hilbert's sentence has sometimes been mis-interpreted by replacing the word "later" with "subsequent", and suggesting that Hilbert was writing in a clairvoyant sense about papers of Einstein that would be written subsequent to the paper that Hilbert was presently writing. Serious scholars dismiss such misconstruals as obvious nonsense. Wuensch [32] points out that Hilbert refers to the field equations of gravity as "meine Theorie" ("my theory") in his February 6, 1916 letter to Schwarzschild. This, however, is not at issue, since no one disputes that Hilbert had his own "theory", which Einstein criticized as naive and overly ambitious. Hilbert's theory was based on the work of Mie combined with Einstein's principle of general covariance, but applied to matter and electromagnetism as well as gravity. Mehra [33] and Bjerknes[34] point out that Hilbert's 1924 version of the article contained the sentence "..und andererseits auch Einstein, obwohl wiederholt von abweichenden und unter sich verschiedenen Anstzen ausgehend, kehrt schlielich in seinen letzten Publikationen geradenwegs zu den Gleichungen meiner Theorie zurck" - "Einstein [. . .] in his last publications ultimately returns directly to the equations of my theory."[35] . These statements of course do not have any particular bearing on the matter at issue. No one disputes that Hilbert

Relativity priority dispute has "his" theory, which was a very ambitious attempt to combine gravity with a theory of matter and electromagnetism along the lines of Mie's theory, and that he equations for gravitation agreed with those that Einstein presented beginning in his Nov 25 paper (which Hilbert refers to as Einstein's later papers to distinguish them from previous theories of Einstein). None of this bears on the precise origin of the trace term in the Einstein field equations (a feature of the equations that, while theoretically significant, does not have any effect on the vacuum equations, from which all the empirical tests proposed by Einstein were derived). Sauer says "the independence of Einstein's discovery was never a point of dispute between Einstein and Hilbert ... Hilbert claimed priority for the introduction of the Riemann scalar into the action principle and the derivation of the field equations from it, "[36] (Sauer mentions a letter and a draft letter where Hilbert defends his priority for the action functional) "and Einstein admitted publicly that Hilbert (and Lorentz) had succeeded in giving the equations of general relativity a particularly lucid form by deriving them from a single variational principle". Sauer also stated, "And in a draft of a letter to Weyl, dated 22 April 1918, written after he had read the proofs of the first edition of Weyl's 'Raum-Zeit-Materie' Hilbert also objected to being slighted in Weyl's exposition. In this letter again 'in particular the use of the Riemannian curvature [scalar] in the Hamiltonian integral' ('insbesondere die Verwendung der Riemannschen Kruemmung unter dem Hamiltonschen Integral') was claimed as one of his original contributions. SUB Cod. Ms. Hilbert 457/17."[37] Einstein wrote to Hilbert on 20 December 1915 that there was an "ill-feeling between us" and it has been suspected that this ill feeling was the result of Einstein's bitterness over Hilbert's "nostrification" of his (Einstein's) theory. Others have suggested that Hilbert might have felt that Einstein had derived some benefit or hints from his (Hilbert's) letters, and that those had helped him to arrive at the trace term of the field equations, and if so, that Einstein should have acknowledged this in his paper. But this is pure speculation, aside from Einstein's comment that he believed others (presumably Hilbert) had tried to "nostrify" his theory. So far, there seems to be no consensus that these statements form a clear claim by Hilbert to have published the field equations first.

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Did Einstein develop the field equations independently?

For a long time, it was believed that Einstein and Hilbert found the field equations of gravity independently. While Hilbert's paper was submitted somewhat earlier than Einstein's, it only appeared in 1916, after Einstein's field equations paper had appeared in print. For this reason there was no good reason to suspect plagiarism on either side. In 1978, a November 18, 1915 letter from Einstein to Hilbert resurfaced, in which Einstein thanked Hilbert for sending an explanation of Hilbert's work. This was not unexpected to most scholars, who were well aware of the correspondence between Hilbert and Einstein that November, and who continued to hold the view expressed by Albrecht Flsing in his Einstein biography: In November, when Einstein was totally absorbed in his theory of gravitation, he essentially only corresponded with Hilbert, sending Hilbert his publications and, on November 18, thanking him for a draft of his article. Einstein must have received that article immediately before writing this letter. Could Einstein, casting his eye over Hilbert's paper, have discovered the term which was still lacking in his own equations, and thus 'nostrified' Hilbert? [38] In the very next sentence, after asking the rhetorical question, Folsing answers it with "This is not really probable...", and then goes on to explain in detail why "[Einstein's] eventual derivation of the equations was a logical development of his earlier argumentsin which, despite all the mathematics, physical principles invariably predominated. His approach was thus quite different from Hilbert's, and Einstein's achievements can, therefore, surely be regarded as authentic." In their 1997 Science paper [Cor97], Corry, Renn and Stachel quote the above passage and comment that "the arguments by which Einstein is exculpated are rather weak, turning on his slowness in fully grasping Hilbert's mathematics", and so they attempted to find more definitive evidence of the relationship between the work of Hilbert

Relativity priority dispute and Einstein, basing their work largely on a recently discovered pre-print of Hilbert's paper. A discussion of the controversy around this paper is given below. Those who contend that Einstein's paper was motivated by the information obtained from Hilbert have referred to the following sources: The correspondence between Hilbert and Einstein mentioned above. More recently, it became known that Einstein was also given notes of Hilbert's November 16 talk about his theory[39] . Einstein's November 18 paper on the perihelion motion of Mercury, which still refers to the incomplete field equations of November 4 and 11. (The perihelion motion depends only on the vacuum equations, which are unaffected by the trace term that was added to complete the field equations.) Reference to the final form of the equations appears only in a footnote added to the paper, indicating that Einstein had not known the final form of the equations on November 18. This is not controversial, and is consistent with the well-known fact that Einstein did not complete the field equations (with the trace term) until November 25. Letters of Hilbert, Einstein, and other scientists may be used in attempts to make guesses about the content of Hilbert's letter to Einstein, which is not preserved, or of Hilbert's lecture in Gttingen on November 16. Those who contend that Einstein's work takes priority over Hilberts [Cor97], or that both authors did their work independently [Tod06] have used the following arguments: Hilbert modified his paper in December 1915, and the November 18 version sent to Einstein did not contain the final form of the field equations. The extant part of the printer proofs does not have the explicit field equations. This is the point of view defended by Corry, Renn, Stachel, and Sauer. Sauer (1999) and Todorov (2005) agree with Corry, Renn and Satchel that Hilbert's proofs show that Hilbert had originally presented a non-covariant theory, which was dropped from the revised paper. Corry et al. quote from the proofs: "Since our mathematical theorem ... can provide only ten essentially independent equations for the 14 potentials [...] and further, maintaining general covariance makes quite impossible more than ten essential independent equations [...] then, in order to keep the deterministic characteristic of the fundamental equations of physics [...] four further non-covariant equations ... [are] unavoidable." (proofs, pages 3 and 4. Corry et al.) Hilbert derives these four extra equations and continues "these four differential equations [...] supplement the gravitational equations [...] to yield a system of 14 equations for the 14 potentials , : the system of fundamental equations of physics". (proofs, page 7. Corry et al.). Hilbert's first theory (lecture Nov 16, lecture Nov 20, proofs Dec 6) was titled "The fundamental equations of Physics". In proposing non-covariant fundamental equations, based on the Ricci tensor but restricted in this way, Hilbert was following the causality requirement that Einstein and Grassman had introduced in the Entwurf papers of 1913 (Sauer, 1999). One may attempt to reconstruct the way in which Einstein may have arrived at the field equations independently. This is, for instance, done in the paper of Logunov, Mestvirishvili and Petrov quoted below [Log04]. Renn and Sauer [Ren96] investigate the notebook used by Einstein in 1912 and claim he was close to the correct theory at that time.

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Attackers and defenders

This section cites notable publications where people have expressed a view on the issues outlined above.

Sir Edmund Whittaker (1954)

In 1954 Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker, an English mathematician and historian of science, credited Poincar with the equation , and he included a chapter entitled The Relativity Theory of Poincar and Lorentz in his book A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity (1954). He credited Poincar and Lorentz, and attributed to Einstein's relativity paper only little importance. Whittaker also stated that David Hilbert had derived the theory of General Relativity from an elegant variational principle nearly simultaneously with Einstein's discovery of the

Relativity priority dispute theory.

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G. H. Keswani (1965)
In a 1965 series of articles tracing the history of relativity [Kes65], Keswani claimed that Poincar and Lorentz should have the main credit for special relativity - claiming that Poincar pointedly credited Lorentz multiple times, while Lorentz credited Poincar and Einstein, refusing to take credit for himself. He also downplayed the theory of general relativity, saying "Einstein's general theory of relativity is only a theory of gravitation and of modifications in the laws of physics in gravitational fields".[40] . This would leave the special theory of relativity as the unique theory of relativity. Keswani cited also Vladimir Fock for this same opinion. This series of articles prompted responses, among others from Herbert Dingle and Karl Popper. Dingle said, among other things, ".. the 'principle of relativity' had various meanings, and the theories associated with it were quite distinct; they were not different forms of the same theory. Each of the three protagonists.... was very well aware of the others .... but each preferred his own views"[41] Karl Popper says "Though Einstein appears to have known Poincar's Science and Hypothesis prior to 1905, there is no theory like Einstein's in this great book."[42] Keswani did not accept the criticism, and replied in two letters also published in the same journal ([Kes66a] and [Kes66b]) - in his reply to Dingle, he argues that the three relativity theories were at heart the same: ".. they meant much that was common. And that much mattered the most."[43] Dingle commented the year after on the history of crediting: "Until the first World War, Lorentz's and Einstein's theories were regarded as different forms of the same idea, but Lorentz, having priority and being a more established figure speaking a more familiar language, was credited with it." (Dingle 1967, Nature 216 p.119-122).

Albrecht Folsing on the Hilbert-Einstein interaction (1998)

From Folsing's 1998 Einstein biography (footnote references in the quote are from the original text and the actual notes are not reproduced here): During the decisive phase Einstein even had a congenial colleague, though this caused him more annoyance than joy, as it seemed to threaten his primacy. "Only one colleague truly understood it, and he now tries skillfully to appropriate it."29 he complained to Zangger about what he evidently regarded as an attempt at plagiarism. This colleague was none other than David Hilbert, with whom, as recently as the summer, Einstein had been "absolutely delighted." What must have irritated Einstein was that Hilbert had published the correct field equations firsta few days before Einstein. Einstein presented his equations in Berlin on November 25, 1915, but six days earlier, on November 20, Hilberthad derived the identical field equations for which Einstein had been searching such a long time.31 How had this happened? David Hilbert had concerned himself intensively with physics for a number of years; had read everything about electrons, matter, and fields: and in this context had invited Einstein to Gttingen toward the end of June 1915 to lecture on relativity theory. Einstein had stayed at the Hilberts' home, and one must assume that the week he and Hilbert spent together would have consisted of dawn-to-dusk discussions of physics. They continued their debate in writing, although Felix Klein records that "they talked past one another, as happens not infrequently between simultaneously producing mathematicians."32 Hilbert was in fact aiming at greater things than Einstein: at a theory of the entire physical world, of matter and fields, of universe and electronsand in a strictly axiomatic structure. In November, when Einstein was totally absorbed in his theory of gravitation, he essentially corresponded only with Hilbert, sending Hilbert his publications and, on November 18, thanking him for a draft of his treatise. Einstein must have received that treatise immediately before writing this letter. Could Einstein, casting his eye

Relativity priority dispute over Hilbert's paper, have discovered the term which was still lacking in his own equations, and thus "appropriated" Hilbert? This is not really probable: Hilbert's treatise was exceedingly involved, or indeed confusedaccording to Felix Klein, it was the kind of work "that no one understands unless he has already mastered the whole subject."33 It cannot be entirely ruled out that Hilbert's treatise made Einstein aware of some weakness in his own equations. Nevertheless, his eventual derivation of the equations was a logical development of his earlier argumentsin which, despite all the mathematics, physical principles invariably predominated. His approach was thus quite different from Hilbert's, and Einstein's achievements can, therefore, surely be regarded as authentic. For a few weeks relations between Einstein and Hilbert were clouded; at least, we know that Einstein was convinced that his Gttingen lectures and some of his other thoughts hadperhaps inadvertentlybeen plagiarized by Hilbert. It may well be, though, that he was somewhat mollified when he saw the printed version of Hilbert's treatise, since Hilbert, in the very first sentence, paid tribute to "the gigantic problems raised by Einstein and the brilliant methods developed by him for their solution,"34 which represented the prerequisites of a new approach to the fundamentals of physics. Thirty years later, Einstein told his assistant Ernst G. Straus, who in turn after another thirty years told Abraham Pais, that "Hilbert had sent him a written apology, informing him that he had 'quite forgotten that lecture.' "35 If that is what happened, then it must have satisfied Einstein, for just before Christmas he wrote to Hilbert: "There has been between us something like a bad feeling, the cause of which I don't wish to analyze further. I struggled against a resulting sense of bitterness, and I did so with complete success. I once more think of you in unclouded friendship, and would ask you to try to do likewise toward me. It is, objectively speaking, a pity if two fellows who have worked their way out of this shabby world cannot find pleasure in one another."36 The reconciliation worked so well that no one else seems to have noticed any friction, and a legend arose that there had never been anything but friendly feelings between Einstein and Hilbert.37 Hilbert, like all his other colleagues, acknowledged Einstein as the sole creator of relativity theory. (Source: Folsing, "Albert Einstein")[44] From the publication date of his book, it appears that Folsing did not know of the printer proofs discussed in [Cor97].

81

Cory/Renn/Stachel and Friedwardt Winterberg (1997/2003)

In 1997, Cory, Renn and Stachel published a 3-page article in Science entitled "Belated Decision in the Hilbert-Einstein Priority Dispute" [45], concluding that Hilbert had not anticipated Einstein's equations. Friedwardt Winterberg, a professor of physics at the University of Nevada, Reno, disputed [46] these conclusions, observing that the galley proofs of Hilbert's articles had been tampered with - part of one page had been cut off. He goes on to argue that the removed part of the article contained the equations that Einstein later published, and he wrote that the cut off part of the proofs suggests a crude attempt by someone to falsify the historical record. "Science" declined to publish this; it was printed in revised form in "Zeitschrift fr Naturforschung", with a dateline of June 5, 2003. Winterberg wrote that the correct field equations are still present on the existing pages of the proofs in various equivalent forms. In this paper Winterberg asserted that Einstein sought the help of Hilbert and Klein to help him find the correct field equation, without mentioning the research of Folsing (1997) and Sauer (1999) according to which Hilbert invited Einstein to Gttingen to give a week of lectures on general relativity in June 1915, which however does not necessarily contradict Winterberg. Hilbert at the time was looking for physics problems to solve. A short reply to Winterberg's article could be found at [47]; the original long reply can be accessed via the Internet Archive at [48]. In this reply, Winterberg's hypothesis is called "paranoid" and "speculative". Cory et al. offer the following alternative speculation: "it is possible that Hilbert himself cropped off the top of p. 7 to include it with the three sheets he sent Klein, in order that they not end in mid-sentence."

Relativity priority dispute As of September 2006, the Max Planck Institute of Berlin has replaced the short reply with a note [49] saying that the society "distances itself from statements published on this website [...] concerning Prof. Friedwart Winterberg" and stating that "the Max Planck Institute will not take a position in [this] scientific dispute". Ivan Todorov, in a paper published on ArXiv (Todorov 2005), says of the debate: Their [CRS's] attempt to support on this ground Einsteins accusation of nostrification goes much too far. A calm, non-confrontational reaction was soon provided by a thorough study (Sau 99) of Hilberts route to the Foundations of Physics (see also the relatively even handed survey (Viz 01)). In the paper recommended by Todorov as calm and non-confrontational, Tilman Sauer (1999) concludes that the printer's proofs show conclusively that Einstein did not plagiarize Hilbert, stating any possibility that Einstein took the clue for the final step toward his field equations from Hilbert's note [Nov 20, 1915] is now definitely precluded. Bjerknes [50] has disputed Sauer's conclusion, [. . .]Dr. Sauer's vague and arbitrary arguments regarding Einstein's plagiarism do not follow from his premises. There is no evidence or circumstance which would preclude Einstein's plagiarism. On the contrary, the evidence and the circumstances surrounding Einsteins publication of the generally covariant field equations of gravitation containing the trace term on 25 November 1915 prove beyond any reasonable doubt that Einstein plagiarized them from David Hilbert. Max Born's letter to David Hilbert, quoted in Wuensch [51] vindicates Bjerknes's view there is a real possibility that Einstein copied from Hilbert.[52] Logunov (2004) commenting on the "Belated decision" paper, but not aware of the Born letter, concludes Their [Hilbert's and Einstein's] pathways were different but they led exactly to the same result. Nobody "nostrified" the other ... All is absolutely clear: both authors made everything to immortalize their names in the title of the gravitational field equations. But general relativity is Einsteins theory.[12] Todorov ends his paper by stating: Einstein and Hilbert had the moral strength and wisdom - after a month of intense competition, from which, in a final account, everybody (including science itself) profited - to avoid a lifelong priority dispute (something in which Leibniz and Newton failed). It would be a shame to subsequent generations of scientists and historians of science to try to undo their achievement.

82

Christopher Jon Bjerknes (2003)

This author has written several books and articles claiming that Einstein plagiarized the theories of relativity. Examples are "Anticipations of Einstein in the General Theory of Relativity" and "Albert Einstein: the incorrigible plagiarist". [53] [54]

Olivier Darrigol on Special Relativity (2004)

In his 2004 article, "The Mystery of the Einstein-Poincar Connection", Darrigol wrote: "By 1905 Poincar's and Einstein's reflections on the electrodynamics of moving bodies led them to postulate the universal validity of the relativity principle, according to which the outcome of any conceivable experiment is independent of the inertial frame of reference in which it is performed. In particular, they both assumed that the velocity of light measured in different inertial frames was the same. They further argued that the space and time measured by observers belonging to different inertial systems were related to each other through the Lorentz transformations. They both recognized that the Maxwell-Lorentz equations of electrodynamics were left invariant by these transformations. They both required that every law of physics should be invariant under these transformations. They both gave the relativistic laws of motion. They both recognized that the relativity principle

Relativity priority dispute and the energy principle led to paradoxes when conjointly applied to radiation processes. On several points namely, the relativity principle, the physical interpretation of Lorentz's transformations (to first order), and the radiation paradoxes - Poincar's relevant publications antedated Einstein's relativity paper of 1905 by at least five years, and his suggestions were radically new when they first appeared. On the remaining points, publication was nearly simultaneous." "I turn now to basic conceptual differences. Einstein completely eliminated the ether, required that the expression of the laws of physics should be the same in any inertial frame, and introduced a "new kinematics" in which the space and time measured in different inertial systems were all on exactly the same footing. In contrast, Poincar maintained the ether as a privileged frame of reference in which "true" space and time were defined, while he regarded the space and time measured in other frames as only "apparent." He treated the Lorentz contraction as a hypothesis regarding the effect of the edgewise motion of a rod through the ether, whereas for Einstein it was a kinematic consequence of the difference between the space and time defined by observers in relative motion. Einstein gave the operational meaning of time dilation, whereas Poincar never discussed it. Einstein derived the expression of the Lorentz transformation from his two postulates (the relativity principle and the constancy of the velocity of light in a given inertial system), whereas Poincar obtained these transformations as those that leave the Maxwell-Lorentz equations invariant. Whereas Einstein, having eliminated the ether, needed a second postulate, in Poincar's view the constancy of the velocity of light (in the ether frame) derived from the assumption of a stationary ether. Einstein obtained the dynamics of any rapidly moving particle by the direct use of Lorentz covariance, whereas Poincar reasoned according to a specific model of the electron built up in conformity with Lorentz covariance. Einstein saw that Poincar's radiation paradoxes could be solved only by assuming the inertia of energy, whereas Poincar never returned to this question. Lastly, Poincar immediately proposed a relativistic modification of Newton's law of gravitation and saw the advantages of a four-vector formalism in this context, whereas Einstein waited a couple of years to address this problem complex." "These differences between the two theories are sometimes regarded as implying different observable predictions even within the domain of electromagnetism and optics. In reality, there is no such disagreement, for Poincars ether is by assumption perfectly undetectable, and every deduction made in Einsteins theory can be translated into a deduction in Poincars theory ..." In sum, then, Einstein could have borrowed the relativity principle, the definition of simultaneity, the physical interpretation of the Lorentz transformations, and the radiation paradoxes from Poincar. ... The wisest attitude might be to leave the coincidence of Poincars and Einsteins breakthroughs unexplained, ... (Source: [Dar04])

83

Anatoly Alexeevich Logunov (2004)

Logunov is a former Vice President of the Soviet Academy of Sciences and currently "Advisor" of the Institute for High Energy Physics.[55][56] Author of a book about Poincar's relativity theory [57]. Coauthor, with Mestvirishvili and Petrov, of an article rejecting the conclusions of the Corry/Renn/Stachel paper. They discuss both Einstein's and Hilbert's papers, claiming that Einstein and Hilbert arrived at the correct field equations independently. Specifically, they conclude that: Their pathways were different but they led exactly to the same result. Nobody "nostrified" the other. So no belated decision in the EinsteinHilbert priority dispute, about which [Corry, Renn, and Stachel] wrote, can be taken. Moreover, the very EinsteinHilbert dispute never took place. All is absolutely clear: both authors made everything to immortalize their names in the title of the gravitational field equations. But general relativity is Einsteins theory.[58] His book about Poincar's relativity theory [57] is a useful introduction to the subject. Starting on p.113 is an English translation by V. A. Petrov, using modern notations, of the part of Poincar's 1900 article containing E=mc2. Logunov states that Poincar's 1905 papers Sur la dynamique de l'lectron (On the Dynamics of the Electron) are

Relativity priority dispute superior to Einstein's 1905 Elektrodynamik paper. According to Logunov, Poincar was the first scientist to recognize the importance of invariance under the Poincar group as a guideline for developing new theories in physics. In chapter 9 of this book, Logunov points out that Poincar's second paper was the first one to formulate a complete theory of relativistic dynamics, containing the correct relativistic analogue of Newton's F=ma. On p.142, Logunov points out that Einstein wrote reviews for the Beibltter Annalen der Physik, writing 21 reviews in 1905. This contradicts the claims that Einstein worked in relative isolation and with limited access to the scientific literature, claims which are usually made to exculpate Einstein from plagiarism. Among the papers reviewed in 1905 Beibltter are a review, in the fourth (of 24) issue of 1905, of Lorentz' paper in the Versl. K. Ak. van Wet. 12(1904), p.986 containing the Lorentz transformation. The review also contained these transformations. This supports the view that Einstein was familiar with the Lorentz' paper containing the correct relativistic transformation in early 1905, while his June 1905 Elektrodynamik paper does not mention Lorentz in connection with this result.

84

Jules Leveugle and Christian Marchal (2004/2005)

Similar to Anatoly A. Logunov, Christian Marchal and Jules Leveugle argue that the contribution of Albert Einstein to the special theory of relativity is minor compared to that of Henri Poincar [59]. Compare also: Jules Leveugle, La Relativit et Einstein, Planck, Hilbert - Histoire vridique de la Thorie de la Relativit, L'Harmattan, Paris 2004.

Daniela Wuensch (2005)

Daniela Wuensch, a historian of science and a Hilbert and Kaluza expert, responded to Bjerknes, Winterberg and Logunov's criticisms of the Corry/Renn/Stachel paper in a book which appeared in 2005 [60], wherein she defends the view that the cut to Hilbert's printer proofs was made in recent times. Moreover, she presents a theory about what might have been on the missing part of the proofs, based upon her knowledge of Hilbert's papers and lectures. She defends the view that knowledge of Hilbert's November 16, 1915 letter was crucial to Einstein's development of the field equations: Einstein arrived at the correct field equations only with Hilbert's help ("nach groer Anstrengung mit Hilfe Hilberts"), but nevertheless calls Einstein's reaction (his negative comments on Hilbert in the November 26 letter to Zangger) "understandable" ("Einstein's Reaktion ist verstndlich") because Einstein had worked on the problem for a long time. According to her publisher, Wuensch concludes though that: This comprehensive study concludes with a historical interpretation. It shows that while it is true that Hilbert must be seen as the one who first discovered the field equations, the general theory of relativity is indeed Einstein's achievement, whereas Hilbert developed a unified theory of gravitation and electromagnetism. [60] In 2006, Wuensch was invited to give a talk at the annual meeting of the German Physics Society (Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft) about her views about the priority issue for the field equations.[61]

Klaus Sommer (2005)

Klaus Sommer is a historian of science and Hilbert expert. In an article in "Physik in unserer Zeit" (Sommer 05) [62], he supports Wuensch's view that Einstein obtained not independently but from the information obtained from Hilbert's November 16 letter and from the notes of Hilbert's talk. While he does not call Einstein a plagiarist, Sommer speculates that Einstein's conciliatory December 20 letter was motivated by the fear that Hilbert might comment Einstein's behaviour in the final version of his paper, claiming that a scandal caused by Hilbert could have done more damage to Einstein than any scandal before ("Ein Skandal Hilberts htte ihm mehr geschadet als jeder andere zuvor").

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85

See also
History of special relativity History of general relativity Henri Poincar David Hilbert Twin paradox Equivalence principle List of scientific priority disputes Einstein-Hilbert action

Footnotes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [Poi02] [Sta89], p. 893, footnote 10 [Ein05d], last section http:/ / termessos. de/ prooffotos. htm D. Hilbert, Nac. Ges. Wiss. Goettingen 1916, 395, cited in [Cor97]. [Hil24] page 2 [Wue05], p. 83

[8] Whittaker (1953), pp. 27-77 [9] Holton (1988), pp. 202-207 [10] Miller (1981), pp. 216-217 [11] Pais (1982), pp. 126-128 [12] Torretti (1983), pp. 83-87 [13] Darrigol (2005) [14] Lorentz, H.A. (1921), " Deux Memoirs de Henri Poincar sur la Physique Mathematique (http:/ / www. new. dli. ernet. in/ scripts/ FullindexDefault. htm?path1=/ data/ upload/ 0050/ 246& first=702& last=724& barcode=1990050050241)", Acta Mathematica 38: 293308 Reprinted in Poincar, Oeuvres tome XI (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ ceuvresdeehenrip027739mbp), S. 247-261. [15] Poincar, H. (1906), " Sur la dynamique de l'lectron (http:/ / www. soso. ch/ wissen/ hist/ SRT/ P-1905. pdf)", Rendiconti del Circolo matematico Rendiconti del Circolo di Palermo 21: 129176 Reprinted in Poincar, Oeuvres, tome IX, pages 494-550. See also the partial English translation (http:/ / www. univ-nancy2. fr/ poincare/ bhp/ ). [16] En effet, pour certaines des grandeurs physiques qui entrent dans les formules, je n'ai pas indique la transformation qui convient le mieux. Cela a t fait par Poincar et ensuite par M. Einstein et Minkowski. [..] C'est que je n'avais pas song a la voie directe qui y conduit, et cela tient a ce que j'avais lide qu'il y a une diffrence essentielle entre les systmes x, y, z, t et x', y, z, t. Dans lun on se sert - telle tait ma pense - d'axes des coordonnes qui ont une position fixe dans lther et de ce qu'on peut appeler le vrai temps; dans lautre systme, au contraire, on aurait affaire a de simples grandeurs auxiliaires dont lintroduction n'est qu'un artifice mathmatique. [..] mais je n'ai pas tabli le principe de relativit comme rigoureusement et universellement vrai. Poincar, au contraire, a obtenu une invariance parfaite des quations de llectrodynamique, et il a formule le postulat de relativit , termes quil a t le premier a employer. [..] Ajoutons qu'en corrigeant ainsi les imperfections de mon travail il ne me les a jamais reproches. [17] Lorentz, H.A (1916), The theory of electrons (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ electronstheory00lorerich), Leipzig & Berlin: B.G. Teubner [18] Janssen, M. (1995), A Comparison between Lorentz's Ether Theory and Special Relativity in the Light of the Experiments of Trouton and Noble (http:/ / www. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ en/ sources/ index. html#articles)(thesis) [19] Lorentz, H.A. (1928), " Conference on the Michelson-Morley Experiment (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1928ApJ. . . . 68. . 341M)", The Astrophysical Journal 68: 345351 [20] Poincar, H. (1913), Last Essays (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ mathematicsandsc001861mbp), New York: Dover Publication (1963) [21] Renn, J.,: Albert Einstein in den Annalen der Physik (http:/ / einstein-annalen. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ home), 2005 [22] The titles of 21 reviews written in 1905 can be found in "The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 2". See online (http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ TOCs/ c4453. html). [23] Einstein, A. (1907), " ber das Relativittsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen (http:/ / www. soso. ch/ wissen/ hist/ SRT/ E-1907. pdf)", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitt und Elektronik 4: 411462 [24] Einstein, A. (1909), " ber die Entwicklungen unserer Anschauungen ber das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung (http:/ / www. ekkehard-friebe. de/ EINSTEIN-1909-P. pdf)", Physikalische Zeitschrift 10 (22): 817825. See also English translation [25] Einstein, A. (1912), " Relativitt und Gravitation. Erwiderung auf eine Bemerkung von M. Abraham (http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ papers/ 1912_38_1059-1064. pdf)", Annalen der Physik 38: 10591064

Relativity priority dispute

[26] Darrigol, O. (2004), " The Mystery of the Einstein-Poincar Connection (http:/ / www. journals. uchicago. edu/ doi/ full/ 10. 1086/ 430652)", Isis 95 (4): 614626, doi:10.1086/430652, PMID16011297 [27] Einstein, A. (1906), " Das Prinzip von der Erhaltung der Schwerpunktsbewegung und die Trgheit der Energie (http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ papers/ 1906_20_627-633. pdf)", Annalen der Physik 20: 627633 [28] Einstein, A. (1922), Sidelights on relativity (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ ebooks/ 7333), London: Methuen & Co. This work includes the English translations of "Ether and the theory of relativity (1920)" and "Geometry and experience (1921)". [29] Born, M. (1956), Physics im my generation (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ physucsinmygener006567mbp), London & New York: Pergamon Press [30] [Tho94] [31] [Tho94, p. 117] [32] [Wue05], p. 83 [33] [Meh74, p. 84] [34] [Bje03a, p. 17; Bje06 p. 2079] [35] [Hil24] English translation from Bje03a, p. 17; Bje06, p. 2079] [36] [Sau99] footnote 158 [37] [Sau99] [38] [Fol98] (page needed) [39] [Wue05], page 74 [40] [Kes65 part 3, section 3, page 276 [41] [Din65] [42] [Pop65] [43] [Kes66a] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [Fol98] page 375 http:/ / www. garfield. library. upenn. edu/ histcomp/ einstein-a_all-w-citing-pre-56_e/ node/ 12342. html http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070629183442/ http:/ / physics. unr. edu/ faculty/ winterberg/ Hilbert-Einstein. pdf http:/ / www. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ texts/ Winterberg-Antwort. pdf http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050313161944/ http:/ / www. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ texts/ Winterberg-Antwort. html http:/ / www. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ texts/ Winterberg-Antwort. html [Bje03, p. 10] [Wue05] [Wue05 Som05] http:/ / lccn. loc. gov/ 2003019787 http:/ / lccn. loc. gov/ 2002005657 http:/ / www. biograph. comstar. ru/ bank/ logunov. htm http:/ / www. ihep. su/ ihep/ info/ contact. htm http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ physics/ 0408077 http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ physics/ 0405075 http:/ / www. annales. org/ archives/ x/ poincare. html http:/ / termessos. de/ einsteinhilbertdispute. htm http:/ / www. dpg-tagungen. de/ program/ muenchen/ gr302. pdf http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ cgi-bin/ abstract/ 111083634/ ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1& SRETRY=0

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References
Works of physics (primary sources)
[Ein05c] Albert Einstein: Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Krper, Annalen der Physik 17(1905), 891-921. Received June 30, published September 26, 1905. Reprinted with comments in [Sta89], p.276-306 English translation, with footnotes not present in the 1905 paper, available on the net (http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/ specrel/) [Ein05d] Albert Einstein: Ist die Trgheit eines Krpers von seinem Energiegehalt abhngig?, Annalen der Physik 18(1905), 639-641, Reprinted with comments in [Sta89], Document 24 English translation available on the net (http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/E_mc2/)

Relativity priority dispute [Ein06] Albert Einstein: Das Prinzip von der Erhaltung der Schwerpunktsbewegung und die Trgheit der Energie Annalen der Physik 20(1906):627-633, Reprinted with comments in [Sta89], Document 35 [Ein15a] Einstein, A. (1915) "Die Feldgleichungun der Gravitation". Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 844-847. [Ein15b] Einstein, A. (1915) "Zur allgemeinen Relativatstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 778-786 [Ein15c] Einstein, A. (1915) "Erklarung der Perihelbewegung des Merkur aus der allgemeinen Relatvitatstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 799-801 [Ein15d] Einstein, A. (1915) "Zur allgemeinen Relativatstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 831-839 [Ein16] Einstein, A. (1916) "Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativittstheorie", Annalen der Physik, 49 [Hil24] Hilbert, D., Die Grundlagen der Physik - Mathematische Annalen, 92, 1924 - "meiner theorie" quote on page 2 - online at Uni Gttingen (http:/ / dz-srv1. sub. uni-goettingen. de/ sub/ digbib/ loader?ht=VIEW& did=D29243) - index of journal (http://dz-srv1.sub.uni-goettingen.de/cache/toc/D29239.html) [Lan05] Langevin, P. (1905) "Sur l'origine des radiations et l'inertie lectromagntique", Journal de Physique Thorique et Applique, 4, pp.165183. [Lan14] Langevin, P. (1914) "Le Physicien" in Henri Poincar Librairie (Felix Alcan 1914) pp.115202. [Lor99] Lorentz, H. A. (1899) "Simplified Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Systems", Proc. Acad. Science Amsterdam, I, 427-43. [Lor04] Lorentz, H. A. (1904) "Electromagnetic Phenomena in a System Moving with Any Velocity Less Than That of Light", Proc. Acad. Science Amsterdam, IV, 669-78. [Lor11] Lorentz, H. A. (1911) Amsterdam Versl. XX, 87 [Lor14] Lorentz, H. A. (1914) "Deux Memoires de Henri Poincar," Acta Mathematica 38: 293, p.1921. [Pla07] Planck, M. (1907) Berlin Sitz., 542 [Pla08] Planck, M. (1908) Verh. d. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. X, p218, and Phys. ZS, IX, 828 [Poi89]

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Relativity priority dispute Poincar, H. (1889) Thorie mathmatique de la lumire, Carr & C. Naud, Paris. Partly reprinted in [Poi02], Ch. 12. [Poi97] Poincar, H. (1897) "The Relativity of Space" (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ reference/ subject/ philosophy/ works/fr/poincare.htm), article in English translation [Poi00] Poincar, Henri (1900), "La thorie de Lorentz et le principe de raction" (http:/ / www. soso. ch/ wissen/ hist/ SRT/ P-1900. pdf) (PDF), Archives nerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles 5: 252278. Reprinted in Poincar, Oeuvres, tome IX, pp.464488. See also the English translation (http:/ / www. physicsinsights. org/ poincare-1900.pdf) [Poi02] Poincar, Henri (1902), Science and hypothesis (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ scienceandhypoth00poinuoft), London and Newcastle-on-Cyne (1905): The Walter Scott publishing Co. [Poi04] Poincar, Henri (1904), "L'tat actuel et l'avenir de la physique mathmatique", Bulletin des sciences mathmatiques 28 (2): 302324 English translation in Poincar, Henri (1904), "The present and the future of mathematical physics" (http:/ / www. ams. org/ bull/ 2000-37-01/ S0273-0979-99-00801-0/ home. html), Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (2000) 37: 2538, doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-99-00801-0 Reprinted in "The value of science" (1905a), Ch. 7-9.de la Science"] [Poi05] Poincar, Henri (1905), "Sur la dynamique de l'lectron" (http:/ / www. soso. ch/ wissen/ hist/ SRT/ P-1905-1. pdf) (PDF), Comptes Rendus 140: 15041508 Reprinted in Poincar, Oeuvres, tome IX, S. 489-493. See also the English translation by Logunov (pp. 241-253) (http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0210005). [Poi06a] Poincar, Henri (1906), "Sur la dynamique de l'lectron" (http:/ / www. soso. ch/ wissen/ hist/ SRT/ P-1905. pdf) (PDF), Rendiconti del Circolo matematico di Palermo 21: 129176, doi:10.1007/BF03013466 Reprinted in Poincar, Oeuvres, tome IX, pages 494-550. See also the partial English translation (http:/ / www. univ-nancy2.fr/poincare/bhp/). [Poi08] Poincar, Henri (1908), Science and Method (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ sciencemethod00poinuoft), London: Nelson & Sons [Poi13] Poincar, Henri (1913), Last Essays (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ mathematicsandsc001861mbp), New York: Dover Publication (1963) [Ein20] Albert Einstein: "Ether and the Theory of Relativity", An Address delivered on May 5, 1920, in the University of Leyden, (http://www.relativitybook.com/resources/Einstein_aether.html) [Sta89] John Stachel (Ed.), The collected papers of Albert Einstein, volume 2, Princeton University Press, 1989

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Secondary sources
[Bje02] Bjerknes, Christopher Jon (2002), Einstein, the incorrigible plagiarist, Downers Grove, Illinois: XTX Inc., ISBN0-9719629-8-7 Author's site (http://home.comcast.net/~xtxinc/AEIPBook.htm) [Bje03] Bjerknes, Christopher Jon (2003), Anticipations of Einstein in the General Theory of Relativity, Downers Grove, Illinois: XTX Inc., ISBN0-9719629-6-0 Author's site (http:/ / home. comcast. net/ ~xtxinc/ AEGRBook.htm) [Bro67] G. Burniston Brown, What's wrong with relativity, Bulletin of the Institute of Physics and Physical Society, Vol. 18 (March, 1967) pp.7177 - online copy (http:/ / homepage. ntlworld. com/ academ/ whatswrongwithrelativity.html) [Cor97] Leo Corry, Jrgen Renn, John Stachel: "Belated Decision in the Hilbert-Einstein Priority Dispute", SCIENCE, Vol. 278, 14 November 1997 - article text (http:/ / www. tau. ac. il/ ~corry/ publications/ articles/ science. html) [Cor03] Corry, Renn Stachel: Short response (http:/ / www. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ texts/ Winterberg-Antwort. pdf) to [Win02] - note: the original response was later replaced with a shorter one, and on September 14, 2006, this was replaced with a statement stating that the Max Planck Institute distances itself from Corry et al.'s statements about Winterberg. The original two versions are no longer available at this URL or at the Wayback Machine. Darrigol, O. (2000), Electrodynamics from Ampre to Einstein, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN0198505949 Darrigol, O. (2004), "The Mystery of the Einstein-Poincar Connection" (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ doi/full/10.1086/430652), Isis 95 (4): 614626, doi:10.1086/430652 Darrigol, O. (2005), "The Genesis of the theory of relativity" (http://www.bourbaphy.fr/darrigol2.pdf) (PDF), Sminaire Poincar 1: 122 [Din65] Herbert Dingle, "Note on Mr Keswani's articles, Origin and Concept of Relativity", Brit. J. Phil. Sci., vol 16, No 63 (Nov 1965), 242-246 (a response to [Kes65]) [Fol98] Flsing, Albrecht: Einstein - a biography; Penguin (Non-Classics); New Ed edition (June 1, 1998). ISBN 0-14-023719-4. Galison, Peter (2003), Einstein's Clocks, Poincar's Maps: Empires of Time, New York: W.W. Norton, ISBN0393326047 Goldberg, S. (1967), "Henri Poincar and Einsteins Theory of Relativity", American Journal of Physics 35 (10): 934944, doi:10.1119/1.1973643 Goldberg, S. (1970), "Poincar's silence and Einstein's relativity", British journal for the history of science 5: 7384, doi:10.1017/S0007087400010633 Holton, Gerald (1988), Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought: Kepler to Einstein, Harvard University Press, ISBN0674877489 [Ive52]

Relativity priority dispute Ives, H. E., "Derivation of the Mass-Energy Relationship", article in 1952, J. Opt. Soc. Amer., 42, 5403. (Journal of the Optical Society of America) [Ive53] Ives, H. E. (1953) "Note on 'Mass-Energy Relationship'", J. O. S. A., 43, 619. Katzir, Shaul (2005), "Poincars Relativistic Physics: Its Origins and Nature", Phys. Perspect. 7: 268292, doi:10.1007/s00016-004-0234-y [Kes65] Keswani, G. H. (1965-6) "Origin and Concept of Relativity, Parts I, II, III", Brit. J. Phil. Sci., v15-17. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, ISSN0007-0882. [Kes66a] Keswani, G. H. (1966), "Reply to Professor Dingle and Mr Levinson", Brit. J. Phil. Sci., Vol. 17, No. 2 (Aug 1966), 149-152 (a response to [Din65]) [Kes66b] Keswani, G. H. (1966), "Origin and Concept of Relativity: Reply to Professor Popper", Brit. J. Phil. Sci, Vol 17 no 3 (Nov 1966), 234-236 (a response to [Pop65] [Kes83] Keswani, G. H. and C. W. Kilmister (1983) "Initimations of relativity. Relativity before Einstein", British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 34, 343-54. ISSN0007-0882. [Log04] Logunov, A. A (2004) "Henri Poincar and Relativity Theory" - Phys. Usp. 47 (2004) 607-621; Usp. Fiz. Nauk 174 (2004) 663-678 PraXis 2004 abstract (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ physics/ 0405075) - PDF (http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ physics/ 0408077) [Mac86] Macrossan, M. N. (1986) "A Note on Relativity Before Einstein" (http:/ / espace. library. uq. edu. au/ view. php?pid=UQ:9560), British Journal for the Philosophy of Science., 37, pp.23234. [Meh74] Mehra, J. (1974) "Einstein, Hilbert, and the Theory of Gravitation" Reidel, Dordrecht, Netherlands. Miller, Arthur I. (1981), Albert Einsteins special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (19051911), Reading: AddisonWesley, ISBN0-201-04679-2 Miller, A.I. (1996), "Why did Poincar not formulate special relativity in 1905?", in Jean-Louis Greffe, Gerhard Heinzmann, Kuno Lorenz, Henri Poincar : science et philosophie, Berlin, pp.69100 [Nor93] John D Norton (1993): "General covariance and the foundations of general relativity: eight decades of dispute", Rep. Prog. Phys. 56 (1993) 791458. - Author's Web copy (PDF) (http:/ / www. pitt. edu/ ~jdnorton/ papers/decades.pdf) (Report on the Progress of Physics) Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN0192806726 [Pop65] Karl R. Popper, "A Note on the Difference Between the Lorentz-Fitzgerald Contraction and the Einstein Contraction", Br. J. Phil. Sci. 16:64 (Feb 1966): 332-333 (a response to [Kes65]) [Ren96]

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Relativity priority dispute Jrgen Renn und Tilman Sauer (1996), "Einsteins Zricher Notizbuch: Die Entdeckung der Feldgleichungen der Gravitation im Jahre 1912", preprint 28 from Max Planck Institute - Web link (http://www.mpiwg-berlin. mpg.de/Preprints/28/Preprint_28_Title.html). Publication date implied from web directory. [Ren05] Jrgen Renn and John Stachel, Hilberts Foundation of Physics: From a Theory of Everything to a Constituent of General Relativity - can be downloaded from link 118 in the preprint list at Max Planck Institute (http:/ / www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P118.PDF). [Ris53] Riseman, J. and I. G. Young (1953) "Mass-Energy Relationship", J. O. S. A., 43, 618. [Rot06] Rothman, Tony (March/April 2006), "Lost in Einstein's Shadow" (http:/ / www. americanscientist. org/ template/AssetDetail/assetid/49611?&print=yes), American Scientist 94 (2): 112, doi:10.1511/2006.2.112. [Sau99] Tilman Sauer, "The relativity of discovery: Hilbert's first note on the foundations of physics", Arch. Hist. Exact Sci., v53, 529-575 (1999) [Som05] Sommer, Klaus: "Wer entdeckte die Allgemeine Relativittstheorie? Priorittsstreit zwischen Hilbert und Einstein", Physik in unserer Zeit Volume 36, Issue 5, Pages 230 - 235. Published Online: 29 Aug 2005. Available online from Wiley InterScience (http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ cgi-bin/ abstract/ 111083634/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0) (expect some problems; paid access to text only) [Tho94] Kip Thorne (1994): Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy, W. W. Norton & Company; Reprint edition (January 1995). ISBN 0-393-31276-3 [Tod06] Todorov, Ivan T., Einstein and Hilbert: The Creation of General Relativity, Institut fuer Theoretische Physik Universitaet Goettingen, arXiv:physics/0504179v1 (http:/ / arxiv. org/ multi?archive=physics& file=new+ abstracts& year='06& month=02& args=0504179v1& / abs=Show+ Abstract& search_year=past+ year& field_1=au& query_1=Todorov& subj_cond-mat=->+ cond-mat+ subject+ classes& subj_physics=->+ physics+subject+classes), 25 April 2005. Torretti, Roberto (1983), Relativity and Geometry, Elsevier, ISBN0080267734 [Whi53] Whittaker, E. T (1953) A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity: Vol 2 The Modern Theories 1900-1926. Chapter II: The Relativity Theory of Poincar and Lorentz, Nelson, London. [Win02] Friedwart Winterberg: a critique (http:/ / physics. unr. edu/ faculty/ winterberg/ Hilbert-Einstein. pdf) of [Cor77] as printed in "Zeitschrift fr Naturforschung" 59a (http:/ / www. znaturforsch. com/ c59a. htm), 715-719. [Wue05] Daniela Wuensch, "zwei wirkliche Kerle", Neues zur Entdeckung der Gravitationsgleichungen der Allgemeinen Relativittstheorie durch Einstein und Hilbert. Termessos, 2005, ISBN 3-938016-04-3

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Unified field theory

Classical unified field theories
Since the 19th century, some physicists have attempted to develop a single theoretical framework that can account for the fundamental forces of nature a unified field theory. Classical unified field theories are attempts to create a unified field theory based on classical physics. In particular, unification of gravitation and electromagnetism was actively pursued by several physicists and mathematicians in the years between World War I and World War II. This work spurred the purely mathematical development of differential geometry. Albert Einstein is the best known of the many physicists who attempted to develop a classical unified field theory. This article describes various attempts at a classical, relativistic unified field theory. For a survey of classical relativistic field theories of gravitation that have been motivated by theoretical concerns other than unification, see Classical theories of gravitation. For a survey of current work toward creating a quantum theory of gravitation, see quantum gravity.

Overview
The early attempts at creating a unified field theory began with the Riemannian geometry of general relativity, and attempted to incorporate electromagnetic fields into a more general geometry, since ordinary Riemannian geometry seemed incapable of expressing the properties of the electromagnetic field. Einstein was not alone in his attempts to unify electromagnetism and gravity; a large number of mathematicians and physicists, including Hermann Weyl, Arthur Eddington, Theodor Kaluza, Lancelot Law Whyte, and R. Bach also attempted to develop approaches that could unify these interactions.[1] [2] These scientists pursued several avenues of generalization, including extending the foundations of geometry and adding an extra spatial dimension.

Early work
The first attempts to provide a unified theory were by G. Mie in 1912 and Ernst Reichenbacher in 1916.[3] [4] However, these theories were unsatisfactory, as they did not incorporate general relativity in the former case, because general relativity had yet to be formulated. These efforts, along with those of Forster, involved making the metric tensor (which had previously been assumed to be symmetric and real-valued) into an asymmetric and/or complex-valued tensor, and they also attempted to create a field theory for matter as well.

Differential geometry and field theory

From 1918 until 1923, there were four distinct approaches to field theory: the gauge theory of Weyl, Kaluza's five-dimensional theory, Lancelot Law Whyte's theory based on the Unitary Principle and Eddington's development of affine geometry. Einstein corresponded with these researchers, and collaborated with Kaluza, but was not yet fully involved in the unification effort.

Weyl's infinitesimal geometry

In order to include electromagnetism into the geometry of general relativity, Hermann Weyl worked to generalize the Riemannian geometry upon which general relativity is based. His idea was to create a more general infinitesimal geometry. He noted that in addition to a metric field there could be additional degrees of freedom along a path between two points in a manifold, and he tried to exploit this by introducing a basic method for comparison of local

Classical unified field theories size measures along such a path, in terms of a gauge field. This geometry generalized Riemannian geometry in that there was a vector field Q, in addition to the metric g, which together gave rise to both the electromagnetic and gravitational fields. This theory was mathematically sound, albeit complicated, resulting in difficult and high-order field equations. The critical mathematical ingredients in this theory, the Lagrangians and curvature tensor, were worked out by Weyl and colleagues. Then Weyl carried out an extensive correspondence with Einstein and others as to its physical validity, and the theory was ultimately found to be physically unreasonable. However, Weyl's principle of gauge invariance was later applied in a modified form to quantum field theory.

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Kaluza's fifth dimension

Kaluza's approach to unification was to embed space-time into a five-dimensional cylindrical world; one of four space dimensions and one of time. Unlike Weyl's approach, Riemannian geometry was maintained, and the extra dimension allowed for the incorporation of the electromagnetic field vector into the geometry. Despite the relative mathematical elegance of this approach, in collaboration with Einstein and Einstein's aide Grommer it was determined that this theory did not admit a non-singular, static, spherically symmetric solution. This theory did have some influence on Einstein's later work and was further developed later by Klein in an attempt to incorporate relativity into quantum theory, in what is now known as Kaluza-Klein theory.

Lancelot Law Whyte's unitary field theory

This theory was based on an organizing process called by Lancelot Law Whyte the "Unitary Principle". The history of this theoretical approach is: Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell worked from Rudjer Boscovich's theory, which dealt with non-Euclidean and higher-dimensional geometry. This prompted mathematicians such as Gauss and Riemann to investigate that area of mathematics. The mathematics that Riemann developed was used by Einstein in his theory of general relativity, but that was not as extensive a description as Boscovich's theory, for which the mathematics had been only incompletely developed. Lancelot Law Whyte's ideas were adopted for experimental work by Leo Baranski, who planned a series of books based upon this theory. Only Baranski's first book was published before his death, upon which this line of investigation based upon classical physics was abandoned by academia.

Eddington's affine geometry

Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington was a noted astronomer who became an enthusiastic and influential promoter of Einstein's general theory of relativity. He was among the first to propose an extension of the gravitational theory based on the affine connection as the fundamental structure field rather than the metric tensor which was the original focus of general relativity. Affine connection is the basis for parallel transport of vectors from one space-time point to another; Eddington assumed the affine connection to be symmetric in its covariant indices, because it seemed plausible that the result of parallel-transporting one infinitesimal vector along another should produce the same result as transporting the second along the first. (Later workers revisited this assumption.) Eddington emphasized what he considered to be epistemological considerations; for example, he thought that the cosmological constant version of the general-relativistic field equation expressed the property that the universe was "self-gauging". Since the simplest cosmological model (the De Sitter universe) that solves that equation is a spherically symmetric, stationary, closed universe (exhibiting a cosmological red shift, which is more conventionally interpreted as due to expansion), it seemed to explain the overall form of the universe. Like many other classical unified field theorists, Eddington considered that in the Einstein field equations for general relativity the stress-energy tensor , which represents matter/energy, was merely provisional, and that in a truly unified theory the source term would automatically arise as some aspect of the free-space field equations. He also shared the hope that an improved fundamental theory would explain why the two elementary particles then known

Classical unified field theories (proton and electron) have quite different masses. The Dirac equation for the relativistic quantum electron caused Eddington to rethink his previous conviction that fundamental physical theory had to be based on tensors. He subsequently devoted his efforts into development of a "Fundamental Theory" based largely on algebraic notions (which he called "E-frames"). Unfortunately his descriptions of this theory were sketchy and difficult to understand, so very few physicists followed up on his work.[5]

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Einstein's geometric approaches

When the equivalent of Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism is formulated within the framework of Einstein's theory of general relativity, the electromagnetic field energy (being equivalent to mass as one would expect from Einstein's famous equation E=mc2) contributes to the stress tensor and thus to the curvature of space-time, which is the general-relativistic representation of the gravitational field; or putting it another way, certain configurations of curved space-time incorporate effects of an electromagnetic field. This suggests that a purely geometric theory ought to treat these two fields as different aspects of the same basic phenomenon. However, ordinary Riemannian geometry is unable to describe the properties of the electromagnetic field as a purely geometric phenomenon. Einstein tried to form a generalized theory of gravitation that would unify the gravitational and electromagnetic forces (and perhaps others), guided by a belief in a single origin for the entire set of physical laws. These attempts initially concentrated on additional geometric notions such as vierbeins and "distant parallelism", but eventually centered around treating both the metric tensor and the affine connection as fundamental fields. (Because they are not independent, the metric-affine theory was somewhat complicated.) In general relativity, these fields are symmetric (in the matrix sense), but since antisymmetry seemed essential for electromagnetism, the symmetry requirement was relaxed for one or both fields. Einstein's proposed unified-field equations (fundamental laws of physics) were generally derived from a variational principle expressed in terms of the Riemann curvature tensor for the presumed space-time manifold.[6] In field theories of this kind, particles appear as limited regions in space-time in which the field strength or the energy density are particularly high. Einstein and coworker Leopold Infeld managed to demonstrate that, in Einstein's final theory of the unified field, true singularities of the field did have trajectories resembling point particles. However, singularities are places where the equations break down, and Einstein believed that in an ultimate theory the laws should apply everywhere, with particles being soliton-like solutions to the (highly nonlinear) field equations. Further, the large-scale topology of the universe should impose restrictions on the solutions, such as quantization or discrete symmetries. The degree of abstraction, combined with a relative lack of good mathematical tools for analyzing nonlinear equation systems, make it hard to connect such theories with the physical phenomena that they might describe. For example, it has been suggested that the torsion (antisymmetric part of the affine connection) might be related to isospin rather than electromagnetism; this is related to a discrete (or "internal") symmetry known to Einstein as "displacement field duality". Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research on a generalized theory of gravitation, and most physicists consider his attempts ultimately unsuccessful. In particular, his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces ignored developments in quantum physics (and vice versa), most notably the discovery of the strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force.[7]

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Schrdinger's pure-affine theory

Inspired by Einstein's approach to a unified field theory and Eddington's idea of the affine connection as the sole basis for differential geometric structure for space-time, Erwin Schrdinger from 1940 to 1951 thoroughly investigated pure-affine formulations of generalized gravitational theory. Although he initially assumed a symmetric affine connection, like Einstein he later considered the nonsymmetric field. Schrdinger's most striking discovery during this work was that the metric tensor was induced upon the manifold via a simple construction from the Riemann curvature tensor, which was in turn formed entirely from the affine connection. Further, taking this approach with the simplest feasible basis for the variational principle resulted in a field equation having the form of Einstein's general-relativistic field equation with a cosmological term arising automatically.[8] Skepticism from Einstein and published criticisms from other physicists discouraged Schrdinger, and his work in this area has been largely ignored.

Later work
After the 1930s, progressively fewer scientists worked on classical unification, due to the continual development of quantum theory and the difficulties encountered in developing a quantum theory of gravity. Einstein continued to work on unified field theories of gravity and electromagnetism, but he became increasingly isolated in this research, which he pursued until his death. Despite the publicity of this work due to Einstein's celebrity status, it never resulted in a resounding success. Most scientists, though not Einstein, eventually abandoned classical theories. Current research on unified field theories focuses on the problem of creating quantum gravity and unifying such a theory with the other fundamental theories in physics, which are quantum theories. (Some programs, most notably string theory, attempt to solve both of these problems at once.) With four fundamental forces now identified, gravity remains the one force whose unification proves problematic.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Weyl, H. (1918). "Gravitation und Elektrizitt". Sitz. preuss. Akad. Wiss.: 465. Eddington, A. S. (1924). The Mathematical Theory of Relativity, 2nd ed.. Cambridge Univ. Press. Mie, G. (1912). "Grundlagen einer Theorie der Materie". Ann. Phys. 37: 511534. doi:10.1002/andp.19123420306. Reichenbcher, E. (1917). "Grundzge zu einer Theorie der Elektrizitt und der Gravitation". Ann. Phys. 52: 134173. doi:10.1002/andp.19173570203. Kilmister, C. W. (1994). Eddington's search for a fundamental theory. Cambridge Univ. Press. Einstein, A. (1956). The Meaning of Relativity. 5th ed.. Princeton Univ. Press. Gnner, Hubert F. M.. "On the History of Unified Field Theories" (http:/ / relativity. livingreviews. org/ open?pubNo=lrr-2004-2). Living Reviews in Relativity. . Retrieved August 10, 2005. Schrdinger, E. (1950). Space-Time Structure. Cambridge Univ. Press.

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Collaboration and conflict

BohrEinstein debates
The BohrEinstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science. An account of them has been written by Bohr in an article titled "Discussions with Einstein on Epistemological Problems in Atomic Physics".[1] Despite their differences of opinion regarding quantum mechanics, Bohr and Einstein had a mutual admiration that was to last the rest of their lives.[2]

Pre-revolutionary debates
Einstein was the first physicist to say that Planck's discovery of the quantum (h) would require a rewriting of physics. As though to prove his point, in 1905 he proposed that light sometimes acts as a particle which he called a light quantum (now called the photon). Bohr was one of the most vocal opponents of the photon idea and did not openly Niels Bohr with Albert Einstein at Paul [3] Ehrenfest's home in Leiden (December 1925) embrace it until 1925. His later ability to work creatively with an idea he had so long resisted is quite unusual in the history of science. The photon appealed to Einstein because he saw it as a physical reality (although a confusing one) behind the numbers. Bohr disliked it because it made the choice of mathematical solution arbitrary. He did not like that a scientist had to choose between equations.[4] 1913 brought the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom which made use of the quantum to explain the atomic spectrum. Einstein was at first dubious, but quickly changed his mind and embraced it. He tolerated Bohr's model despite the fact that its underlying reality could not be pictured in detail because he considered it a work in progress.

The quantum revolution

The quantum revolution of the mid-1920s occurred under the direction of both Einstein and Bohr, and their post-revolutionary debates were about making sense of the change. The shocks for Einstein began in 1925 when Werner Heisenberg introduced matrix equations that removed the Newtonian elements of space and time from any underlying reality. The next shock came in 1926 when Max Born proposed that the mechanics was to be understood as a probability without any causal explanation. Finally, in late 1927, Heisenberg and Born declared at the Solvay Conference that the revolution was over and nothing further was needed. It was at that last stage that Einstein's skepticism turned to dismay. He believed that much had been accomplished, but the reasons for the mechanics still needed to be understood.[4] Einstein's refusal to accept the revolution as complete reflected his rejection of the idea that positions in space-time could never be completely known and by the way quantum probabilities did not reflect any underlying causes. He did not reject the statistics or probabilities on their own and Einstein himself was a great statistical thinker. It was the lack of any reason for an event that Einstein rejected.[4] Bohr, meanwhile, was dismayed by none of the elements that

BohrEinstein debates troubled Einstein. He made his own peace with the contradictions by proposing a Principle of Complementarity that emphasized the role of the observer over the observed.[3]

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Post-Revolution: First stage

As mentioned above, Einstein's position underwent significant modifications over the course of the years. In the first stage, Einstein refused to accept quantum indeterminism and sought to demonstrate that the principle of indeterminacy could be violated, suggesting ingenious thought experiments which should permit the accurate determination of incompatible variables, such as position and velocity, or to explicitly reveal simultaneously the wave and the particle aspects of the same process. The first serious attack by Einstein on the "orthodox" conception took place during the Fifth Conference of Physics at the Solvay Institute in 1927. Einstein pointed out how it was possible to take advantage of the (universally accepted) laws of conservation of energy and of impulse (momentum) in order to obtain information on the state of a particle in a process of interference which, according to the principle of indeterminacy or that of complementarity, should not be accessible. In order to follow his argumentation and to evaluate Bohr's response, it is convenient to refer to the experimental apparatus illustrated in figure A. A beam of light perpendicular to the X axis which propagates in the direction z encounters a screen S1 which presents a narrow (with respect to the wavelength of the ray) slit. After having passed through the slit, the wave function diffracts with an angular opening that causes it to encounter a second screen S2 which presents two slits. The successive propagation of the wave results in the formation of the interference figure on the final screenF.

At the passage through the two slits of the second screen S2, the wave aspects of the process become essential. In fact, it is precisely the interference between the two terms of the quantum superposition corresponding to states in which the particle is localized in one of the two slits which implies that the particle is "guided" preferably into the zones of constructive interference and cannot end up in a point in the zones of destructive interference (in which the wave function is nullified). It is also important to note that any experiment designed to evidence the "corpuscular" aspects of the process at the passage of the screen S2 (which, in this case, reduces to the determination of which slit the particle has passed through) inevitably destroys the wave aspects, implies the disappearance of the interference figure and the emergence of two concentrated spots of diffraction which confirm our knowledge of the trajectory followed by the particle. At this point Einstein brings into play the first screen as well and argues as follows: since the incident particles have velocities (practically) perpendicular to the screen S1, and since it is only the interaction with this screen that can cause a deflection from the original direction of propagation, by the law of conservation of impulse which implies that the sum of the impulses of two systems which interact is conserved, if the incident particle is deviated toward

Figure A. A monochromatic beam (one for which all the particles have the same impulse) encounters a first screen, diffracts, and the diffracted wave encounters a second screen with two slits resulting in the formation of an interference figure on the backgroundF. As always, it is assumed that only one particle at a time is able to pass the entire mechanism. From the measure of the recoil of the screen S1, according to Einstein, one can deduce from which slit the particle has passed without destroying the wave aspects of the process.

BohrEinstein debates the top, the screen will recoil toward the bottom and vice-versa. In realistic conditions the mass of the screen is so heavy that it will remain stationary, but, in principle, it is possible to measure even an infinitesimal recoil. If we imagine taking the measurement of the impulse of the screen in the direction X after every single particle has passed, we can know, from the fact that the screen will be found recoiled toward the top (bottom), if the particle in question has been deviated toward the bottom (top) and therefore we can know from which slit in S2 the particle has passed. But since the determination of the direction of the recoil of the screen after the particle has passed cannot influence the successive development of the process, we will still have an interference figure on the screenF. The interference takes place precisely because the state of the system is the superposition of two states whose wave functions are non-zero only near one of the two slits. On the other hand, if every particle passes through only the slit b or the slit c, then the set of systems is the statistical mixture of the two states, which means that interference is not possible. If Einstein is correct, then there is a violation of the principle of indeterminacy. Bohr's response was to illustrate Einstein's idea more clearly via the diagrams in Figures B and C. Bohr observes that extremely precise knowledge of any (potential) vertical motion of the screen is an essential presupposition in Einstein's argument. In fact, if its velocity in the direction X before the passage of the particle is not known with a precision substantially greater than that induced by the recoil (that is, if it were already moving vertically with an unknown and greater velocity Figure B. Bohr's representation of Einstein's thought experiment than that which it derives as a consequence of the contact with the particle), then described above. The mobile the determination of its motion after the passage of the particle would not give the window is evidenced in order to information we seek. However, Bohr continues, an extremely precise determination underscore the fact that the of the velocity of the screen, when one applies the principle of indeterminacy, attempt to know which slit a particle passes through destroys implies an inevitable imprecision of its position in the directionX. Before the the interference pattern. process even begins, the screen would therefore occupy an indeterminate position at least to a certain extent (defined by the formalism). Now consider, for example, the point d in figure A, where there is destructive interference. It's obvious that any displacement of the first screen would make the lengths of the two paths, a-b-d and a-c-d, different from those indicated in the figure. If the difference between the two paths varies by half a wavelength, at point d there will be constructive rather than destructive interference. The ideal experiment must average over all the possible positions of the screen S1, and, for every position, there corresponds, for a certain fixed point F, a different type of interference, from the perfectly destructive to the perfectly constructive. The effect of this averaging is that the pattern of interference on the screen F will be uniformly grey. Once more, our attempt to evidence the corpuscular aspects in S2 has destroyed the possibility of interference in F which depends crucially on the wave aspects.

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It should be noted that, as Bohr recognized, for the understanding of this phenomenon "it is decisive that, contrary to genuine instruments of measurement, these bodies along with the particles would constitute, in the case under examination, the system to which the quantum-mechanical formalism must apply. With respect to the precision of the conditions under which one can correctly apply the formalism, it is essential to include the entire experimental apparatus. In fact, the introduction of any new apparatus, such as a mirror, in the path of a particle could introduce new effects of interference which influence essentially the predictions about the results which will be registered at the end." Further along, Bohr attempts to resolve this ambiguity concerning which parts of the system should be considered macroscopic and which not: In particular, it must be very clear that...the unambiguous use of spatiotemporal concepts in the description of atomic phenomena must be limited to the registration of observations which refer to images on a photographic lens or to analogous practically irreversible effects of amplification such as the formation of a drop of water around an ion in a dark room.

Figure C. In order to realize Einstein's proposal, it is necessary to replace the first screen in Figure A (S1) with a movable diaphragm which can move vertically such as this proposed by Bohr.

Bohr's argument about the impossibility of using the apparatus proposed by Einstein to violate the principle of indeterminacy depends crucially on the fact that a macroscopic system (the screen S1) obeys quantum laws. On the other hand, Bohr consistently asserted that, in order to illustrate the microscopic aspects of reality it is necessary to set off a process of amplification which involves macroscopic apparatuses, whose fundamental characteristic is that of obeying classical laws and which can be described in classical terms. This ambiguity would later come back in the form of what is still called today the measurement problem.

The principle of indeterminacy applied to time and energy

In many textbook examples and popular discussions of quantum mechanics, the principle of indeterminacy is explained by reference to the pair of variables position and velocity (or momentum). It is important to note that the wave nature of physical processes implies that there must exist another relation of indeterminacy: that between time and energy. In order to comprehend this relation, it is convenient to refer to the experiment illustrated in Figure D, which results in the propagation of a wave which is limited in spatial extension. Assume that, as illustrated in the figure, a ray which is extremely extended longitudinally is propagated toward a screen with a slit furnished with a shutter which remains open only for a very brief interval of time . Beyond the slit, there will be a wave of limited spatial extension which continues to propagate toward the right. A perfectly monochromatic wave (such as a musical note which cannot be divided into harmonics) has infinite spatial extent. In order to have a wave which is limited in spatial extension (which is technically called a wave packet), several waves of different frequencies must be superimposed and distributed continuously within a certain interval of frequencies around an average value, such as . It then happens that at a certain instant, there exists a

Figure D. A wave extended longitudinally passes through a slit which remains open only for a brief interval of time. Beyond the slit, there is a spatially limited wave in the direction of propagation.

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spatial region (which moves over time) in which the contributions of the various fields of the superposition add up constructively. Nonetheless, according to a precise mathematical theorem, as we move far away from this region, the phases of the various fields, at any specified point, are distributed causally and destructive interference is produced. The region in which the wave has non-zero amplitude is therefore spatially limited. It is easy to demonstrate that, if the wave has a spatial extension equal to (which means, in our example, that the shutter has remained open for a time where v is the velocity of the wave), then the wave contains (or is a superposition of) various monochromatic waves whose frequencies cover an interval which satisfies the relation:

Remembering that in the universal relation of Planck, frequency and energy are proportional:

it follows immediately from the preceding inequality that the particle associated with the wave should possess an energy which is not perfectly defined (since different frequencies are involved in the superposition) and consequently there is indeterminacy in energy:

From this it follows immediately that:

which is the relation of indeterminacy between time and energy.

Einstein's second criticism

At the sixth Congress of Solvay in 1930, the indeterminacy relation just discussed was Einstein's target of criticism. His idea contemplates the existence of an experimental apparatus which was subsequently designed by Bohr in such a way as to emphasize the essential elements and the key points which he would use in his response.

Einstein's thought experiment of 1930 as designed by Bohr. Einstein's box was supposed to prove the violation of the indeterminacy relation between time and energy.

Einstein considers a box (called Einstein's box; see figure) containing electromagnetic radiation and a clock which controls the opening of a shutter which covers a hole made in one of the walls of the box. The shutter uncovers the hole for a time which can be chosen arbitrarily. During the opening, we are to suppose that a photon, from among those inside the box, escapes through the hole. In this way a wave of limited spatial extension has been created, following the explanation given above. In order to challenge the indeterminacy relation between time and

BohrEinstein debates energy, it is necessary to find a way to determine with adequate precision the energy that the photon has brought with it. At this point, Einstein turns to his celebrated relation between mass and energy of special relativity:

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. From

this it follows that knowledge of the mass of an object provides a precise indication about its energy. The argument is therefore very simple: if one weighs the box before and after the opening of the shutter and if a certain amount of energy has escaped from the box, the box will be lighter. The variation in mass multiplied by will provide precise knowledge of the energy emitted. Moreover, the clock will indicate the precise time at which the event of the particles emission took place. Since, in principle, the mass of the box can be determined to an arbitrary degree of accuracy, the energy emitted can be determined with a precision as accurate as one desires. Therefore, the product can be rendered less than what is implied by the principle of indeterminacy. The idea is particularly acute and the argument seemed unassailable. It's important to consider the impact of all of these exchanges on the people involved at the time. Leon Rosenfeld, a scientist who had participated in the Congress, described the event several years later: It was a real shock for Bohr...who, at first, could not think of a solution. For the entire evening he was extremely agitated, and he continued passing from one scientist to another, seeking to persuade them that it could not be the case, that it would have been the end of physics if Einstein were right; George Gamow's make-believe experimental apparatus but he couldn't come up with any way to resolve the for validating the thought experiment at the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen. paradox. I will never forget the image of the two antagonists as they left the club: Einstein, with his tall and commanding figure, who walked tranquilly, with a mildly ironic smile, and Bohr who trotted along beside him, full of excitement...The morning after saw the triumph of Bohr. The "triumph of Bohr" consisted in his demonstrating, once again, that Einstein's subtle argument was not conclusive, but even more so in the way that he arrived at this conclusion by appealing precisely to one of the great ideas of Einstein: the principle of equivalence between gravitational mass and inertial mass. Bohr showed that, in order for Einstein's experiment to function, the box would have to be suspended on a spring in the middle of a gravitational field. In order to obtain a measurement of weight, a pointer would have to be attached to the box which corresponded with the index on a scale. After the release of a photon, weights could be added to the box to restore it to its original position and this would allow us to determine the weight. But in order to return the box to its original position, the box itself would have to be measured. The inevitable uncertainty of the position of the box translates into an uncertainty in the position of the pointer and of the determination of weight and therefore of energy. On the other hand, since the system is immersed in a gravitational field which varies with the position, according to the principle of equivalence the uncertainty in the position of the clock implies an uncertainty with respect to its measurement of time and therefore of the value of the interval . A precise evaluation of this effect leads to the conclusion that the relation cannot be violated.

Post-Revolution: Second stage

The second phase of Einstein's "debate" with Bohr and the orthodox interpretation is characterized by an acceptance of the fact that it is, as a practical matter, impossible to simultaneously determine the values of certain incompatible quantities, but the rejection that this implies that these quantities do not actually have precise values. He rejects the probabilistic interpretation of Born and insists that quantum probabilities are epistemic and not ontological in nature. As a consequence, the theory must be incomplete in some way. He recognizes the great value of the theory, but suggests that it "does not tell the whole story," and, while providing an appropriate description at a certain level, it gives no information on the more fundamental underlying level:

BohrEinstein debates I have the greatest consideration for the goals which are pursued by the physicists of the latest generation which go under the name of quantum mechanics, and I believe that this theory represents a profound level of truth, but I also believe that the restriction to laws of a statistical nature will turn out to be transitory....Without doubt quantum mechanics has grasped an important fragment of the truth and will be a paragon for all future fundamental theories, for the fact that it must be deducible as a limiting case from such foundations, just as electrostatics is deducible from Maxwell's equations of the electromagnetic field or as thermodynamics is deducible from statistical mechanics. These thoughts of Einsteins would set off a line of research into so-called hidden variable theories, such as the Bohm interpretation, in an attempt to complete the edifice of quantum theory. If quantum mechanics can be made complete in Einstein's sense, it cannot be done locally; this fact was demonstrated by John Stewart Bell with the formulation of Bell's inequality in 1964; however, should we live in a superdeterminist universe, that demonstration would not be valid, as admitted by Bell himself.

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Post-Revolution: Third stage

The argument of EPR
In 1935 Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen developed an argument, published in the magazine Physical Review with the title Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?, based on an entangled state of two systems. Before coming to this argument, it is necessary to formulate another hypothesis that comes out of Einstein's work in relativity: the idea of locality. The elements of physical reality which are objectively possessed cannot be influenced instantaneously at a distance.

Title sections of historical papers on EPR.

The argument of EPR was in 1957 picked up by David Bohm and Yakir Aharonov in a paper published in Physical Review with the title Discussion of Experimental Proof for the Paradox of Einstein, Rosen, and Podolsky. The authors re-formulated the argument in terms of an entangled state of two particles, which can be summarized as follows: 1) Consider a system of two photons which at time t are located, respectively, in the spatially distant regions A and B and which are also in the entangled state of polarization described above:

2) At time t the photon in region A is tested for vertical polarization. Suppose that the result of the measurement is that the photon passes through the filter. According to the reduction of the wave packet, the result is that, at time t+dt, the system becomes:

3) At this point, the observer in A who carried out the first measurement on photon 1, without doing anything else that could disturb the system or the other photon ("assumption (R)," below), can predict with certainty that photon 2 will pass a test of vertical polarization. It follows that photon 2 possesses an element of physical reality: that of having a vertical polarization. 4) According to the assumption of locality, it cannot have been the action carried out in A which created this element of reality for photon 2. Therefore, we must conclude that the photon possessed the property of being able to pass the vertical polarization test before and independently of the measurement of photon 1. 5) At time t, the observer in A could have decided to carry out a test of polarization at 45, obtaining a certain result, for example, that the photon passes the test. In that case, he could have concluded that photon 2 turned out to be

BohrEinstein debates polarized at 45. Alternatively, if the photon did not pass the test, he could have concluded that photon 2 turned out to be polarized at 135. Combining one of these alternatives with the conclusion reached in 4, it seems that photon 2, before the measurement took place, possessed both the property of being able to pass with certainty a test of vertical polarization and the property of being able to pass with certainty a test of polarization at either 45 or 135. These properties are incompatible according to the formalism. 6) Since natural and obvious requirements have forced the conclusion that photon 2 simultaneously possesses incompatible properties, this means that, even if it is not possible to determine these properties simultaneously and with arbitrary precision, they are nevertheless possessed objectively by the system. But quantum mechanics denies this possibility and it is therefore an incomplete theory.

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Bohr's response
Bohr's response to this fascinating and elegant argument was published, five months later than the original publication of EPR, in the same magazine Physical Review and with the exact same title as the original. The crucial point of Bohr's answer is distilled in a passage which he later had republished in Paul Arthur Schilpp's book Albert Einstein, scientist-philosopher in honor of the seventieth birthday of Einstein. Bohr attacks assumption (R) of EPR by stating: the statement of the criterion in question is ambiguous with regard to the expression "without disturbing the system in any way". Naturally, in this case no mechanical disturbance of the system under examination can take place in the crucial stage of the process of measurement. But even in this stage there arises the essential problem of an influence on the precise conditions which define the possible types of prediction which regard the subsequent behaviour of the system...their arguments do not justify their conclusion that the quantum description turns out to be essentially incomplete...This description can be characterized as a rational use of the possibilities of an unambiguous interpretation of the process of measurement compatible with the finite and uncontrollable interaction between the object and the instrument of measurement in the context of quantum theory. As John Bell later pointed out, this passage is almost unintelligible. What does Bohr mean, Bell asks, by the specification "mechanical" that is used to refer to the "disturbances" that Bohr maintains should not be taken into consideration? What is meant by the expression "an influence on the precise conditions" if not that different measurements in A provide different information on the system in B? This fact is not only admitted but is an essential part of the argument of EPR. Lastly, what could Bohr have meant by the expression "uncontrollable interaction between the object and the measuring apparatus", considering that the central point of the argument of EPR is the hypothesis that, if one accepts locality, only the part of the system in A can be disturbed by the process of measurement and that, notwithstanding this fact, this process provides precise information on the part of the system in B? Is Bohr already contemplating the possibility of "spooky action at a distance?" If so, why not declare it explicitly? If one abandons the assumption of locality, the argument of EPR obviously collapses immediately. The debates represent one of the highest points of scientific research in the first half of the twentieth century because it called attention to an element of quantum theory, quantum non-locality, which is absolutely central to our modern understanding of the physical world.

Post-Revolution: Fourth stage

In his last writing on the topic, Einstein further refined his position, making it completely clear that what really disturbed him about the quantum theory was the problem of the total renunciation of all minimal standards of realism, even at the microscopic level, that the acceptance of the completeness of the theory implied. Although the majority of experts in the field seem to accept the Copenhagen interpretation, there are critics who, like Einstein, believe that it has failed to provide a sensible and acceptable representation of reality (see Interpretation of quantum mechanics).

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See also
Afshar's experiment Complementarity Copenhagen interpretation Double-slit experiment EPR paradox Quantum eraser Schrdinger's cat Uncertainty principle Wheeler's delayed choice experiment

References
Boniolo, G., (1997) Filosofia della Fisica, Mondadori, Milan. Bolles, Edmund Blair (2004) Einstein Defiant, Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C. Born, M. (1973) The Born Einstein Letters, Walker and Company, New York, 1971. Ghirardi, Giancarlo, (1997) Un'Occhiata alle Carte di Dio, Il Saggiatore, Milan.

Pais, A., (1986) Subtle is the Lord... The Science and Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1982. Shilpp, P.A., (1958) Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Northwestern University and Southern Illinois University, Open Court, 1951.
[1] Bohr N. "Discussions with Einstein on Epistemological Problems in Atomic Physics" (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ reference/ subject/ philosophy/ works/ dk/ bohr. htm). The Value of Knowledge: A Miniature Library of Philosophy (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ reference/ subject/ philosophy/ index. htm). Marxists Internet Archive. . Retrieved 2010-08-30. From Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist (1949), publ. Cambridge University Press, 1949. Niels Bohr's report of conversations with Einstein. [2] Gonzlez AM. "Albert Einstein" (http:/ / dipc. ehu. es/ digitalak/ orriak/ english/ quantumdilema. html). Donostia International Physics Center. . Retrieved 2010-08-30. [3] Pais [4] Bolles

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Politics
Manhattan Project
Manhattan Engineer District (MED)

The Manhattan Project created the first nuclear bombs. The first human-engineered nuclear detonation, the Trinity test, is shown. Active Allegiance Branch Nickname 19421945 United States, United Kingdom, Canada U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Manhattan Project Commanders Notable commanders General Leslie Groves

The Manhattan Project was the codename for a project conducted during World War II to develop the first atomic bombs for wartime use. The project was led by the United States, and included participation from the United Kingdom and Canada. Formally designated as the Manhattan Engineer District (MED) (sometimes referred to as the Manhattan District) it refers specifically to the period of the project from 19421946 under the control of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and General Leslie R. Groves. The scientific research was directed by American physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer.[1] The project's roots began in 1939 when, at the urging of Le Szilrd, Albert Einstein signed a letter to President Roosevelt expressing his concerns that Nazi Germany may be trying to develop nuclear weapons. The American atomic effort began as a small research program into the feasibility of using nuclear fission for wartime purposes, but would expand to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US$2billion ($22billion in present day value) by August 1945. It resulted in the creation of several research and production sites whose construction and operations were secret.[2] Project research took place at more than 30 sites, including universities across the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. The three primary research and production sites of the project were the plutonium-production facility at what is now the Hanford Site in eastern Washington state; the uranium-enrichment facilities at Oak Ridge, Tennessee; and the weapons research and design laboratory now known as Los Alamos National Laboratory. The MED maintained control over U.S. atomic weapons production until the formation of the Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947.

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Naming the Project

It is widely believed that the Manhattan Project's name was a code name.[3] In fact, the project was named after Manhattan island of New York City, as that was the location where many of its early operations were conducted. According to historian Robert S. Norris, at least ten sites operated in Manhattan. The island was an ideal location because of its port facilities, the military presence, a large available work force, a population of expatriate European physicists, and Columbia University, a center of early nuclear research.

Uranium Committee (19391941)

In 1939, President Franklin Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head "The Uranium Committee" to undertake nuclear research, as a result of the EinsteinSzilrd letter. Even though Roosevelt had sanctioned the project, progress was slow and was not directed exclusively towards military applications. Meanwhile, in the United Kingdom, Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls made a breakthrough by discovering the fissile properties of uranium-235.[4] A British committee, the MAUD Committee, concluded that: (i) The committee considers that the scheme for a uranium bomb is practicable and likely to lead to decisive results in the war (ii) It recommends that this work continue on the highest priority and on the increasing scale necessary to obtain the weapon in the shortest possible time (iii) That the present collaboration with America should be continued and extended especially in the region of experimental work[5]

The opening paragraph of the FrischPeierls memorandum in which the amount of Uranium estimated to be needed to produce a bomb was revised downwards to that where a working device became practicable

Their reports were sent to Briggs at the National Bureau of Standards, but he ignored them. One of the members of the MAUD Committee, Mark Oliphant, flew to the United States in late August 1941 to find out why the U.S. was ignoring the MAUD Committee's findings. He reported, "[T]his inarticulate and unimpressive man (Briggs) had put the reports in his safe and had not shown them to members of his committee."[6] Oliphant then met with the whole Uranium Committee and other physicists to galvanize the USA into action. As a result, in December 1941 Vannevar Bush created the larger and more powerful Office of Scientific Research and Development and became its director. The office was empowered to engage in large engineering projects in addition to research.

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Acceleration of the Project

With the bomb project under the OSRD, the project leaders began to accelerate the work. Arthur Compton organized the University of Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory in early 1942 to study plutonium and fission piles (primitive nuclear reactors). He asked theoretical physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer of the University of California, Berkeley to take over research on fast neutron calculationskey to calculations about critical mass and weapon detonationfrom Gregory Breit, who had quit because of concerns over lax operational security.[7] John Manley, a physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory, was assigned to help Oppenheimer find answers by coordinating and contacting several experimental physics groups scattered across the country. During the spring of 1942, Oppenheimer and Robert Serber of the University of Illinois worked on the problems of neutron diffusion (how neutrons moved in the chain reaction) and hydrodynamics (how A few months after he was put in charge of fast the explosion produced by the chain reaction might behave). To review neutron research, Berkeley physicist J. Robert this work and the general theory of fission reactions, Oppenheimer Oppenheimer convened a conference on the topic convened a summer study at the University of California, Berkeley, in of nuclear weapon design. June 1942.[8] Theorists Hans Bethe, John Van Vleck, Edward Teller, Felix Bloch, Emil Konopinski, Robert Serber, Stanley S. Frankel, and Eldred C. Nelson (the latter three all former students of Oppenheimer) quickly confirmed that a fission bomb was feasible. There were still many unknown factors in the development of a nuclear bomb, however, although it was considered theoretically possible. The properties of pure uranium-235 were relatively unknown, as were the properties of plutonium, a new element which had only been discovered in February 1941 by Glenn Seaborg and his team. Plutonium was the product of uranium-238 absorbing a neutron which had been emitted from a fissioning uranium-235 atom, and was thus able to be created in a nuclear reactor. But at this point no reactor had yet been built, so while plutonium was being pursued as an additional fissile substance, it was not yet to be relied upon.[9] Only microgram quantities of plutonium existed at the time (produced from neutrons derived from reaction started in a cyclotron).

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The scientists at the Berkeley conference determined that there were many possible ways of arranging the fissile material into a critical mass. The simplest was shooting a "cylindrical plug" into a sphere of "active material" with a "tamper"dense material that would focus neutrons inward and keep the reacting mass together to increase its efficiency (this model "avoids fancy shapes", Serber would later write).[10] They also explored designs involving spheroids, a primitive form of "implosion" (suggested by Richard C. Tolman), and explored the possibility of "autocatalytic methods" which would increase the efficiency of the bomb as it exploded. Considering the idea of the fission bomb theoretically settledat least until more experimental data was availablethe conference then turned in a different direction. Hungarian physicist Edward "Ede" Teller pushed for discussion on a more powerful bomb: the "Super", which would use the explosive force of a detonating fission bomb to ignite a fusion reaction in deuterium and tritium.[11] Such a bomb, they calculated, would have an explosive yield of 10megatons, hundreds of times more powerful than the atomic bomb.[12] The concept was based on studies of energy production in stars made by Hans Bethe before the war. Enrico Fermi suggested it as a possibility to Teller not long before the conference. When the detonation wave from the fission bomb moved through the mixture of deuterium and tritium nuclei, these would fuse together to produce much more energy than fission could. But Bethe was skeptical. As Teller pushed hard for his "superbomb"now usually referred to as a "hydrogen bomb"proposing scheme after scheme, Bethe refused each one. The fusion idea was put aside to concentrate on producing fission bombs.

A number of the different fission bomb assembly methods explored during the June 1942 conference, later reproduced as drawings in The Los Alamos Primer. In the end, only the "gun" method (at top) and a more complicated variation of the "implosion" design would be used. At the bottom are "autocatalytic method" designs.

Teller also raised the speculative possibility that an atomic bomb might "ignite" the atmosphere because of a hypothetical fusion reaction of nitrogen nuclei.[13] Bethe calculated that it could not happen.[14] However, a report co-authored by Teller showed that ignition of the atmosphere was not impossible, just unlikely.[15] In Serber's account, Oppenheimer mentioned it to Arthur Compton, who "didn't have enough sense to shut up about it. It somehow got into a document that went to Washington" which led to the question being "never laid to rest".[16] The conferences in June 1942 provided the detailed theoretical basis for the design of the atomic bomb. Oppenheimer was convinced of the benefits of having a single centralized laboratory to manage the research for the bomb project, rather than having specialists spread out at different sites across the United States.

Project sites
Though it involved over thirty different research and production sites, the Manhattan Project was largely carried out at four secret laboratories which the national governments established by power of eminent domain in four cities: Los Alamos, New Mexico; Oak Ridge, Tennessee; Richland, Washington; Chalk River, Ontario, Canada. The Tennessee site was chosen because of the vast quantities of cheap hydroelectric power already available (from the Tennessee Valley Authority) to power uranium enrichment processes. The Hanford Site near Richland, Washington, was chosen for its location near the Columbia River, which could supply sufficient water to cool the reactors which would produce the plutonium. The Canadian site was chosen for its proximity to the industrial manufacturing of

Manhattan Project Ontario and Quebec, and access to a rail head adjacent to a large military base, Camp Petawawa. Further, located on the Ottawa River it had access to abundant water. All the sites were suitably far from coastlines and therefore less vulnerable to possible enemy attack from Germany or Japan. The Los Alamos National Laboratory was built on a mesa that previously hosted the Los Alamos Ranch School, a private school for teenage boys. The site was chosen primarily because it was remote and relatively unpopulated. Oppenheimer had known of it from his horse-riding near his ranch in New Mexico. He showed it as a possible site to the government representatives, who promptly bought it for $440,000. In addition to being the main "think-tank", Los Alamos was responsible for final assembly of the bombs, mainly from materials and components produced by other sites. Manufacturing at Los Alamos included casings, explosive lenses, and fabrication of fissile materials into bomb cores. Oak Ridge facilities covered more than 60000acres (240 km2) of several former farm communities in the Tennessee Valley area. Some Tennessee families were given two weeks' notice to vacate family farms that had been their homes for generations.[17] So secret was the site during World War II that the state governor was unaware that Oak Ridge (which was to become the fifth largest city in the state) was being built. At one point Oak Ridge plants were consuming 1/6th of the electrical power produced in the U.S., more than New York City. Oak Ridge mainly produced uranium-235. The Chalk River site was established to house the allied effort that was going on at McGill University in Montreal. Since the site was 120miles west of Ottawa, a new community was built at Deep River, Ontario to provide residences and facilities for the project team members. Both were established in 1944, with scientists, engineers, trades from Canada, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia, France, Norway, etc. providing their contribution to the war effort. The Hanford Site, which grew to almost 1,000 square miles (2,600km), took over irrigated farm land, fruit orchards, a railroad, and two farming communities, Hanford and White Bluffs. This was a relatively highly populated area where three cities converge. The Tri Cities are Kennewick, Pasco, and Richland, adjacent to the Columbia River. Hanford built nuclear reactors cooled by the river and was the plutonium production center. The operations were kept secret until the announcement of the Hiroshima bombing and nuclear explosion. The locations of Los Alamos, Oak Ridge, Richland, and Chalk River were held secret until after the end of WWII. The project originally was headquartered at 270 Broadway in Manhattan. Other offices were scattered throughout the city,[18] including the New York Friars' Club building.[19] The Broadway headquarters lasted little more than a year before it was moved in 1943, although many of the other offices in Manhattan remained.[20]

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110

A selection of U.S. sites important to the Manhattan Project.

Major Manhattan Project sites and subdivisions included: Site W (Hanford, Washington): a plutonium production facility (now Hanford Site) Site X (Oak Ridge, Tennessee): enriched uranium production and plutonium production research (now Oak Ridge National Laboratory) Site X also included: X-10 Graphite Reactor: graphite reactor research pilot plant (on the site of what is now Oak Ridge National Laboratory) Y-12: electromagnetic separation uranium enrichment plant K-25: gaseous diffusion uranium enrichment plant S-50: thermal diffusion uranium enrichment plant Site Y (Los Alamos, New Mexico): a bomb research laboratory (now Los Alamos National Laboratory) Metallurgical Laboratory (Chicago, Illinois): reactor development (now Argonne National Laboratory) Project Alberta (Wendover, Utah and Tinian): preparations for the combat delivery of the bombs Project Ames (Ames, Iowa): production of raw uranium metal (now Ames Laboratory) Dayton Project (Dayton, Ohio): research and development of polonium refinement and industrial production of polonium for atomic bomb triggers Project Camel (Inyokern, California): high explosives research and non-nuclear engineering for the Fat Man bomb Project Trinity (Alamogordo, New Mexico): preparations for the testing of the first atomic bomb Radiation Laboratory (Berkeley, California): electromagnetic separation enrichment research (now Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) Project '9' (Trail, British Columbia): heavy water (deuterium) production.[21]

Health Project (Rochester, NY): "to investigate heretofore unexplored fields in medical research on the effects of radiation and other problems related to the development and production of the atomic bomb." [22] [23] [24]

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Need for coordination

The measurements of the interactions of fast neutrons with the materials in a bomb were essential. The scientists needed to know the number of neutrons produced in the fission of uranium and plutonium. The substance surrounding the nuclear material needed the ability to reflect, or scatter, neutrons back into the chain reaction before it was blown apart, in order to increase the energy produced. Therefore, researchers had to measure the neutron scattering properties of materials to find the best reflectors. Estimating the explosive power required knowledge of many other nuclear properties, including the cross section (a measure of the probability of an encounter between particles that result in a specified effect) for nuclear processes of neutrons in uranium and other elements. Fast neutrons could only be produced in particle accelerators, which were still relatively uncommon instruments in 1942. The need for better coordination was clear. By September 1942, the difficulties in conducting studies on nuclear weapons at universities scattered throughout the country indicated the need for a laboratory dedicated solely to that purpose. A greater need was the construction of industrial plants to produce uranium-235 and plutoniumthe fissionable materials to be used in the weapons. Vannevar Bush, the head of the civilian Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), asked President Roosevelt to assign the operations connected with the growing nuclear weapons project to the military. Roosevelt chose the Army to work with the OSRD in building production plants. The Army Corps of Engineers selected Col. James Marshall to oversee the construction of factories to separate uranium isotopes and manufacture plutonium for the bomb. Marshall and his deputy, Col. Kenneth Nichols, struggled to understand the proposed processes and the scientists with whom they had to work. Thrust into the new field of nuclear physics, they felt unable to distinguish between technical and personal preferences. Although they decided that a site near Knoxville, Tennessee, would be suitable for the first production plant, they did not know how large the site needed to be, and thus delayed its acquisition. Because of its experimental nature, the nuclear weapons work could not compete for priority with the Army's more urgent tasks. The scientists' construction of the work and production plants were often delayed by Marshall's inability to obtain critical materials such as steel, which were needed in other military projects. With the need for secrecy in the midst of war, selecting a name for the project was difficult. The title chosen by Gen. Brehon B. Somervell, "Development of Substitute Materials," was objectionable because it seemed to reveal too much.

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Manhattan Engineer District

Vannevar Bush became dissatisfied with Col. James Marshall's failure to get the project moving forward expeditiously and told Secretary of War Stimson and Army Chief of Staff George Marshall. Marshall directed General Somervell to replace Col. Marshall with a more energetic officer as director. In the summer of 1942, Col. Leslie Groves was deputy to the chief of construction for the Army Corps of Engineers. He had directed the very rapid construction of the Pentagon, the world's largest office building. He was widely respected as an intelligent, hard driving, though brusque officer who got things done in a hurry. Hoping for an overseas command, Groves vigorously objected when Somervell appointed him to the weapons project. His objections were overruled. Groves resigned himself to leading a project he thought had little chance of success. Groves appointed Oppenheimer as the project's scientific director, to the surprise of many. (Oppenheimer's radical political views were thought to pose security problems). However, Groves was convinced Oppenheimer was a genius who could talk about and understand nearly anything, and he was convinced such a man was needed for a project such as the one being proposed.

General Leslie Groves (left) was appointed the military head of the Manhattan Project, while Robert Oppenheimer (right) was the scientific director.

Groves renamed the project The Manhattan Engineer District. The name evolved from the Corps of Engineers practice of naming districts after its headquarters' city (Marshall's headquarters were at 270 Broadway in New York City). At that time, Groves was promoted to brigadier general, giving him the rank necessary to deal with senior people whose cooperation was required, or whose own projects were hampered by Groves' top-priority project. Within a week of his appointment, Groves had solved the Manhattan Project's most urgent problems. His forceful and effective manner was soon to become all too familiar to the atomic scientists. The first major scientific hurdle of the project was solved on December 2, 1942, beneath the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago, where a team led by Enrico Fermi, for whom Fermilab is named, initiated the first artificial[25] self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in an experimental nuclear reactor named Chicago Pile-1. Compton reported the success to Conant in Washington, DC by a coded call, saying, "The Italian navigator [referring to Fermi] has landed in the new world, the natives are friendly."

Uranium bomb
The Hiroshima bomb was made from uranium-235. It is a rare isotope of uranium that has to be physically separated from the more plentiful uranium-238 isotope, which is not suitable for use in an explosive device. Since U-235 makes up only 0.7% of raw uranium and is chemically identical to the 99.3% of U-238, various physical methods were considered for separation. Most of the uranium enrichment work was performed at Oak Ridge.
A gun-type nuclear bomb.

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113 One method of separating uranium 235 from raw uranium ore was devised by Franz Simon and Nicholas Kurti, at Oxford University. Their method using gaseous diffusion was scaled up in a large separation plant at Oak Ridge, using uranium hexafluoride (UF6) gas as the process fluid. During the war this method was important primarily for producing partly enriched material to feed the electromagnetic separation process undertaken in calutrons (see below).

Another methodelectromagnetic isotope separationwas developed by Ernest Lawrence at the University of California Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley. This method was implemented in Oak Ridge at the Y-12 Plant, employing devices known as calutrons, which were effectively mass spectrometers. Copper was originally intended for electromagnet coils, but there was an insufficient amount available due to war shortages. The project engineers were forced to borrow silver from the U.S. Treasury. A total of 70,000,000 pounds of silver from the U.S. Treasury reserves was used for coils, and was returned after the project ended. Initially the method seemed promising for large scale production but was expensive and produced insufficient material and was later abandoned after the war.
Operators at their calutron control panels at the Y-12 Plant in Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

Other techniques were also tried, such as thermal diffusion and the use of high-speed centrifuges. Thermal diffusion was not used to produce highly-enriched uranium, but was used during the war in the S-50 facility to begin enrichment of the uranium, and its product was passed as the feed into the other facilities. The uranium bomb was a gun-type fission weapon. One mass of U-235, the "bullet," is fired down a more or less conventional gun barrel into another mass of U-235, rapidly creating the critical mass of U-235, resulting in an explosion. The method was so certain to work that no test was carried out before the bomb was dropped over Hiroshima, though extensive laboratory testing was undertaken to make sure the fundamental assumptions were correct. Also, the bomb that was dropped used all the existing extremely highly purified U-235 (and even most of the less highly purified material) so there was no U-235 available for such a test anyway. The bomb's design was known to be inefficient and prone to accidental discharge.

Plutonium bomb
The bombs used in the first test at Trinity Site on July 16, 1945, in New Mexico (the gadget of the Trinity test), and in the Nagasaki bomb, Fat Man, were made primarily of plutonium-239, a synthetic element. Although uranium-238 is useless as a fissile isotope for an atomic bomb, it is key in producing plutonium.[26] The fission of U-235 releases neutrons, which are absorbed by U-238, which creates The basic concept of an implosion-style nuclear uranium-239. U-239 rapidly decays to neptunium-239 (U-239 has a weapon. Actual pictures and details of the bomb's inner workings remain classified. half-life of 23.45minutes). Neptunium-239 (with a half-life of 2.35days) then decays into plutonium-239. The production and purification of plutonium used techniques developed in part by Glenn Seaborg while working at Berkeley and Chicago. Beginning in 1943, huge plants were built to produce plutonium at the Hanford Site.

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114 In 19431944, development efforts were directed to a gun-type fission weapon with plutonium, called "Thin Man". Once this was achieved, the scientists thought the uranium version, "Little Boy," would require a relatively simple adaptation.

Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron-generated plutonium-239, which was extremely pure, but could only be created in very small amounts. On April5, 1944, Emilio Segr at Los Alamos received the first sample of Hanford-produced A mock-up of the plutonium bomb, Fat Man plutonium. Within ten days, he discovered a problem: reactor-bred plutonium was far less isotopically pure than cyclotron-produced [27] plutonium. A higher concentration of Pu-240, formed from Pu-239 by capture of an additional neutron, gave it a much higher spontaneous fission rate than U-235. Pu-240 was even harder to separate from Pu-239 than U-235 was to separate from U-238, so no purification was attempted. This made the Hanford plutonium unsuitable for use in a gun-type weapon. The gun-type bomb worked by mechanically assembling the critical mass from two subcritical masses: a "bullet" and a target. The chain reaction resulting from collision of the "bullet" with the target released tremendous energy, producing an explosion, but also blew apart the critical mass and ended the chain reaction. The configuration of the critical mass determined how much of the fissile material reacted in the interval between assembly and dispersal, and therefore the explosive yield of the bomb. Even a 1%fission of the material would result in a workable bomb, equal to thousands of tons of high explosive. A poor configuration, or slow assembly, would release enough energy to disperse the critical mass quickly, and the yield would be greatly reduced, equivalent to only a few tons of high explosive. The chain reaction of U-235 was slow enough that gun-type assembly would work, but in a gun-type bomb made with the Hanford plutonium, "early" neutrons from spontaneously fissioning Pu-240 would start the chain reaction more quickly during detonation. This would release enough energy to disperse the critical mass with only a minimal amount of plutonium reacted, reducing the resulting yield of the weapon. In July 1944, based on the measurements of spontaneous fission for Hanford plutonium, the decision was made to cease work on a gun-type assembly for plutonium.[27] There would be no "Thin Man." Ideas for alternative detonation schemes had existed for some time at Los Alamos. One of the more innovative was the idea of "implosion". Using chemical explosives, a sub-critical sphere of fissile material could be squeezed into a smaller and denser form. When the fissile atoms were packed closer together, the rate of neutron capture would increase, and the mass would become a critical mass. The metal needed to travel only very short distances, so the critical mass would be assembled in much less time than it would take to assemble a mass by a bullet impacting a target. Initially, implosion had been entertained as a possible, though unlikely, method. The gun method was further developed for uranium only, while most efforts were then directed towards rapidly developing an implosion system. Oppenheimer chose to pursue a design based on the April 1944 suggestion by James L. Tuck to use explosive lenses to create spherical, converging implosion waves.

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By the end of July 1944, the entire Manhattan Project had been reorganized around building the implosion-type bomb.[27] The required implosion was achieved by using shaped charges with many explosive lenses to produce the perfectly spherical explosive wave which compressed the plutonium sphere. Because of the complexity of an implosion-style weapon, it was decided that, despite the waste of fissile material, an initial test would be required. The first nuclear test took place on July16, 1945, near Alamogordo, New Mexico, under the supervision of Groves's deputy Brig. Gen. Thomas Farrell. Oppenheimer gave the test the code name "Trinity".

In July 1944 the Los Alamos laboratory abandoned the plutonium gun-type bomb ("Thin Man", shown above) and focused almost entirely on the problem of implosion. (The Fat Man casing is also visible in the photo background.)

Cost of Manhattan Project

The project expenditure to 1 October 1945 was $1.845 billion, and was $2.191 billion when the AEC assumed control on 1 January 1947. Total allocation was $2.4 billion, an amount equal to $23.4billion in current value. Over 90% of the cost was for building plants and producing the fissionable materials, and less than 10% for development and production of the weapons. The first allocation in June 1942 for fiscal 1943, as recommended in a 13 June report by Bush and Conant and approved by FDR on 17 June, was for only $90 million. This was a small start compared to the scale of a single TNT plant built in Pennsylvania which cost $128 million.[28] The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was set up by the Atomic Energy Act in 1946 to take over the functions and assets of the Manhattan Project. It established civilian control over atomic development, and separated the development, production and control of atomic weapons from the military.

Similar efforts
A similar effort was undertaken in the USSR in September 1941 headed by Igor Kurchatov (with some of Kurchatov's World War II knowledge coming secondhand from Manhattan Project countries, thanks to spies, including at least two on the scientific team at Los Alamos, Klaus Fuchs and Theodore Hall, unknown to each other). After the MAUD Committee's report, the British and Americans exchanged nuclear information but initially did not pool their efforts. A British project, code-named Tube Alloys[29] , was started but did not have United States resources. Consequently the British bargaining position worsened, and their motives were mistrusted by the Americans. Collaboration therefore lessened markedly until the Quebec Agreement of August 1943, when a large team of British, Canadian and Australian scientists joined the Manhattan Project at McGill University in Montreal and at a new project site located at Chalk River, Ontario, with living facilities for those working in the newly created community of Deep River, Ontario.

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The question of Axis efforts on the bomb has been a contentious issue for historians. It is believed that efforts undertaken in Germany, headed by Werner Heisenberg, and in Japan, were also undertaken during the war with little progress. It was initially feared that Hitler was very close to developing his own bomb. Many German scientists in fact expressed surprise to their Allied captors when the bombs were detonated in Japan. They were convinced that talk of atomic weapons was merely propaganda. However, Werner Heisenberg (by then imprisoned in Britain at Farm Hall with several other nuclear project The German experimental nuclear pile at physicists) almost immediately figured out what the Allies had done, Haigerloch explaining it to his fellow scientists (and hidden microphones) within days. The Nazi reactor effort had been severely handicapped by Heisenberg's belief that heavy water was necessary as a neutron moderator (slowing preparation material) for such a device. The Germans were short of heavy water throughout the war because of Allied efforts such as Operation Gunnerside to prevent Germany from obtaining it, and the Germans never did stumble on the secret of purified graphite for making nuclear reactors from natural uranium. Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and Enrico Fermi were all colleagues who were key figures in developing the quantum theory together with Wolfgang Pauli, prior to the war. They had known each other well in Europe and were friends. Niels Bohr and Heisenberg even discussed the possibility of the atomic bomb prior to and during the war, before the United States became involved. Bohr recalled that Heisenberg was unaware that the supercritical mass could be achieved with U-235, and both men gave differing accounts of their conversations at this sensitive time. Bohr at the time did not trust Heisenberg, and never quite forgave him for his decision not to flee Germany before the war when given the chance. Heisenberg, for his part, seems to have thought he was proposing to Bohr a mutual agreement between the two sides not to pursue nuclear technology for destructive purposes. If so, Heisenberg's message did not get through. Heisenberg, to the end of his life, maintained that the partly-built German heavy-water nuclear reactor found after the war's end in his lab was for research purposes only, and a full bomb project had not been contemplated (there is no evidence to contradict this, but by this time late in the war, Germany was far from having the resources for a Hanford-style plutonium bomb, even if its scientists had decided to pursue one and had known how to do it).

Controversy
Harold Hodge was chosen to head the United States Atomic Energy Commission's (AEC) Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology for the Manhattan Project, where he studied on the effects of the inhalation of uranium and beryllium through the "Rochester Chamber". This project and others similar led to civilian oversight after World War II.[30] Details of this Division came out in Eileen Welsome's book The Plutonium Files, for which she won a Pulitzer Prize. It documented human experiments in which the subjects did not know they were being tested to find the safety limits of uranium and plutonium. Hodge attended a meeting where the experiments were planned in 1945, and an AEC memo thanks Hodge for his planning and suggestions in the experiment. The US government settled with the victims' families, paying $400,000 per family. Seven victims were injected with material smuggled into a hospital secretly through a tunnel. One unmarried, white 24-year old woman was injected with 584 micrograms of uranium; another 61-year old man was injected with 71 micrograms of uranium per kilogram body mass.[31] :93 Hodge also arranged for Dr. Sweet to inject 11 terminally-ill patients with uranium for their brain tumors; however, these subjects may have known they were being tested.[32]

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See also
Timeline of the Manhattan Project Human experimentation in the United States Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Quebec Agreement August 1945

Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Smyth Report Related locations Hanford Site (plutonium production) B Reactor Ames Laboratory (uranium production from ores) Los Alamos National Laboratory (secret weapons lab) Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (second weapons lab, created in 1950s) Metallurgical Laboratory (first controlled nuclear chain reaction) Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Oak Ridge National Laboratory (site of graphite reactor and pilot facilities for plutonium production) Y-12 National Security Complex (uranium enrichment) K-25 (uranium enrichment) Trinity site (first nuclear test) Trail, British Columbia (Project 9, heavy water plant) Nuclear weapons History of nuclear weapons Nuclear arms race Nuclear weapon Nuclear weapon design Isotope separation (necessary for uranium enrichment) List of countries with nuclear weapons The United States and nuclear weapons People Category:Manhattan Project people (lists articles about people involved in the project) List of Cornell Manhattan Project people, a large number of Cornell University physicists were associated with the project Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, discoverers of fission David Bohm, did work that was immediately classified, that he then wasn't allowed to read Other projects Operation Downfall, the planned Allied invasion of the Japanese homeland; cancelled due to the success of the Manhattan Project. German nuclear energy project Japanese atomic program Operation Alsos, post-war assessment of the German nuclear project Soviet atomic bomb project The Plutonium Files Tube Alloys (British WWII atomic program) Project-706

Manhattan Project Movies (in chronological order) Above and Beyond (1952), a film related to the project, centered on Col Paul Tibbets, pilot of the plane which dropped the Hiroshima bomb The Day After Trinity (1981), a documentary about the project The Manhattan Project (film) (1986), a-bomb as a science fair project Day One (1989), a film about the project in a political perspective Fat Man and Little Boy (1989), Hollywood drama based on the project starring Paul Newman White Light/Black Rain: The Destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (2007)

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Notes
[1] A comprehensive history of the Manhattan Project is Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (Simon & Schuster, 1986). [2] Stephen I. Schwartz Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998. Manhattan Project expenditures (http:/ / www. brookings. edu/ FP/ PROJECTS/ NUCWCOST/ MANHATTN. HTM) [3] Broad, William J., "Why They Called It the Manhattan Project" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 10/ 30/ science/ 30manh. html), New York Times, October 30, 2007. [4] Rhodes, 322325 [5] Rhodes, 369 [6] Rhodes, 372 [7] Rhodes, 416 [8] Rhodes, 415 [9] Rhodes, 381; 388389 [10] Serber, Robert. The Los Alamos Primer (Los Alamos Report LA-1, compiled April 1943, declassified 1965): p. 21. [11] Rhodes, 417 [12] Rhodes, 421 [13] The reaction Teller was most concerned with was N714 + N714 = Mg1224 + He24 (alpha particle) + 17.7MeV [14] Rhodes, 419 [15] Konopinski, E. J, C. Marvin; Edward Teller (1946, declassified February 1973). Ignition of the Atmosphere with Nuclear Bombs (http:/ / www. fas. org/ sgp/ othergov/ doe/ lanl/ docs1/ 00329010. pdf). Technical Report Los Alamos National Laboratory LA-602. [16] In Bethe's account, the possibility of this ultimate catastrophe came up again in 1975 when it appeared in a magazine article by H.C. Dudley, who got the idea from a report by Pearl Buck of an interview she had with Arthur Compton in 1959. The worry was not entirely extinguished in some people's minds until the Trinity test. [17] "Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review, Vol. 25, Nos. 3 and 4, 2002" (http:/ / www. ornl. gov/ info/ ornlreview/ rev25-34/ chapter1. shtml). ornl.gov. . Retrieved 2010-03-09. [18] "The Manhattan Project" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ interactive/ 2007/ 10/ 30/ science/ 20071030_MANHATTAN_GRAPHIC. html). nytimes.com. October 30, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-11-02. [19] "(comedian interview)" (http:/ / www. friarsclub. com/ Facilities/ clubhouse_history. htm). (tv show) (CBS). October 5, 2008 (7:47pm MDT). . Retrieved 2008-10-06 [20] Why They Called It the Manhattan Project (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 10/ 30/ science/ 30manh. html?_r=2& ref=science& oref=slogin& oref=slogin), nytimes.com, accessed November 2, 2007. [21] Chris Waltham (June 20, 2002) (PDF). An Early History of Heavy Water (http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ physics/ 0206076. pdf). Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia. . [22] http:/ / www. history. rochester. edu/ urhist/ kurt. htm [23] Dowdy, Andrew H., "The Rochester Story of the Manhattan Project", Rochester NY, 1945 [24] http:/ / www. hss. energy. gov/ healthsafety/ ohre/ roadmap/ achre/ intro_3. html [25] Natural self-sustaining nuclear reactions have occurred in the distant past (circa twobillion years ago); see Natural nuclear fission reactor [26] http:/ / www. fas. org/ nuke/ intro/ nuke/ plutonium. htm [27] The Atomic Heritage FoundationAtomic History Timeline 19421944 (http:/ / www. atomicheritage. org/ index. php?id=288& option=com_content& task=view) [28] Nichols, Kenneth (1987) The Road to Trinity by Kenneth D. Nichols, pages 34-35, 174 (1987, Morrow, New York) ISBN 068806910X [29] Churchill, Winston Spencer (1951). The Second World War: Closing the Ring. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. pp.643. [30] Morrow PE et al. (2000). Harold Carpenter Hodge (19041990) (http:/ / toxsci. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 53/ 2/ 157). Toxicological Sciences. [31] [Christopher Bryson. The Fluoride Deception (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=q3v_JgjZ6fsC& pg=PP1& ots=N33qiJvkHS& sig=SGTf9EUQV84S8SisMQXmaqlkb8M). Seven Stories Press. ISBN 1583225269, 9781583225264. [32] RE: Boston Project Uranium Injection Experiments (http:/ / www. gwu. edu/ ~nsarchiv/ radiation/ dir/ mstreet/ commeet/ pm04/ pl4brf/ pl4bre. txt).

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References
Overall, administrative, and diplomatic histories of the Manhattan Project DeGroot, Gerard, The Bomb: A History of Hell on Earth, London: Pimlico, 2005. ISBN 0-7126-7748-8 Feynman, Richard P. "Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!". W. W. Norton & Company, 1997. ISBN 978-0393316049. Groves, Leslie. Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project. New York: Harper, 1962. ISBN 0-306-70738-1. Herken, Gregg. Brotherhood of the Bomb : The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2002. ISBN 0-8050-6588-1. Hewlett, Richard G., and Oscar E. Anderson. The New World, 19391946. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1962. Howes, Ruth H. and Herzenberg, Caroline L. Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999. ISBN 1-56639-719-7. Jungk, Robert. Brighter Than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1956, 1958. Nichols, Kenneth The Road to Trinity. New York: Morrow, 1987 ISBN 068806910X Norris, Robert S., Racing for the Bomb: General Leslie R. Groves, The Manhattan Project's Indispensable Man. Vermont: Steerforth Press, First Paperback edition, 2002. ISBN 1-58642-067-4. Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986. ISBN 0-671-44133-7. Rhodes, Richard. Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. ISBN 0-684-80400-X. Kelly, Cynthia. Remembering the Manhattan Project: Perspectives on the Making of the Atomic Bomb and Its Legacy New Jersey: World Scientific, 2005. ISBN 978-981-256-040-7. Kelly, Cynthia. Oppenheimer and the Manhattan Project: Insights into J Robert Oppenheimer, Father of the Atomic Bomb New Jersey: World Scientific, 2005. ISBN 978-981-256-418-4. Technical histories Groueff, Stephane. Manhattan Project: The Untold Story of the Making of the Atomic Bomb. Boston: Little, Brown & Co, 1967. Hoddeson, Lillian, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, and Catherine L. Westfall. Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 19431945. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-44132-3. David Hawkins, Edith C. Truslow, and Ralph C. Smith. "Project Y: The Los Alamos Story. Part I: Toward Trinity. Part II: Beyond Trinity. (History of Modern Physics, 1800-1950, V. 2)." American Inst. of Physics; 1st edition (September 1, 2000). Serber, Robert. The Los Alamos Primer: The First Lectures on How to Build an Atomic Bomb. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. ISBN 0-520-07576-5Original 1943, Los Alamos Report "LA-1", declassified in 1965. (Available on Wikimedia Commons). Sherwin, Martin J. A World Destroyed: The Atomic Bomb and the Grand Alliance. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975. ISBN 0-394-49794-5. Smyth, Henry DeWolf. Atomic Energy for Military Purposes; the Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 19401945. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1945. See Smyth Report. Yenne, William. "The Manhattan Project", Secret Weapons of World War II: The Techno-Military Breakthroughs That Changed History. New York: Berkley Books, 2003, p.27. Participant accounts

Manhattan Project Badash, Lawrence, Joseph O. Hirschfelder, Herbert P. Broida, eds. Reminiscences of Los Alamos, 19431945. Dordrecht, Boston: D. Reidel, 1980. ISBN 90-277-1097-X. Bethe, Hans A. The Road from Los Alamos. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991. ISBN 0-671-74012-1. Nichols, Kenneth David. The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made. New York: William Morrow and Company Inc, 1987. ISBN 0-688-06910-X. Serber, Robert. Peace and War: Reminiscences of a Life on the Frontiers of Science. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-231-10546-0. Ulam, Stanisaw. Adventures of a Mathematician. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1983. ISBN 0-520-07154-9.

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External links
Manhattan Project (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/History/By_Time_Period/Twentieth_Century/ Wars_and_Conflicts/World_War_II/Atomic/Manhattan_Project//) at the Open Directory Project Why They Called It the Manhattan Project (http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/30/science/30manh.html/) Development of the Atomic Bomb (http://www.3rd1000.com/nuclear/cruc18.htm) Annotated bibliography for the Manhattan Project from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues. (http:// alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=warfare/Manhattan+Project) Nuclear Files.org (http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/pre-cold-war/ manhattan-project/) Information on the history of the Manhattan Project Interview with Joseph Rotblat who worked on the Manhattan Project and left to work for Pugwash. (http://www. vega.org.uk/video/programme/22) The Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to both Rotblat and Pugwash. Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust. Works by United States ArmyCorps of Engineers (Manhattan District) (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/ United_States._Army._Corps_of_Engineers._Manhattan_District) at Project Gutenberg The Cold War International History Project (CWIHP) (http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index. cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.documents&group_id=511603) for Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks containing evidence on Soviet atomic espionage Historic photos of Oak Ridge, TN during the Manhattan Project (http://www.flickr.com/photos/amse/sets/ 72157608279431255/)

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Honors
List of things named after Albert Einstein
This is a list of things named after Albert Einstein.

Scientific and mathematical concepts

Higher-dimensional Einstein gravity Einstein solid Einstein force Einstein's constant Einsteinde Haas effect Einstein relation (kinetic theory) StarkEinstein law EinsteinHilbert action EinsteinCartan theory BoseEinstein condensate BoseEinstein statistics Einstein field equations Einstein's radius of the universe Einstein coefficients Einstein synchronisation Einstein notation Einstein tensor Einstein manifold Einstein ring Einstein Cross Einstein radius Einstein (unit) Einstein refrigerator Zebra Puzzle, also known as Einstein's Puzzle or Riddle Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox Einstein syndrome

List of things named after Albert Einstein

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Schools
Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University, New York The Albert Einstein Mathematics Institute, Hebrew University, Jerusalem Albert Einstein Academy Charter School, San Diego, California Albert Einstein High School, Kensington, Maryland Albert Einstein Intermediate (later Junior High) School, aka I.S. 131, The Bronx, New York Albert Einstein School, a German gymnasium in Bochum, Germany Albert Einstein International School of San Pedro Sula, a college preparatory school in San Pedro Sula, Honduras A high school named after Albert Einstein in Ben Shemen Youth Village, Israel Einstein School in Amsterdam, Netherlands Einstein Primary School, Haifa, Israel

Streets
Einsteinova ulica, a major road in Bratislava, Slovakia Einsteinstrae, Munich, Germany [1] Albert Einstein Street in Coimbra, Portugal Einstein Street, Haifa, Israel

Buildings
Albert Einstein Hospital in So Paulo, Brazil Albert Einstein Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Einstein Tower, astrophysical observatory in the Albert Einstein Science Park in Potsdam, Germany Albert Einstein House, a National Historic Landmark in Princeton, New Jersey

Arts and entertainment

Einstein's Dreams, a 1992 novel by Alan Lightman Einstein's Monsters, a collection of short stories by Martin Amis Little Einsteins, an animated television series The Einstein Factor, an Australian TV game show hosted by Peter Berner Professor Albert Einstein, a character in the video game Command & Conquer

Other
BohrEinstein debates, a series of epistemological challenges and responses by Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr RussellEinstein Manifesto, issued in 1955 by Bertrand Russell in the midst of the Cold War EinsteinSzilrd letter, a letter sent to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in August 1939 Albert Einstein Medal, presented by the Albert Einstein Society in Bern, Switzerland, to people who have "rendered outstanding services" in connection with Albert Einstein, since 1979 Einstein Symposium, on the centennial of the "Annus Mirabilis" Einsteinium, an element Tatung Einstein, an eight-bit home/personal computer Rebutia einsteinii, a cactus named after Einstein by its finder, Alberto Vojtch Fri Einstein, a brand of South Korean milk

Albert Einstein Institution, a non-profit organization studying methods of non-violent resistance Albert Einstein German Academic Refugee Initiative Fund, a scholarship fund for refugees

List of things named after Albert Einstein

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See also
Albert Einstein in popular culture

References
[1] http:/ / www. google. com/ maps?source=uds& q=einsteinstra%C3%9Fe+ m%C3%BCnchen

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Effect on popular culture

Albert Einstein in popular culture
Albert Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many works of popular culture. On Einstein's 72nd birthday on March 14, 1951, UPI photographer Arthur Sasse was trying to persuade him to smile for the camera, but having smiled for photographers many times that day, Einstein stuck out his tongue instead.[1] This photograph became one of the most popular ever taken of Einstein,[2] [3] often used in merchandise depicting him in a lighthearted sense. On June 19, 2009, the original photograph was sold at auction for $74,324, a record for an Einstein picture.[4] In 1999, leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever".[5] "Einstein" has become a word used to describe someone extremely intelligent; the name is also applied ironically to someone who states the obvious or displays a lack of intelligence or insight ("Way to go, Einstein!").

The famous tongue image

Albert Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films and plays, such as Yahoo Serious's intentionally inaccurate biography of Einstein as a Tasmanian in the film Young Einstein, Jean-Claude Carrier's 2005 French novel, Einstein S'il Vous Plat (Einstein If You Please), Alan Lightman's collection of short stories Einstein's Dreams, and Steve Martin's comedic play Picasso at the Lapin Agile. He was the subject of Philip Glass's groundbreaking 1976 opera Einstein on the Beach and his humorous side is the subject of Ed Metzger's one-man play Albert Einstein: The Practical Bohemian. An 'Einstein character' also appears in a major role in Nicolas Roeg's 1985 film: Insignificance, based on Terry Johnson's London stage play. Set in New York in 1953, the film includes a scene in which 'The Professor' (played by Michael Emil) the character evidently representing Albert Einstein, discusses Relativity with 'The Actress'-a Marilyn Monroe character (Theresa Russell). Einstein was portrayed by Walter Matthau in the 1994 romantic comedy I.Q.. In the film A.I.: Artificial Intelligence, he was portrayed as a holographic personality called Dr. Know (voiced by Robin Williams). He was also portrayed in the real-time strategy game Command & Conquer: Red Alert. Most recently, he was the subject (along with Arthur Eddington) of the BBC Two film Einstein and Eddington, featuring David Tennant as Eddington and Andy Serkis as Einstein, and detailing Einstein's development of his theories and Eddington's attempts to prove them. A holographic representation of Einstein, played by Jim Norton appeared in two episodes of Star Trek: The Next Generation. Einstein is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. The Star Wars character Yoda's eyes were modeled after Einstein's.[6] Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true."[7] Albert Einstein is one of the celebrities immortalized on the cover of the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. A verse of James Taylor's song Secret O' Life mentions Einstein and his special theory of relativity. Kerry Livgren of the progressive rock band Kansas stated that he wrote the song Portrait (He Knew) about Einstein. Mariah Carey's eleventh studio album is entitled E=MC after Einstein's celebrated equation. Greek singer Giorgos Lembesis has released a song titled "Einstein" in which he states that he always admired Albert Einstein, but now he

Albert Einstein in popular culture needs his help in his relationship problems.[8] The scientist was left-handed [9] but several photographs show him using his right hand to hold pens or chalk.[10] In the movie Back to the Future, the character of Dr. Emmett Brown, portrayed as a brilliant scientist, time traveler and inventor, has a dog called "Einstein", named after Doc Brown's favorite scientist.

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Licensing
Einstein bequeathed his estate, as well as the use of his image (see personality rights), to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem,[11] which from the mid-1980s has sponsored the Einstein Papers Project with the Princeton University Press (see the Einstein Page [151] from PUP). Einstein actively supported the university during his life and this support continues with the royalties received from licensing activities. GreenLight licences the commercial use of the name "Albert Einstein" and associated imagery and likenesses of Einstein, as agent for the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. As head licensee the corporation can control commercial usage of Einstein's name and theoretically ensure compliance with certain standards (e.g., when Einstein's name is used as a trademark, the symbol must be used).[12]

References
[1] Kupper, Hans-Josef (2000). "Various things about Albert Einstein" (http:/ / www. einstein-website. de/ z_information/ variousthings. html). . Retrieved 2006-10-04 [2] Ingledew, John (2005). "The world's best known pictures". Photography. Laurence King Publishing. pp.133. ISBN1856694321. [3] Faber, John (1978). "Einstein's Birthday Joke". Great News Photos and the Stories Behind Them. Courier Dover Publications. pp.108. ISBN0486236676. [4] "Photo Of Einstein Nets $74K At Auction" (http:/ / www. thebostonchannel. com/ news/ 19810075/ detail. html). WCVB-TV. June 20, 2009. . Retrieved June 20, 2009. [5] Einstein "greatest physicist ever;" BBC news, Monday, 29 November 1999, http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 541840. stm [6] "The Making of Yoda (part one)." (http:/ / 1001resources. com/ hosting/ users/ cinesecrets/ pmMakingYoda1. html). . Retrieved 2007-10-03. [7] Golden, Frederic (January 3, 2000). "Person of the Century: Albert Einstein" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ time100/ poc/ magazine/ albert_einstein5a. html). Time. . Retrieved 2006-02-25 [8] http:/ / www. musiccorner. gr/ nees_kyklof/ 04/ lembesis. html [9] Some of the many World Wide Web lists of left-handers that include Einstein: (http:/ / www. anythingleft-handed. co. uk/ fam_proff. html#scientists)"Famous Left-handers Professions" Web page at "Anything Left handed" Web site, Weaver, Warren, Jr., "Washington Talk: The Presidential Campaign; Another Issue for '88: Left-Winged Politics", news feature article, November 27, 1987 [10] These photographs show Einstein using his right hand: (http:/ / blogs. chicagotribune. com/ photos/ uncategorized/ einstein. jpg) (satirical image based on a photograph), , (http:/ / www. astrosurf. com/ luxorion/ Images/ einstein-late. jpg), (http:/ / www. cerebromente. org. br/ n15/ mente/ Einstein. jpg), (http:/ / www. geocities. com/ srpsko_dnf/ slike_za_korisnike_i_sve_ostal/ Einstein-at-blackboard-chalk-in-hand. jpg), (http:/ / www. soperfi. org. pe/ galerias/ albums/ userpics/ 10001/ einstein violin. jpg). Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5kmVlva5w) 2009-10-25. [11] "" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050830225523/ http:/ / aip. org/ history/ esva/ einuse. htm). Archived from the original (http:/ / aip. org/ history/ esva/ einuse. htm) on August 30, 2005. . Retrieved November 21, 2005. [12] "ALBRT EINSTEIN BRAND LOGO" (http:/ / www. albert-einstein. net/ styleguide-readonly/ brand. html). . Retrieved November 21, 2005.

126

Scientific publications
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein (18791955) was a renowned theoretical physicist of the 20th century who is best known for his theories of special relativity and general relativity. He also made important contributions to statistical mechanics, especially his treatment of Brownian motion, his resolution of the paradox of specific heats, and his connection of fluctuations and dissipation. Despite his reservations about its interpretation, Einstein also made seminal contributions to quantum mechanics and, indirectly, quantum field theory, primarily through his theoretical studies of the photon. Einstein's scientific publications are listed below in four tables: journal articles, book chapters, books and authorized translations. Each publication is indexed in the first column by its number in the Schilpp bibliography (Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, pp.694730) and by its article number in Einstein's Collected Papers. Complete references for these two bibliographies may be found below in the Bibliography section. The Schilpp numbers are used for cross-referencing in the Notes (the final column of each table), since First page from Einstein's manuscript explaining they cover a greater time period of Einstein's life at present. The general relativity. English translations of titles are generally taken from the published volumes of the Collected Papers. For some publications, however, such official translations are not available; unofficial translations are indicated with a superscript. Although the tables are presented in chronological order by default, each table can be re-arranged in alphabetical order for any column by clicking on the arrows at the top of that column. For illustration, to re-order a table by subjecte.g., to group together articles that pertain "General relativity" or "Specific heats"one need only click on the arrows in the "Classification and Notes" columns. To print out the re-sorted table, the page may be printed directly using the web-browser Print option; the "Printable version" link at the left gives only the default sorting. Collaborative works by Einstein are highlighted in lavender, with the co-author(s) provided in the final column of the table. Einstein's many non-scientific works are not included here, to limit both the article's focus and size. The division of scientific and non-scientific works follows the Schilpp bibliography, which cites over 130 non-scientific works, often on humanitarian or political topics (pp.730746). Five volumes of Einstein's Collected Papers (volumes 1, 5, 810) are devoted to his correspondence, much of which is concerned with scientific questions. These letters are likewise not listed here, since they were not prepared for publication.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

127

Chronology and major themes

The following chronology of Einstein's scientific discoveries provides a context for the publications listed below, and clarifies the major themes running through his work. In 1905, Einstein developed the theory of special relativity, which reconciled the relativity of motion with the observed constancy of the speed of light (a paradox of 19th-century physics).[1] Special relativity is now a core principle of physics. Its counterintuitive predictions that moving clocks run more slowly, that moving objects are shortened in their direction of motion, and that the order of events is not absolute have been confirmed experimentally. Its relation E=mc2 suggested that matter was a form of energy, which was later verified by the mass defect in atomic nuclei. The energy released in nuclear reactionswhich is essential for nuclear power and nuclear weaponscan be estimated from such mass defects.[2]
Einstein in 1921.

Likewise in 1905, Einstein developed a theory of Brownian motion in terms of fluctuations in the number of molecular collisions with an object,[3] providing further evidence that matter was composed of atoms. A few weeks earlier, he had derived the Einstein relation for diffusion, which was the first example of the general fluctuation-dissipation theorem and allowed a good estimate of the Avogadro constant.[4] Also in 1905, Einstein proposed the existence of the photon, an elementary particle associated with electromagnetic radiation (light), which was the foundation of quantum theory.[5] In 1909, Einstein showed that the photon carries momentum as well as energy and that electromagnetic radiation must have both particle-like and wave-like properties if Planck's law holds; this was a forerunner of the principle of wave-particle duality.[6] In 1907 and again in 1911, Einstein developed the first quantum theory of specific heats by generalizing Planck's law.[7] His theory resolved a paradox of 19th-century physics that specific heats were often smaller than could be explained by any classical theory. His work was also the first to show that Planck's quantum mechanical law E=h was a fundamental law of physics, and not merely special to blackbody radiation.[8] Between 1907 and 1915, Einstein developed the theory of general relativity, a classical field theory of gravitation that provides the cornerstone for modern astrophysics and cosmology.[9] General relativity is based on the surprising idea that time and space dynamically interact with matter and energy, and has been checked experimentally in many ways,[10] confirming its predictions of matter affecting the flow of time,[11] frame dragging,[12] black holes,[13] and gravitational waves.[14] In 1917, Einstein published the idea for the Einstein-Brillouin-Keller method for finding the quantum mechanical version of a classical system.[15] The famous Bohr model of the hydrogen atom is a simple example, but the EBK method also gives accurate predictions for more complicated systems, such as the dinuclear cations H2+ and HeH2+.[16] In 1918, Einstein developed a general theory of the process by which atoms emit and absorb electromagnetic radiation (his A and B coefficients), which is the basis of lasers (stimulated emission) and shaped the development

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein of modern quantum electrodynamics, the best-validated physical theory at present.[17] In 1924, together with Satyendra Nath Bose, Einstein developed the theory of Bose-Einstein statistics and Bose-Einstein condensates, which form the basis for superfluidity, superconductivity, and other phenomena.[18] In 1935, together with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, Einstein put forward what is now known as the EPR paradox, and argued that the quantum-mechanical wave function must be an incomplete description of the physical world.[19] In the final thirty years of his life, Einstein explored whether various classical unified field theories could account for both electromagnetism and gravitation and, possibly, quantum mechanics. However, his efforts were unsuccessful, since those theories did not match experimental observations.[20]

128

Journal articles
Most of Einstein's original scientific work appeared as journal articles. Articles on which Einstein collaborated with other scientists are highlighted in lavender, with the co-author(s) listed in the "Classification and notes" column.
Index [21] Year Title and English [22] translation Folgerungen aus den Kapillarittserscheinungen Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity Journal, volume, pages [23] [24] Classification and notes

Schilpp 1; CP 2, 1

1901

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 4, 513523, [25] link

[26] Intermolecular forces. The first of two papers in which Einstein proposed the (incorrect) theory that the interactions between all molecules are a universal function of distance, in analogy with the inverse-square force of gravity. Once parameterized, his theory makes reasonably accurate predictions for heavier hydrophobic molecules, but fails for lighter molecules. [28] Intermolecular forces. Einstein's second paper on a universal molecular energy function, this time applied to electrolytic solutions. No data are available for comparison. Einstein characterizes these two papers as "worthless" in [29] 1907.

Schilpp 2; CP 2, 2

1902

Thermodynamische Theorie Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 8, 798814, [27] der Potentialdifferenz link zwischen Metallen und vollstndig dissoziierten Lsungen ihrer Salze, und eine elektrische Methode zur Erforschung der Molekularkrfte On the Thermodynamic Theory of the Difference in Potentials between Metals and Fully Dissociated Solutions of Their Salts and on an Electrical Method for Investigating Molecular Forces

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[31] Statistical mechanics. Study of the equipartition theorem and the definitions of temperature and entropy.

129

Schilpp 3; CP 2, 3

1902

Kinetische Theorie des Wrmegleichgewichtes und des zweiten Hauptsatzes der Thermodynamik Kinetic Theory of Thermal Equilibrium and of the Second Law of Thermodynamics

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 9, 417433, [30] link

Schilpp 4; CP 2, 4

1903

Eine Theorie der Grundlagen Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 11, [32] der Thermodynamik 170187, link A Theory of the Foundations of Thermodynamics

[33] Statistical mechanics. The problem of irreversibility in thermodynamics.

Schilpp 5; CP 2, 5

1904

Allgemeine molekulare Theorie der Wrme On the General Molecular Theory of Heat

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 14, [34] 354362, link

[35] Statistical mechanics. Fluctuations and new methods for determining Boltzmann's constant.

CP 2, 6

1905

Review of Giuseppe Belluzzo: "Principi di termodinamica grafica" Review of Giuseppe Belluzzo: "Principles of Graphic Thermodynamics"

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 78

Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 7

1905

Review of Albert Fliegner: "ber den Clausius'schen Entropiesatz" Review of Albert Fliegner: "On Clausius's Law of Entropy"

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 79

Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 8

1905

Review of William McFadden Orr: "On Clausius' Theorem for Irreversible Cycles, and on the Increase of Entropy"

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 79

Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 9

1905

Review of George Hartley Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, Bryan: "The Law of 29, 80 Degradation of Energy as the Fundamental Principle of Thermodynamics"

Thermodynamics.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

130
Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 10

1905

Review of Nikolay Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, Nikolayevich Schiller: 29, 81 "Einige Bedenken betreffend die Theorie der Entropievermehrung durch Diffusion der Gase bei einander gleichen Anfangsspannungen der letzteren" Review of Nikolay Nikolayevich Schiller: "Some Concerns Regarding the Theory of Entropy Increase Due to the Diffusion of Gases Where the Initial Pressures of the Latter Are Equal"

CP 2, 11

1905

Review of Jakob Johann Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, Weyrauch: "ber die 29, 82 spezifischen Wrmen des berhitzten Wasserdampfes" Review of Jakob Johann Weyrauch: "On the specific Heats of Superheated Water Vapor"

Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 12

1905

Review of Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff: "Einfluss der nderung der spezifischen Wrme auf die Umwandlungsarbeit" Review of Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff: "The Influence of the Change in Specific Heat on the Work of Conversion"

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 82

Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 13

1905

Review of Arturo Giammarco: "Un caso di corrispondenza in termodinamica" Review of Arturo Giammarco: "A Case of Corresponding States in Thermodynamics"

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 84

Thermodynamics.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[37] Photons. Proposal of the photon as a quantum of energy, supported by many independent arguments.

131

Schilpp 7; CP 2, 14

1905

ber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17, [36] 132148, link

Schilpp 8; CP 2, 16

1905

ber die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wrme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen On the Movement of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary Liquids Required by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17, [38] 549560, link

[39] Statistical mechanics. Seminal treatment of Brownian motion, a type of translational diffusion.

CP 2, 17

1905

Review of Karl Fredrik Slotte: "ber die Schmelzwrme" Review of Karl Fredrik Slotte: "On the Heat of Fusion"

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 135

Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 18

1905

Review of Karl Fredrik Slotte: "Folgerungen aus einer thermodynamischen Gleichung" Review of Karl Fredrik Slotte: "Conclusions Drawn from a Thermodynamic Equation"

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 135

Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 19

1905

Review of Emile Mathias: "La constante a des diamtres rectilignes et les lois des tats correspondents" Review of Emile Mathias: "The Constant a of Rectilinear Diameters and the Laws of Corresponding States"

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 136

Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 20

1905

Review of Max Planck: "On Clausius' Theorem for Irreversible Cycles, and on the Increase of Entropy"

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 29 (1905) 137

Thermodynamics.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

132
Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 137 Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 21

1905

Review of Edgar Buckingham: "On Certain Difficulties Which Are Encountered in the Study of Thermodynamics" Review of Paul Langevin: "Sur une formule fondamentale de la thorie cintique" Review of Paul Langevin: "On a Fundamental Formula of the Kinetic Theory"

CP 2, 22

1905

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 138

Thermodynamics.

Schilpp 9; CP 2, 23

1905

Elektrodynamik bewegter Krper On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 17, [40] 891921, link , Wikilivres

[41] Special relativity. This seminal paper gave birth to special relativity (SR). In particular, it stated the two postulates of SR (uniform motion is undetectable, and the speed of light is always constant) and its kinematics. [43] Special relativity. This paper derived the conclusion that mass was equivalent to an energy and vice versa, leading to the famous equation E=mc2.

Schilpp 10; CP 2, 24

1905

Ist die Trgheit eines Krpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhngig? Does the Inertia of a Body Depend upon its Energy Content?

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 18, [42] 639641, link

CP 2, 25

1905

Review of Heinrich Birven: Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, Grundzge der 29, 175 mechanischen Wrmetheorie Review of Heinrich Birven: Fundamentals of the Mechanical Theory of Heat

Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 26

1905

Review of Auguste Ponsot: "Chaleur dans le dplacement de 1'quilibre d'un systme capillaire" Review of Auguste Ponsot: "Heat in the Displacement of the Equilibrium of a Capillary System"

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 175

Thermodynamics.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

133
Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 27

1905

Review of Karl Bohlin: "Sur Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, le choc, considr comme 29, 176 fondement des thories cintiques de la pression des gaz et de la gravitation universelle" Review of Karl Bohlin: "On Impact Considered as the Basis of Kinetic Theories of Gas Pressure and of Universal Gravitation"

CP 2, 28

1905

Review of Georges Meslin: Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, "Sur la constante de la loi de 29, 177 Mariotte et GayLussac" Review of Georges Meslin: "On the Constant in Mariotte and GayLussac's Law"

Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 29

1905

Review of Albert Fliegner: "Das Ausstrmen heissen Wassers aus Gefssmndungen" Review of Albert Fliegner: "The Efflux of Hot Water from Container Orifices

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 177

Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 30

1905

Review of Jakob Johann Weyrauch: Grundriss der Wrmetheorie. Mit zahlreichen Beispielen und Anwendungen Review of Jakob Johann Weyrauch: "An Outline of the Theory of Heat. With Numerous Examples and Applications. Part 1

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 178

Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 31

1905

Review of Albert Fliegner: "ber den Wrmewert chemischer Vorgnge" Review of Albert Fliegner: "On the Thermal Value of Chemical Processes"

Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 29, 179

Thermodynamics.

Schilpp 11; CP 2, 33

1906

Eine neue Bestimmung der Molekldimensionen A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 19, [44] 289306, link

[45] Statistical mechanics. Hydrodynamic determination of molecular volumes.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[47] Statistical mechanics. Rotational Brownian motion, an example of rotational diffusion.

134

Schilpp 12; CP 2, 32

1906

Zur Theorie der Brownschen Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 19, [46] Bewegung 371381, link On the Theory of Brownian Motion

Schilpp 13; CP 2, 34

1906

Theorie der Lichterzeugung und Lichtabsorption On the Theory of Light Production and Light Absorption

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 20, [48] 199206, link

[49] Photons. Einstein reconciles his and Planck's independent derivations of the blackbody formula E=h. Planck's derivation of this formula ascribed it to a restriction on the energy changes possible when radiation is produced or absorbed by matter, which implied no restriction on the energies of either matter or radiation. Einstein's 1905 derivation ascribed it to a restriction on the energy of radiation alone, but in this paper, he proposes the modern idea that the energies of both matter and radiation are quantized, which led to his work on quantum specific heats, such as reference #16. [51] Special relativity. First statement that the conservation of mass is a special case of the conservation of energy.

Schilpp 14; CP 2, 35

1906

Prinzip von der Erhaltung Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 20, der Schwerpunktsbewegung 627633, link [50] und die Trgheit der Energie The Principle of Conservation of Motion of the Center of Gravity and the Inertia of Energy

Schilpp 15; CP 2, 36

1906

Eine Methode zur Bestimmung des Verhltnisses der transversalen und longitudinalen Masse des Elektrons On a Method for the Determination of the Ratio of the Transverse and the Longitudinal Mass of the Electron

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 21, [52] 583586, link

[53] Special relativity. A French translation appeared in the journal L'clairage lectrique, volume 49, pages 493494.

CP 2, 37

1906

Review of Max Planck: Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, Vorlesungen ber die 30, 211 Theorie der Wrmestrahlung Review of Max Planck: Lectures on the Theory of Thermal Radiation

Statistical mechanics.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[56] Specific heats. Seminal work applying Planck's law to the oscillations of atoms and molecules in solids. Resolved the 19th century paradox of the equipartition theorem in classical physics, and introduced the Einstein model of solids, which led to the current Debye model. Showed that the quantum mechanical law E=h was a general law of physics, and not merely special to blackbody radiation. [58] Statistical mechanics. Applies his theory of fluctuations to determine Boltzmann's constant from the voltage fluctuations in a capacitor. Resulted in a novel low-noise technique for amplifying voltages, as described in reference #25.

135

Schilpp 16; CP 2, 38

1907

Planckshe Theorie der Strahlung und die Theorie der Spezifischen Wrme Planck's Theory of Radiation and the Theory of Specific Heat

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 22, [54] 180190, 800 link and correction [55]

Schilpp 17; CP 2, 39

1907

Gltigkeit des Satzes vom thermodynamischen Gleichgewicht und die Mglichkeit einer neuen Bestimmung der Elementarquanta On the Limit of Validity of the Law of Thermodynamic Equilibrium and on the Possibility of a New Determination of the Elementary Quanta

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 22, [57] 569572, link

Schilpp 18; CP 2, 41

1907

Mglichkeit einer neuen Prfung des Relativittsprinzips On the Possibility of a New Test of the Relativity Principle

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 23, [59] 197198, link

[60] Special relativity. Einstein's discovery of the transverse Doppler effect, in which the perceived frequency is shifted even when the line between the wave source and receiver and the source's velocity are perpendicular.

Schilpp 19 1907

Bemerkung zur Notiz des Herrn P. Ehrenfest: Translation deformierbarer Elektronen und der Flchensatz Comments on the Note of Mr. Paul Ehrenfest: The Translatory Motion of Deformable Electrons and the Area Law

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 23, [61] 206208, link

[62] Special relativity. Discusses the difficulty of applying Lorentz transformations to rigid bodies.

Schilpp 20; CP 2, 45

1907

Die vom Relitivtsprinzip geforderte Trgheit der Energie On the Inertia of Energy Required by the Relativity Principle

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 23, [63] 371384, link

[64] Special relativity. First statement that the total energy of a moving particle equals E=mc2. Derives the transformation of energy and momentum under the influence of external forces (relativistic dynamics). Notes again the difficulty of applying Lorentz transformations to rigid bodies (see reference #19). Finally, speculates that Maxwell's equations will prove to be the limiting case for large numbers of light-quanta, just as thermodynamics is a limiting case of statistical mechanics.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

136
Beibltter zu den Annalen der Physik, 31, 251 Thermodynamics.

CP 2, 46

1907

Review of Jakob Johann Weyrauch: Grundriss der Wrmetheorie. Mit zahlreichen Beispielen und Anwendungen Review of Jakob Johann Weyrauch: An Outline of the Theory of Heat. With Numerous Examples and Applications. Part 2.

Schilpp 21; CP 2, 47

1907

Relativittsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It

Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitt, 4, [65] 411462, link

[66] Special and general relativity. A correction appeared in volume 5, pp.9899, Berichtigungen. First appearance (page 443) of 2 the equation E=mc . This paper also marks the beginning of Einstein's long development of general relativity; here he derives the equivalence principle, gravitational redshift, and the gravitational bending of light. Einstein returns to these topics in 1911. [67] Statistical mechanics. Brief note on the technical meaning of "average velocity".

Schilpp 22; CP 2, 40

1907

Theoretische Bemerkungen ber die Brownsche Bewegung Theoretical Remarks on Brownian Motion

Zeitschrift fr Elektrochemie und angewandte physikalische Chemie, 13, 4142

Schilpp 23; CP 2, 51

1908

Elektromagnetische Grundgleichungen fr bewegte Krper On the Fundamental Electromagnetic Equations for Moving Bodies

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 26, [110] 532540, link

[68] Special relativity. Co-authored with J. Laub. A correction appeared in volume 27, [69] p.232, Berichtigungen . See also publication #27.

Schilpp 24; CP 2, 52

1908

Die im elektromagnetischen Felde auf ruhende Krper ausgebten ponderomotorischen Krfte On the Ponderomotive Forces Exerted on Bodies at Rest in the Electromagnetic Field

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 26, [70] 541550, link

Special relativity. Laub.

[71]

Co-authored with J.

Schilpp 25; CP 2, 48

1908

Neue elektrostatische Methode zur Messung kleiner Elektrizittsmengen A New Electrostatic Method for the Measurement of Small Quantities of Electricity

Physikalische Zeitschrift, 9, 216217

[72] Electromagnetism. Novel experimental method for measuring tiny amounts of charge, by first charging a variable capacitor at low capacitance, then changing it to high capacitance and discharging it to another capacitor. An apparatus for this amplification was constructed by two brothers, Johann Conrad Habicht and Franz Paul Habicht, in collaboration with Einstein and published in Physikalische Zeitschrift, 11, 532 (1910).

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[73]

137
Zeitschrift fr Elektrochemie, 14, 235239

Schilpp 26; CP 2, 50

1908

Elementare Theorie der Brownschen Bewegung Elementary Theory of Brownian Motion

Statistical mechanics. review.

Semi-popular

Schilpp 27; CP 2, 54

1909

Bemerkungen zu unserer Arbeit: Elektromagnetische Grundgleichungen fr bewegte Krper Remarks on Our Paper: On the Fundamental Electromagnetic Equations for Moving Bodies

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 28, [74] 445447, link

Special relativity. Laub.

[68]

Co-authored with J.

Schilpp 28; CP 2, 55

1909

Bemerkung zur Arbeit von Mirimanoff: Die Grundgleichungen... Comment on the Paper of D. Mirimanoff: On the Fundamental Equations...

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 28, [75] 885888, link

[76] Special relativity. Notes similarity to Hermann Minkowski's work.

Schilpp 29; CP 2, 56

1909

Zum gegenwrtigen Stande des Strahlungsproblems On the Present Status of the Radiation Problem

Physikalische Zeitschrift, 10, 185193

[77] Photons. Review article on electromagnetic radiation, and an important forerunner of publication #30.

Schilpp 1909 29b; CP 2, 57

No title

Physikalische Zeitschrift, 10, 323324

[78] Photons. Einstein's joint communique with Walther Ritz (first author) on their differing viewpoints of the advanced and retarded solutions of Maxwell's equations. Einstein argues that the physical restriction to retarded solutions is not a law, but probabilistic; Ritz states that the same restriction is the basis of the 2nd law of thermodynamics. [79] Photons. Pivotal address before the 81st assembly of the Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher, held in Salzburg, where Einstein showed that photons must carry momentum and should be treated as particles. Notes that electromagnetic radiation must have a dual nature, at once both wave-like and particulate. Also published in the journal Deutsche physikalische Gesellschaft, Verhandlungen, 11, pp.482500. An English translation is available at the English Wikisource.

Schilpp 30; CP 2, 60

1909

Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen ber das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung On the Development of Our Views Concerning the Nature and Constitution of Radiation

Physikalische Zeitschrift, 10, 817825

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[81] Photons. Co-authored with L. Hopf. See also publication #79.

138

Schilpp 31; CP 3, 7

1910

ber einen Satz der Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 33, Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung 10961104, link [80] und seine Anwendung in der Strahlungstheorie On a Theorem of the Probability Calculus and Its Application in the Theory of Radiation

Schilpp 32; CP 3, 8

1910

Statistische Untersuchung der Bewegung eines Resonators in einem Strahlungsfeld Statistical Investigation of a Resonator's Motion in a Radiation Field

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 33, [82] 11051115, link

Photons.

[83]

Co-authored with L. Hopf.

Schilpp 33; CP 3, 9

1910

Theorie der Opaleszenz von homogenen Flssigkeiten und Flssigkeitsgemischen in der Nhe des kritischen Zustandes The Theory of the Opalescence of Homogeneous Fluids and Liquid Mixtures near the Critical State

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 33, [84] 12751298, link

Statistical mechanics. critical opalescence.

[85]

Seminal paper on

Schilpp 34; CP 3, 2

1910

Principe de relativit et ses consquences dans la physique moderne The Principle of Relativity and Its Consequences in Modern Physics

Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles (ser. 4), 29, 528, 125-244

[86] Special relativity. Translation by E. Guillaume, but does not correspond to reference #21.

Schilpp 35; CP 3, 5

1910

Thorie des quantits lumineuses et la question de la localisation de l'nergie lectromagnetique On the Theory of Light Quanta and the Question of the Localization of Electromagnetic Energy

Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles (ser. 4), 29, 525528

Photons.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[87] Electromagnetism.

139
Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles (ser. 4), 30, 323324

Schilpp 36; CP 3, 6

1910

Forces pondromotrices qui agissent sur les conducteurs ferromagntique disposs dans un champs magntique et parcourus par un courant On the Ponderomotive Forces Acting on Ferromagnetic Conductors Carrying a Current in a Magnetic Field

Schilpp 37; CP 3, 12

1911

Bemerkung zu dem Gesetz von Etvs Comment on Etvs's Law

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 34, [88] 165169, link

Intermolecular forces and fluid [89] mechanics.

Schilpp 38; CP 3, 13

1911

Beziehung zwischen dem elastischen Verhalten und der Spezifischen Wrme mit einatomigem Molekl A Relationship between Elastic Behavior and Specific Heat in Solids with a Monatomic Molecule

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 34, [90] 170174, link

[91] Specific heats. Einstein tries to connect a characteristic frequency in his 1907 theory of specific heats to the elastic properties of the solid. See also Bemerkung zu meiner Arbeit: 'Eine Beziehung zwischen dem elastischen [92] Verhalten ...' ", p. 590.

Schilpp 39; CP 3, 10

1911

Bemerkungen zu den P. Hertzschen Arbeiten: Mechanische Grundlagen der Thermodynamik Comments on P. Hertz's Papers: On the Mechanical Foundations of Thermodynamics

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 34, [93] 175176, link

Statistical mechanics.

[94]

Schilpp 40; CP 3, 14

1911

Berichtigung zu meiner Arbeit: Eine neue Bestimmung der Molekldimensionen Correction to My Paper: A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 34, [95] 591592, link

[96] Statistical mechanics. Correction to publication #11 that produces an excellent [97] estimate of the Avogadro constant.

Schilpp 41; CP 3, 21

1911

Elementare Betrachtungen ber die thermische Molekularbewegung in festen Krpern Elementary Observations on Thermal Molecular Motion in Solids

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 35, [98] 679694, link

[99] Specific heats. Recognizing that his 1907 model of specific heats is incorrect at very low temperatures, Einstein tries to improve it. The correct answer came a year later with the Debye model.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[101] General relativity. In this paper, Einstein resumes his development of general relativity, last discussed in 1907. Here, Einstein realizes that a new theory is needed to replace both special relativity and Newton's theory of gravitation. He also realizes that special relativity and the equivalence principle hold locally, not globally. [102] Special and (possibly) general relativity. An address given at the conference of the Zurich Society of Scientists. [103] Special relativity. Clears up confusion about the Lorentz contraction.

140

Schilpp 42; CP 3, 23

1911

Einfluss der Schwerkraft auf Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 35, die Ausbreitung des Lichtes 898908, link [100] On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light

Schilpp 43; CP 3, 17 Schilpp 44; CP 3, 22

1911

Relativittstheorie The Theory of Relativity

Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zrich, Vierteljahresschrift, 56, 114

1911

Zum Ehrenfestschen Paradoxon On the Ehrenfest Paradox

Physikalische Zeitschrift, 12, 509510

Schilpp 45; CP 4, 2 and 5

1912

Thermodynamische Begrndung des photochemischen quivalentgesetzes Thermodynamic Proof of the Law of Photochemical Equivalence

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 37, [104] 832838, link

[105] Statistical mechanics. See also volume 38, pp.881884, Nachtrag zu meiner Arbeit: 'Thermodynamische Begrndung des [106] photochemischen quivalentgesetzes'

Schilpp 46; CP 4, 3

1912

Lichtgeschwindigkeit und Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 38, Statik des Gravitationsfeldes 355369, link [107] The Speed of Light and the Statics of the Gravitational Field

[108] General relativity. First of two papers (see next entry for second) in the continuing development of general relativity (see reference #42). These two papers are the last in which Einstein allows time to be warped while keeping space flat (uncurved). In these papers, he realizes that the Lorentz transformations of special relativity must be generalized and that the new theory of gravitation must be non-linear, since gravitational energy can itself [109] gravitate. [111] General relativity. Second of two papers (see previous entry for first) in the continuing development of general relativity.

Schilpp 47; CP 4, 4

1912

Theorie des statischen Gravitationsfeldes On the Theory of the Static Gravitational Field

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 38, [110] 443458, link

Schilpp 48; CP 4, 6

1912

[113] Antwort auf eine Bemerkung Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 38, 888, link Photons. [112] von J. Stark: Anwendung des Planckschen Elementargesetzes Response to a Comment by J. Stark: 'On an Application of Planck's Fundamental Law...

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[114]

141

Schilpp 49; CP 4, 8

1912

Relativitt und Gravitation: Erwiderung auf eine Bemerkung von M. Abraham Relativity and Gravitation. Reply to a Comment by M. Abraham

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 38, [111] 10591064, link

General relativity.

Schilpp 50; CP 4, 9

1912

Bemerkung zu Abraham's vorangehender Auseinandersetzung: Nochmals Relativitt und Gravitation Comment on Abraham's Preceding Discussion 'Once Again, Relativity and Gravitation

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 39, 704, link General relativity. [115]

[116]

Schilpp 52; CP 4, 7

1912

Gibt es eine Gravitationswirkung die der elektromagnetischen Induktionswirkung analog ist? Is There a Gravitational Effect Which Is Analogous to Electrodynamic Induction?

Vierteljahrschrift fr gerichtliche Medizin (ser. 3), 44, 3740

General relativity.

[117]

Schilpp 53; CP 4, 13

1913

Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten Relativittstheorie und eine Theorie der Gravitation. I. Physikalischer Teil von A. Einstein II. Mathematischer Teil von M. Grossmann Outline of a Generalized Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of Gravitation. I. Physical Part by A. Einstein II. Mathematical Part by M. Grossmann

Zeitschrift fr Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225244, 245261

[118] General relativity. A breakthrough paper, written in collaboration with Marcel Grossmann, in which the single Newtonian scalar gravitational field is replaced by ten fields, which are the components of a symmetric, four-dimensional metric tensor. However, the correct equations describing these fields are not identified. Reviewed critically in reference #68. See also references #21, 42, 46 and 47.

Schilpp 54; CP 4, 11

1913

Einige Argumente fr die Annahme einer molekular Agitation beim absoluten Nullpunkt Some Arguments for the Assumption of Molecular Agitation at Absolute Zero

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 40, [119] 551560, link

[120] Specific heats. Co-authored with O. Stern. Einstein and Stern attempt to explain the specific heats of diatomic gases, such as molecular hydrogen, H2. Although qualitatively [121] correct, they are quantitatively inaccurate.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

Dduction thermodynamique Journal de physique (ser. 5), 3, 277282 Statistical mechanics.[122] Not a translation of de la loi de l'quivalence reference #45, but rather an address before the photochimique Socit Franaise de Physique, held on 27 March 1913. Thermodynamic Deduction of the Law of Photochemical Equivalence [123] General relativity. Address before the Swiss Society of Scientists on 9 September 1913. A rsum is printed in the Schweizerische naturforschende Gesellschaft, Verhandlungen, 1913 (part 2), pp.137138. History of physics. [124]

142

Schilpp 55; CP 4, 12

1913

Schilpp 56; CP 4, 16

1913

Physikalische Grundlagen einer Gravitationstheorie Physical Foundations of a Theory of Gravitation

Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zrich, Vierteljahrsschrift, 58, 284290

Schilpp 57; CP 4, 23 Schilpp 58; CP 4, 17

1913

Max Planck als Forscher Max Planck as Scientist

Naturwissenschaften, 1, 10771079

1913

Zum gegenwrtigen Stande des Gravitationsproblems On the Present State of the Problem of Gravitation

Physikalische Zeitschrift, 14, 12491266

[125] General relativity. Address on 21 September 1913 to the 85th Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher in Vienna. The discussion following Einstein's address is included in this citation. This review was also published in the Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und rzte, Verhandlungen, 1914, pp.324. A referat was also published in the journal Himmel und Erde, 26, pp.9093. [127] General relativity. Co-authored with A. D. Fokker. Shows that the competing field theory of Gunnar Nordstrm could be recast as a special case of the Einstein-Grossmann equations (see reference #53).

Schilpp 59; CP 4, 28

1914

Nordstrmsche Gravitationstheorie vom Standpunkt des absoluten Differentialkalkls Nordstm's Theory of Gravitation from the Point of View of the Absolute Differential Calculus

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 44, [126] 321328, link

Schilpp 60 1914

Bases physiques d'une thorie de la gravitation Physical Foundations of a Theory of Gravitation

Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles (ser. 4), 37, 512

General relativity. Guillaume.

[123]

Translated by E.

Schilpp 61 1914

Bemerkung zu P. Harzers Abhandlung: Die Mitfhrung des Lichtes in Glas und die Aberration Observation on P. Harzer's Article: Dragging of Light in Glass and Aberration

Astronomische Nachrichten, 199, 810, [128] link

Electromagnetism and special relativity.

[129]

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[129]

143

Schilpp 62 1914

Antwort auf eine Replik P. Harzers Answer to P. Harzer's Reply

Astronomische Nachrichten, 199, 4748, Electromagnetism and special relativity. [130] link

Schilpp 63 1914

Zum gegenwrtigen Stande des Problems der spezifischen Wrme On the Present Status of the Problem of Specific Heats

Deutsche Bunsengesellschaft, Abhandlungen, 7, 330364

Specific heats. German edition of reference #51; pages 353364 include the discussion following Einstein's address.

Schilpp 64; CP 6, 5

1914

Beitrge zur Quantentheorie Contributions to Quantum Theory

Deutsche physikalische Gesellschaft, Berichte, 1914, 820828

[131] Quantum mechanics. Reprinted in volume 16 of the Verhandlungen of the same society.

Schilpp 65; CP 4, 27

1914

Zur Theorie der Gravitation On the Theory of Gravitation

Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zrich, Vierteljahrsschrift, 59, 46

General relativity.

[132]

Schilpp 66 1914

Review of H. A. Lorentz: Das Relativittsprinzip Review of H. A. Lorentz: The Principle of Relativity

Naturwissenschaften, 2, 1018

Special and (possibly) general relativity.

[133]

Schilpp 67; CP 4, 24

1914

Nachtrgliche Antwort auf eine Frage von Reissner Supplementary Response to a Question by Mr. Reiner

Physikalische Zeitschrift, 15, 108110

[134] General relativity. Concerns the mass of a gravitational field itself.

Schilpp 68; CP 4, 25

1914

Principielles zur verallgemeinerten Relativittstheorie und Gravitationstheorie On the Foundations of the Generalized Theory of Relativity and the Theory of Gravitation

Physikalische Zeitschrift, 15, 176180

[135] General relativity. Reply to Gustav Mie on the relationship between reference #53 and Hermann Minkowski's work.

Schilpp 69; CP 6, 3

1914

Antrittsrede Inaugural Address

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1914 (pt. 2), 739742

General relativity.

[136]

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[137] General relativity. An important paper in the development of general relativity. Einstein still has not derived correct field equations, but he derives the geodesic motion of point particles, relates gravitational fields to rotation, and re-derives his 1907 results about the bending of light and gravitational redshift using the new metric tensor theory. Special and (possibly) general relativity. [138]

144
Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1914 (part 2), 10301085

Schilpp 70; CP 6, 9

1914

Formale Grundlage de allgemeinen Relativittstheorie Formal Foundations of the General Theory of Relativity

Schilpp 71; CP 4, 31

1914

Zum Relativittsproblem On the Relativity Problem

Scientia (Bologna), 15, 337348

Schilpp 72 1914

Physikalische Grundlagen und leitende Gedanken fr eine Gravitationstheorie Physical Foundations and Suggestive Thoughts for a Gravitational Theory

Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen naturforschenden Gesellschaft, 96 (pt. 2), 146

General relativity. Listed only by title; same lecture as publication #56.

Schilpp 73 1914

Gravitationstheorie Gravitational Theory

Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen naturforschenden Gesellschaft, 96 (pt. 2), 136137

General relativity. reference #56.

[123]

For full text, see

Schilpp 74; CP 6, 1

1914 April 26

Relativittsprinzip On the Principle of Relativity

Vossische Zeitung, 3334

Special and (possibly) general relativity.

[139]

Schilpp 75; CP 6, 2

1914

Kovarianzeigenschaften der Feldgleichungen der auf die verallgemeinerte Relativittstheorie gegrndeten Gravitationstheorie Covariance Properties of the Field Equations of the Theory of Gravitation Based on the Generalized Theory of Relativity

Zeitschrift fr Mathematik und Physik, 63, 215225

General relativity. Grossmann.

[140]

Co-authored with M.

Schilpp 78 1915

Proefondervindelijk bewijs voor het bestan der moleculaire stroomen von Ampre Experimental Proof of the Existence of Ampre's Molecular Currents

Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, Verslag. (ser. 4), 23, 14491464

Einstein-de Haas effect. with WJ de Haas.

[141]

Co-authored

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[143]

145

Schilpp 79; CP 6, 18

1915

Antwort auf eine Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 47, Abhandlung M. von Laues: 879885, link [142] Ein Satz der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung und seine Anwendung auf die Strahlungstheorie Response to a Paper by M. von Laue: A Theorem in Probability Calculus and Its Application to Radiation Theory

Photons.

Schilpp 80; CP 6, 23

1915

Experimenteller Nachweis des Ampreschen Molekularstrme Experimental Proof of Ampre's Molecular Currents

Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft, 17, 152170, 203 (Berichtigung), 420

Einstein-de Haas effect. with WJ de Haas.

[144]

Co-authored

Schilpp 81 1915

Experimenteller Nachweis des Ampreschen Molekularstrme Experimental Proof of Ampre's Molecular Currents

Naturwissenschaften, 3, 237238

Einstein-de Haas effect. with WJ de Haas.

[145]

Co-authored

Schilpp 82 1915

Grundgedanken der allgemeinen Relativittstheorie und Anwendung dieser Theorie in der Astronomie Fundamental Ideas of the General Theory of Relativity and the Application of this Theory in Astronomy

Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1915 (part 1), 315

General relativity.

[146]

Schilpp 83; CP 6, 21 and 22

1915

Zur allgemeinen Relativittstheorie On the General Theory of Relativity

Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1915 (part 2), 778786, 799801

[147] General relativity. Two of Einstein's four papers in November 1915 that led to the final field equations for general relativity. The first paper corrected a fundamental misconception and allowed Einstein to finish; however, the [148] second introduced a serious mistake. [149] General relativity. A pivotal paper in which Einstein shows that general relativity explains the anomalous precession of the planet Mercury, which had vexed astronomers since 1859. This paper also introduced the important calculational method, the post-Newtonian expansion. Einstein also calculated correctly (for the first time) the bending of light by gravity.

Schilpp 84; CP 6, 24

1915

Erklrung der Perihelbewegung des Merkur aus der allgemeinen Relativittstheorie Explanation of the Perihelion Motion of Mercury from the General Theory of Relativity

Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1915 (part 2), 831839

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[150] General relativity. This is the defining paper of general relativity. At long last, Einstein had found workable field equations, which served as the basis for subsequent derivations.

146
Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1915 (part 2), 844847

Schilpp 85; CP 6, 25

1915

Feldgleichungen der Gravitation The Field Equations of Gravitation

Schilpp 88; CP 6, 14 Schilpp 89; CP 6, 30

1916

Experimental proof of the existence of Ampre's molecular currents Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativittstheorie The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity

Proceedings of the Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, 18, [151] 696711,link Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 49, [153] 769822, link

[152] Einstein-de Haas effect. Co-authored with WJ de Haas; English translation of reference #80. General relativity. [154]

1916

Schilpp 90; CP 6, 40

1916

ber Fr. Kottlers Abhandlung: Einsteins quivalenzhypothese und die Gravitation On Friedrich Kottler's Paper: On Einstein's Equivalence Hypothesis and Gravitation

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 51, [155] 639642, link

General relativity.

[156]

Schilpp 91; CP 6, 28

1916

Einfaches Experiment zum Nachweis der Ampreschen Molekularstrme A Simple Experiment to Demonstrate Ampre's Molecular Currents

Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft, 18, 173177

Einstein-de Haas effect.

[157]

Schilpp 92; CP 6, 34

1916

Strahlungs-emission und -absorption nach der Quantentheorie Emission and Absorption of Radiation in Quantum Theory

Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft, 18, 318323

[158] Photons. Seminal paper in which Einstein showed that Planck's quantum hypothesis E = h could be derived from a kinetic rate equation. This paper introduced the idea of stimulated emission (which led to the laser and maser), and Einstein's A and B coefficients provided a guide for the development of quantum electrodynamics, the most accurately tested theory of physics at present. In this work, Einstein begins to realize that quantum mechanics seems to involve probabilities and a [159] breakdown of causality. [160] Photons. Following his 1909 address (reference #30), Einstein shows that photons must carry momentum if Planck's law is to hold. This was confirmed in 1923 by Compton scattering, for which the 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded and which led to the general acceptance to the photon concept.

Schilpp 93; CP 6, 38

1916

Quantentheorie der Strahlung On the Quantum Theory of Radiation

Mitteilungen der Physikalischen Gesellschaft, Zrich, 16, 4762

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[161]

147
Naturwissenschaften, 4, 480481

Schilpp 94; CP 6, 36

1916

Review of H. A. Lorentz: Thories statistiques en thermodynamique Review of H. A. Lorentz: Statistical Theories in Thermodynamics: Five Lectures...

Statistical mechanics.

Schilpp 95; CP 6, 39

1916

Elementare Theorie der Wasserwellen und des Fluges Elementary Theory of Water Waves and of Flight

Naturwissenschaften, 4, 509510

Fluid mechanics.

Schilpp 96; CP 6, 29 Schilpp 97; CP 6, 27

1916

Ernst Mach

Physikalische Zeitschrift, 17, 101104

History of physics.

[162]

1916

Neue formale Deutung der Maxwellschen Feldgleichungen der Elektrodynamik A New Formal Interpretation of Maxwell's Field Equations of Electrodynamics

Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1916 (part 1), 184187

Electromagnetism.

Schilpp 98 1916

Einige anschauliche berlegungen aus dem Gebiete der Relativittstheorie Some Intuitive Considerations from the Field of Relativity Theory

Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1916 (part 1), 423

[163] General relativity. Abstract of a paper (never published) dealing with the behavior of clocks and Foucault pendulums.

Schilpp 99; CP 6, 32

1916

Nherungsweise Integration der Feldgleichungen der Gravitation Approximative Integration of the Field Equations of Gravitation

Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1916 (part 1), 688696

General relativity.

[164]

Schilpp 100

1916

Gedchtnisrede auf Karl Schwarzschild Memorial Lecture on Karl Schwarzschild

Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1916 (part 1), 768770

History of physics.

[165]

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[166]

148
Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1916 (part 2), 11111116

Schilpp 1916 101; CP 6, 41

Hamiltonsches Prinzip und allgemeine Relativittstheorie Hamilton's Principle and the General Theory of Relativity

General relativity.

Schilpp 1917 103; CP 6, 45

Zum Quantensatz von Sommerfeld und Epstein On the Quantum Theorem of Sommerfeld and Epstein

Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, Verhandlungen, 19, 8292

[167] Quantum mechanics. Seminal paper for the Einstein-Brillouin-Keller method, which describes how to convert a classical system into its quantum mechanical analogue.

Schilpp 104

1917

Review of H. v. Helmholtz: Zwei Vortrge ber Goethe Review of Hermann von Helmholtz: Two Lectures on Goethe

Naturwissenschaften, 5, 675

History of physics.

[168]

Schilpp 105 Schilpp 106

1917

Marian von Smoluchowski

Naturwissenschaften, 5, 737738

History of physics. [170]

[169]

1917

Quantentheorie der Strahlung On the Quantum Theory of Radiation

Physikalische Zeitschrift, 18, 121128

Photons.

Schilpp 1917 107; CP 6, 43

Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativittstheorie Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity

Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1917 (part 1), 142152

[171] General relativity. This seminal paper marks the beginning of physical cosmology. Under certain simplifying assumptions, general relativity describes the birth, the expansion and the ultimate fate of the Universe.

Schilpp 1917 108; CP 6, 47

Eine Ableitung des Theorems von Jacobi A Derivation of Jacobi's Theorem

Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1917 (part 2), 606608

Mathematical physics.

[172]

Schilpp 109

1917 May 23

Friedrich Adler als Physiker Friedrich Adler as a Physicist

Die Vossische Zeitung, Morgen Ausgabe, no. 259, 2

History of physics.

[173]

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[175]

149

Schilpp 1918 112; CP 7, 4

Prinzipielles zur allgemeinen Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 55, [174] Relativittstheorie 241244, link On the Foundations of the General Theory of Relativity

General relativity.

Schilpp 1918 113; CP 7, 6

Lassen sich Brechungsexponenten der Krper fr Rntgenstrahlen experimentell ermitteln? Is It Possible to Determine Experimentally the X-Ray Refractive Indices of Solids?

Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft, 20, 8687

Electromagnetism.

Schilpp 1918 114; CP 7, 15

Bemerkung zu Gehrckes Notiz: ber den ther Comment on E. Gehrcke's Note: On the Aether

Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft, 20, 261

Special and general relativity.

Schilpp 1918 115; CP 7, 10

Review of H. Weyl: Raum, Zeit, Materie Review of Hermann Weyl, Space-Time-Matter: Lectures on General Relativity

Naturwissenschaften, 6, 373

Special and general relativity.

[176]

Schilpp 1918 116; CP 7, 13

Dialog ber Einwnde gegen Naturwissenschaften, 6, 697702 die Relativittstheorie Dialogue about Objections to the Theory of Relativity

Special and general relativity.

[163]

Schilpp 1918 117; CP 7, 2

Notiz zu Schrdingers Physikalische Zeitschrift, 19, 115116 Arbeit: Energiekomponenten des Gravitationsfeldes Note on E. Schrdinger's Paper: The Energy Components of the Gravitational Field

General relativity.

[177]

Schilpp 1918 118; CP 7, 3

Bemerkung zu Schrdingers Notiz: Lsungssystem der allgemein kovarianten Gravitationsgleichungen Comment on Schrdinger's Note: On a System of Solutions for the Generally Covariant Gravitational Field Equations

Physikalische Zeitschrift, 19, 165166

General relativity.

[177]

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[178] General relativity. The first prediction of gravitational waves. Such gravitational radiation has been observed indirectly, for which the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded. General relativity. [179]

150
Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1918 (part 1), 154167

Schilpp 1918 119; CP 7, 1

Gravitationswellen On Gravitational Waves

Schilpp 1918 120; CP 7, 5

Kritisches zu einer von Hrn. de Sitter gegebenen Lsung der Gravitationsgleichungen Critical Comment on a Solution of the Gravitational Field Equations Given by Mr. De Sitter

Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1918 (part 1), 270272

Schilpp 1918 121; CP 7, 9

Der Energiesatz in der allgemeinen Relativittstheorie The Law of Energy Conservation in the General Theory of Relativity

Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte, 1918 (part 1), 448459

General relativity.

[180]

Schilpp 122

1919

Prfung der allgemeinen Relativittstheorie A Test of the General Theory of Relativity

Naturwissenschaften, 7, 776

General relativity.

[181]

Schilpp 1919 123; CP 7, 17

Spielen Gravitationsfelder im Aufbau der materiellen Elementarteilchen eine wesentliche Rolle? Do Gravitational Fields Play an Essential Role in the Structure of the Elementary Particles of Matter?

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1919 (pt. 1), 349356

[182] General relativity. Suggests a modification of his field equations to allow for stable elementary particles.

Schilpp 1919 124; CP 7, 18

Bemerkungen ber periodische Schwankungen der Mondlnge, welche bisher nach der Newtonschen Mechanik nicht erklrbar schienen Comment about Periodical Fluctuations of Lunar Longitude, Which So Far Appeared to Be Inexplicable in Newtonian Mechanics

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1919 (pt. 1), 433436

General relativity.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[182]

151
Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1919 (pt. 1), 463 (Title only)

Schilpp 125

1919

Feldgleichungen der allgemeinen Relativittstheorie vom Standpunkte des kosmologischen Problems und des Problems der Konstitution der Materie Field Equations of the General Theory of Relativity in Respect to the Cosmological Problem and the Problem of the Constitution of Matter

General relativity.

Schilpp 1919 My theory 126; CP 7, November 26 28

Times, London, 13

[183] General relativity. Re-published in 1919 as "Time, space and gravitation" in Optician, the British optical journal, volume 58, pages 187188. History of physics. [184]

Schilpp 1919 127; CP 7, 24 Schilpp 132 1920

Leo Arons als Physiker Leo Arons as Physicist

Sozialistische Monatshefte, 52 (Jahrgang 25, pt. 2), 10551056

Bemerkung zur Abhandlung Kolloidzeitschrift, 27, 137 von W. R. Hess: Theorie der Viscositt heterogener Systeme Comment on the Paper by W. R. Hess: Contribution to the Theory of the Viscosity of Heterogeneous Systems

Intermolecular forces.

[185]

Schilpp 133

1920

Naturwissenschaften, 8, 10101011 Inwiefern lsst sich die moderne Gravitationstheorie ohne die Relativitt begrnden? To What Extent Can Modern Gravitational Theory Be Established without Relativity?

General relativity.

[175]

Schilpp 134

1920

Trgheitsmoment des Wasserstoffmolekls Moment of Inertia of the Hydrogen Molecule

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1920, 65

Intermolecular forces. never-published paper.

[186]

Abstract of

Schilpp 1920 135; CP 7, 39

Schallausbreitung in Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen teilweise dissoziierten Gasen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1920, 380385 Propagation of Sound in Partly Dissociated Gases

Intermolecular forces.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[187]

152
Berliner Tageblatt und Handelszeitung, no. 402, 12

Schilpp 1920 Meine Antwort ber die 136; CP 7, August 27 antirelativittstheoretische 45 G.m.b.H. My Response on the Anti-Relativity Company

Special and general relativity.

Schilpp 1921 147; CP 7, 53 Schilpp 148 1921

A brief outline of the Nature, 106, 782784 development of the theory of relativity Geometrie und Erfahrung Geometry and Experience Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1921 (pt. 1), 123130 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1921 (pt. 1), 261264

History of physics. Lawson.

[188]

Translated by R. W.

General relativity.

[189]

Schilpp 1921 149; CP 7, 54

Eine naheliegende Ergnzung des Fundaments der allgemeinen Relativittstheorie On a Natural Addition to the Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity

General relativity.

[190]

Schilpp 1921 150; CP 7, 68

Ein den Elementarprozess der Lichtemission betreffendes Experiment On an Experiment Concerning the Elementary Process of Light Emission

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1921 (pt. 2), 882883

Photons.

[191]

Schilpp 151

1921

Report of a lecture at King's College on the development and present position of relativity, with quotations

Nation and Athenaeum, 29, 431432

Special and general relativity. The German text is reproduced in Mein Weltbild (pp.215220); a full translation is found in The world as I see it. It was also reported in Nature (107, p.504) and also in the Times (London) on 14 June, p.8. General relativity. [193]

Schilpp 159

1922

Bemerkung zur Seletyschen Arbeit: Beitrge zum kosmologischen Problem Observation of the Paper of Selety: Contributions to the Cosmological Problem

Annalen der Physik (ser. 4), 69, [192] 436438, link

Schilpp 160

1922

Review of W. Pauli: Relativittstheorie Review of W. Pauli: Relativity Theory

Naturwissenschaften, 10, 184185

Special and general relativity.

[194]

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[195]

153
Naturwissenschaften, 10, 823828

Schilpp 161

1922

Emil Warburg als Forscher Emil Warburg as Researcher

History of physics.

Schilpp 162

1922

Theorie der Lichtfortpflanzung in dispergierenden Medien Theory of the Propagation of Light in Dispersive Media

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phys.-math. Klasse, 1922, 1822

[196] Electromagnetism.

Schilpp 163

1922

Bemerkung zu der Abhandlung von E. Trefftz: Statische Gravitationsfeld zweier Massenpunkte Observation on the Work of E. Trefftz: Static Gravitational Field of Two Point Masses

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phys.-math. Klasse, 1922, 448449

General relativity.

Schilpp 164

1922

Quantentheoretische Bemerkungen zum Experiment von Stern und Gerlach Quantum Mechanical Observations on the Experiment of Stern and Gerlach

Zeitschrift fr Physik, 11, 3134

Quantum mechanics. Paul Ehrenfest.

[197]

Co-authored with

Schilpp 165

1922

Bemerkung zu der Arbeit von A. Friedmann: ber die Krmmung des Raumes Observation on the Paper of A. Friedmann: On the Curvature of Space

Zeitschrift fr Physik, 11, 326

[198] General relativity. Einstein withdrew this self-criticism in 1922 in the same journal Zeitschrift fr Physik, volume 16, p.228.

Schilpp 170

1923

Bemerkung zu der Notiz von Astronomische Nachrichten, 219, 19 W. Anderson: Neue Erklrung des kontinuierlichen Koronaspektrums Observation on the Note of W. Anderson: New Explanation of the Continuous Spectrum of the Corona

Solar physics.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[199]

154

Schilpp 171

1923

Experimentelle Bestimmung Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 49, 10121013 der Kanalweite von Filtern Experimental Determination of the Pore Diameter in Filters

Fluid mechanics. Mhsam.

Co-authored with H.

Schilpp 172

1923

Beweis der Nichtexistenz eines berall regulren zentrisch symmetrischen Feldes nach der Feldtheorie von Kaluza Proof of the Non-Existence of an Everywhere-Regular Centrally Symmetric Field According to the Field Theory of Kaluza

Jerusalem University, Scripta, 1 (no. 7), 15

[200] Classical unified field theories. Co-authored with J. Grommer; also given in Hebrew.

Schilpp 173

1923

Theory of the affine field

Nature, 112, 448449

[201] Classical unified field theories. Translated by RW Lawson, but does not correspond to publication #175. Relatively non-mathematical. General relativity. [202]

Schilpp 174

1923

Zur allgemeinen Relativittstheorie On the General Theory of Relativity

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1923, 3238, 7677

Schilpp 175

1923

Zur affinen Feldtheorie On Affine Field Theory

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1923, 137140 Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1923, 359364

Classical unified field theories.

[203]

Schilpp 176

1923

Bietet die Feldtheorie Mglichkeiten fr die Lsung des Quantenproblems? Does Field Theory Offer Possibilities for Solving the Quantum Problem?

Classical unified field theories.

[204]

Schilpp 177

1923

Thorie de relativit Theory of Relativity

Socit franaise de philosophie, Bulletin, 22, 9798, 101, 107, 111112

Special and general relativity. full in Nature, 112, p.253.

[205]

Quoted in

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[206]

155
Zeitschrift fr Physik, 19, 301306

Schilpp 178

1923

Quantentheorie des Strahlungsgleichgewichts Quantum Theory of the Equilibrium of Radiation

Photons.

Co-authored with Paul Ehrenfest.

Schilpp 181

1924

Antwort auf eine Bemerkung Astronomische Nachrichten, 221, 329330 von W. Anderson Response to an Observation of W. Anderson [207] Photons. Experiment showing that photons could carry momentum; for many physicists, this experiment was conclusive proof that photons were particles. History of physics. [208]

Schilpp 182

1924 April 20

Komptonsche Experiment The Compton Experiment

Berliner Tageblatt, 1. Beiblatt

Schilpp 184

1924

Zum hundertjhrigen Gedenkag von Lord Kelvins Geburt On the 100th Anniversary of Lord Kelvin's Birth

Naturwissenschaften, 12, 601602

Schilpp 185

1924

Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases Quantum Theory of the Monatomic Ideal Gas

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1924, 261267

[209] Photons and statistical mechanics. First of two seminal papers (see reference #194), in which Einstein creates the theory of identical particles in quantum mechanics. In 1924, Satyendra Nath Bose derived Planck's law of black-body radiation from a modification of [210] coarse-grained counting of phase space. Einstein shows that this modification is equivalent to assuming that photons are rigorously identical, leading to the concept of coherent states. Einstein also extends Bose's formalism to material particles (bosons), predicting that they condense at sufficiently low [211] temperatures, as verified experimentally. History of physics. [212] Historical overview.

Schilpp 186

1924

ber den ther On the Aether

Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen naturforschenden Gesellschaft, 105 (pt. 2), 8593

Schilpp 187

1924

Theorie der Radiometerkrfte Theory of Radiometer Forces

Zeitschrift fr Physik, 27, 16

Statistical mechanics. Treatment of the physics of radiometers, a science toy.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[213]

156
Zeitschrift fr Physik, 27, 392392

Schilpp 188

1924

[Note appended to a paper by Bose entitled "Wrmegleichgewicht im Strahlungsfeld bei Anwesenheit von Materie"] Thermal Equilibrium in the Radiation Field in the Presence of Matter

Photons.

Schilpp 193

1925

Elektron und allgemeine Reltivittstheorie The Electron and The General Theory of Relativity

Physica, 5, 330334

General relativity.

[214]

Schilpp 194

1925

Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases. 2. Abhandlung Quantum Theory of the Monatomic Ideal Gas, Part II

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin), Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1925, 314

[215] Photons and statistical mechanics. Second of two seminal articles on identical particles, bosons and Bose-Einstein condensation; see reference #185 for the first.

Schilpp 195

1925

Quantentheorie des idealen Gases Quantum theory of Ideal Gases

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin), Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1925, 1825

Photons and statistical mechanics.

[216]

Schilpp 196

1925

Einheitliche Feldtheorie von Gravitation und Elektrizitt Unified Field Theory of Gravity and Electricity

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin), Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1925, 414419

Classical unified field theories.

[217]

Schilpp 197

1925

Bemerkung zu P. Jordans Abhandlung: Theorie der Quantenstrahlung Observation on P. Jordan's Work: Theory of Quantum Radiation

Zeitschrift fr Physik, 31, 784785

Photons.

[218]

Schilpp 199

1926

W. H. Julius, 18601925

Astrophysical Journal, 63, 196198

History of physics.

[219]

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[220]

157

Schilpp 200

1926

Ursache der Manderbildung Naturwissenschaften, 14, 223224 der Flusslufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes Origin of River-Meanders and the So-Called Law of Baer

Earth science. rivers.

The physics of meandering

Schilpp 201

1926

Naturwissenschaften, 14, 300301 Vorschlag zu einem die Natur des elementaren Strahlungs-emissions-prozesses betreffenden Experiment Suggestion for an Experiment Concerning the Nature of the Elementary Process of Emitting Light

Photons.

[221]

Schilpp 202

1926

Interferenzeigenschaften des Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, durch Kanalstrahlen Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, emittierten Lichtes 1926, 334340 Interference Properties of Light Emitted by Canal Rays

[222] Photons. Supposedly verified experimentally by Rupp in the paper following it in the journal (pp.341351); later, it came out that Rupp was a fraud.

Schilpp 203

1926

Geometra no eucldea y fisica Non-Euclidean Geometry and Physics

Revista matemtica Hispano-americana (ser. 2), 1, 7276

General relativity.

Schilpp 205

1927

Forschungen und Fortschritte, 3, 3637 Einfluss der Erdbewegung auf die Lichtgeschwindigkeit relativ zur Erde Influence of the Earth's Motion on the Speed of Light Relative to Earth

Special relativity.

[223]

Schilpp 206

1927

Formale Beziehung des Riemannschen Krmmungstensors zu den Feldgleichungen der Gravitation Formal Relationship of the Riemannian Curvature Tensor to the Field Equations of Gravity

Mathematische Annalen, 97, 99103

General relativity.

[224]

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

158
Manchester Guardian Weekly, 16, 234235 History of physics. Reprinted in the Manchester Guardian (19 March 1927); Observatory, 50, 146153; Smithsonian Institution, Report for 1927, 201207. History of physics. [225]

Schilpp 207

1927

Isaac Newton

Schilpp 208

1927

Newtons Mechanik und ihr Einfluss auf die Gestaltung der theoretischen Physik Newton's Mechanics and its Influence on the Formation of Theoretical Physics

Naturwissenschaften, 15, 273276

Schilpp 209

1927

Zu Newtons 200. Todestage On the 200th Anniversary of Newton's Death

Nord und Sd, Jahrg. 50, 3640

History of physics.

Schilpp 210

1927

[Letter to the Royal Society on the occasion of the Newton bicentennary] Establishment of an international bureau of meteorology Kaluzas Theorie des Zusammenhanges von Gravitation und Elektrizitt Kaluza's Theory of the Connection between Gravity and Electricity

Nature, 119, 467

[226] History of physics. Also published in Science, 65, 347348. [227]

Schilpp 211

1927

Science, 65, 415417

Meteorology.

Schilpp 212

1927

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1927, 2330

Classical unified field theories.

[228]

Schilpp 213

1927

Allgemeine Relativittstheorie und Bewegungsgesetz General Theory of Relativity and the Law of Motion

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1927, 213, 235245

[229] General relativity. The first part (pp.213) was co-authored with J. Grommer.

Schilpp 214

1927

Theoretisches und Experimentelles zur Frage der Lichtentstehung Theoretical and Experimental [Aspects] to the Question of the Generation of Light

Zeitschrift fr angewandte Chemie, 40, 546

Photons.

[230]

Schilpp 216

1928

H. A. Lorentz

Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Bltter, 22, 2425

[231] History of physics. Abstract of an address given at a memorial service at Leiden University. Reprinted in Mein Weltbild (The world as I see it), p.25.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[232]

159
Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1928, 217221

Schilpp 217

1928

Riemanngeometrie mit Aufrechterhaltung des Begriffes des Fern-Parallelismus Riemannian Geometry with Preservation of the Concept of Distant Parallelism

Classical unified field theories.

Schilpp 218

1928

Neue Mglichkeit fr eine einheitliche Feldtheorie von Gravitation und Elektrizitt New Possibility for a Unified Field Theory of Gravity and Electricity

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1928, 224227

Classical unified field theories.

[233]

Schilpp 219

1928

propos de "La dduction relativiste" de M. E. Meyerson Concerning "The Relativistic Deeduction" by M. E. Meyerson

Revue philosophique de la France, 105, 161166

Special and general relativity.

[234]

Schilpp 222

1929

Ansprache an Prof. Planck [bei Entgegennahme der Planckmedaille] Address to Prof. Planck [upon receiving the Planck medal]

Forschungen und Fortschritte, 5, 248249

History of physics.

[235]

Schilpp 223

1929

[Quotation from an interview with (London) Daily Chronicle (26 January 1929) on the unitary field theory, in advance of publication #226] [Note appended to a reprinting of Arago's Memorial address on Thomas Young before the French Academy] The new field theory

Nature, 123, 175

Classical unified field theories.

Schilpp 224

1929

Naturwissenschaften, 17, 363

History of physics.

[236]

Schilpp 225

1929 February 4 1929

Times (London)

Classical unified field theories. Translated by L. L. Whyte. Reprinted in the Observatory, 52, 8287, 114118 (1930). Classical unified field theories. [237]

Schilpp 226

Einheitliche Feldtheorie Unified Field Theory

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1929, 27

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[238]

160
Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1929, 156159

Schilpp 227

1929

Einheitliche Feldtheorie und Hamiltonsches Prinzip Unified Field Theory and Hamilton's Principle

Classical unified field theories.

Schilpp 228

1929

Sur la thorie synththique des champs On the Unified Theory of Fields

Revue gnrale de l'lectricit, 25, 3539

Classical unified field theories. Co-authored with Thophile de Donder.

Schilpp 229 Schilpp 230

1929

Appreciation of Simon Newcomb Sesin especial de la Academia (16 abril 1925) Special Session of the Scientific Society of Argentina

Science, 69, 249

[239] History of physics. Translation of a letter to Newcomb's daughter dated 15 July 1926. Special and general relativity. Einstein's discussions with RG Loyarte on mass-energy equivalence and with H Damianovich on the relevance of relativity for a proposed "chemical field".

1929

Sociedad cientifica Argentina, Anales, 107, 337347

Schilpp 232

1930 ber Kepler November 9 On Kepler

Frankfurter Zeitung, p.16, col. 34

[240] History of physics. The text is reprinted in Mein Weltbild and its English translation The world as I see it (in German and English, respectively). Special and general relativity. A widely reported address, e.g., in Dinglers polytechnisches journal, 345, p.122.

Schilpp 233

1930

World power conference, 2nd, Berlin, Raum-, Feld- und ther-problem in der Physik 1930. Transactions, 19, 15 The Problems of Space, Fields and Aether in Physics

Schilpp 234

1930

Raum, ther und Feld in der Forum Philosophicum, 1, 173180 Physik Space, Aether and Field in Physics

[241] Special and general relativity. An English translation by ES Brightman was provided in the same volume, pp.180184. Similar to #233, but different from the article "Das Raum-, ther-, und Feld-problem der Physik" reprinted in Mein Weltbild (The world as I see it), pp.229248. Classical unified field theories. [242]

Schilpp 235

1930

Thorie unitaire du champ physique Unified theory of the physical field

Annales de l'Institut H. Poincar, 1, 124

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[243]

161

Schilpp 236

1930

Auf die Riemann-Metrik und Mathematische Annalen, 102, 685697 den Fern-Parallelismus gegrndete einheitliche Feldtheorie A Unified Field Theory Based on the Riemannian Metric and Distant Parallelism

Classical unified field theories.

Schilpp 237

1930

Das Raum-Zeit Problem The Space-Time Problem

Die Koralle, 5, 486488

Special and general relativity.

[244]

Schilpp 238

1930

Review of S. Weinberg: Erkenntnistheorie Review of S. Weinberg: Theory of Knowledge

Naturwissenschaften, 18, 536

History of physics.

[245]

Schilpp 239

1930

Kompatibilitt der Feldgleichungen in der einheitlichen Feldtheorie Consistency of the Field Equations in the Unified Field Theory

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1930, 1823

Classical unified field theories.

[246]

Schilpp 240

1930

Zwei strenge statische Lsungen der Feldgleichungen der einheitlichen Feldtheorie Two Strictly Static Solutions of the Field Equations of the Unified Field Theory

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1930, 110120

Classical unified field theories. Co-authored with W. Mayer.

[247]

Schilpp 241

1930

Theorie der Rume mit Riemannmetrik und Fernparallelismus Theory of Spaces with a Riemannian Metric and Distant Parallelism

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1930, 401402

Classical unified field theories.

[248]

Schilpp 242

1930

Address at University of Nottingham

Science, 71, 608610

[249] Special and general relativity. A survey of relativity theory (special and general) and of field theory in general. A precis of the talk was published in Nature, 125, pp.897898, under the title "Concept of space".

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[250] General relativity. An English translation by Prof. Leigh Page of Yale University was provided on pages 710. Interestingly, this was neither a scientific talk nor a typical scientific paper; rather, a Yale graduate convinced Einstein to write the summary by longhand; the manuscript is still housed at Yale.

162
Yale University Library, Gazette, 6, 36

Schilpp 243

1930

ber den gegenwrtigen Stand der allgemeinen Relativittstheorie On the Present Status of the General Theory of Relativity

Schilpp 247

1931

Theory of Relativity: Its Formal Content and Its Present Problems

Nature, 127, 765, 790, 826827

Special and general relativity. Rhodes lectures delivered at Oxford University in May 1931.

Schilpp 248 Schilpp 249

1931

Knowledge of past and Physical Review (ser. 2), 37, future in quantum mechanics 780781,link [251] Zum kosmologischen Problem der allgemeinen Relativittstheorie On the Cosmological Problem of the General Theory of Relativity Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1931, 235237

[252] Quantum mechanics. Co-authored with R. C. Tolman and B. Podolosky. [253] General relativity. Proposed a "cosmological constant."

1931

Schilpp 250

1931

Systematische Untersuchung ber kompatible Feldgleichungen welche in einem Riemannschen Raume mit Fern-Parallelismus gesetzt werden knnen Systematic Investigation of Consistent Field Equations That Can Be Posited in a Riemannian Space with Distant Parallelism

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1931, 257265

Classical unified field theories. Co-authored with W. Mayer.

[254]

Schilpp 251

1931

Einheitliche Feldtheorie von Gravitation und Elektrizitt Unified Field Theory of Gravity and Electricity

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1931, 541557

Classical unified field theories. Co-authored with W. Mayer.

[255]

Schilpp 252 Schilpp 253

1931

Thomas Alva Edison, 18471931 Gravitational and electrical fields [Translation of a preliminary report for the Josiah Macy, Jr. foundation] [Reply to congratulatory addresses at a dinner given by the California Institute of Technology on 15 January 1931]

Science, 74, 404405

History of physics.

[256]

1931

Science, 74, 438439

Classical unified field theories.

[257]

Schilpp 254

1931

Science, 73, 379

History of physics.

[258]

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[259]

163
Zeitschrift fr angewandte Chemie, 44, 658

Schilpp 255

1931

Gedenkworte auf Albert A. Michelson In Remembrance of Albert A. Michelson

History of physics.

Schilpp 258

1932

On the relation between the expansion and the mean density of the universe

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 18, 213214

General relativity. Willem de Sitter.

[260]

Co-authored with

Schilpp 259

1932

Zu Dr. Berliners siebzigstem Naturwissenschaften, 20, 913 Geburtstag On Dr. Berliner's 70th Birthday

[261] History of physics. Reprinted in Mein Weltbild (The world as I see it), pp.2932.

Schilpp 260

1932

Gegenwrtiger Stand der Relativittstheorie Present Status of Relativity Theory

Die Quelle (now called Paedogogischer Fhrer), 82, 440442

General relativity.

[262]

Schilpp 261

1932

Einheitliche Feldtheorie von Gravitation und Elektrizitt, 2. Abhandlung Unified Field Theory of Gravity and Electricity, Part II

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1932, 130137

Classical unified field theories. Co-authored with W. Mayer.

[263]

Schilpp 262

1932

Semi-Vektoren und Spinoren Semi-Vectors and Spinors

Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische Klasse, 1932, 522550

Mathematics. Mayer.

[264]

Co-authored with W.

Schilpp 263

1932

Unbestimmtheitsrelation Uncertainty Relations

Zeitschrift fr angewandte Chemie, 45, 23

Quantum mechanics.

[265]

Schilpp 267

1933

Dirac Gleichungen fr Semi-Vektoren Dirac Equations for Semi-Vectors

Akademie van wetenschappen (Amsterdam), Proceedings, 36 (pt. 2), 497?

Quantum mechanics. W. Mayer.

[266]

Co-authored with

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[267]

164
Akademie van wetenschappen (Amsterdam), Proceedings, 36 (pt. 2), 615619

Schilpp 268

1933

Spaltung der natrlichsten Feldgleichungen fr Semi-Vektoren in Spinor-Gleichungen vom Diracschen Typus Division of the Most Natural Field-Equations for Semi-Vectors in Spinor Equations of the Dirac Type

Quantum mechanics. W. Mayer.

Co-authored with

Schilpp 270

1934

Darstellung der Semi-Vektoren als gewhnliche Vektoren von besonderem Differentiations Charakter Representation of Semi-Vectors as Ordinary Vectors with Unusual Differentiation Properties

Annals of mathematics (ser. 2), 35, 104110

Mathematics. Mayer.

[268]

Co-authored with W.

Schilpp 271

1934

Review of R. Tolman: Relativity, thermodynamics and cosmology

Science, 80, 358

Special and general relativity.

[269]

Schilpp 272

1935

Elementary derivation of the Bulletin of the American Mathematical [270] equivalence of mass and Society, 41, 223230,link energy Can quantum-mechanical description of physical reality be considered complete? The particle problem in the general theory of relativity Physik und Realitt Physics and Reality Physical Review (ser. 2), 47, [272] 777780,link

Special relativity.

[271]

Schilpp 273

1935

[273] Quantum mechanics. Co-authored with B. Podolsky and N. Rosen.

Schilpp 274 Schilpp 275

1935

Physical Review (ser. 2), 48, 7377

General relativity. Rosen.

[274]

Co-authored with N.

1936

Franklin Institute, Journal, 221, 313347

[275] Quantum mechanics. An English translation (by J Picard) is provided on pages 349382. Also reprinted in Zeitschrift fr freie deutsche Forschung, 1, no. 1, pp.519 and no. 2, pp.114 (1938). General relativity. Rosen. General relativity. [276] Co-authored with N.

Schilpp 276 Schilpp 277

1936

Two-body problem in general relativity theory Lens-like action of a star by deviation of light in the gravitational field On gravitational waves

Physical Review (ser. 2), 49, 404405

1936

Science, 84, 506507

[277]

Schilpp 278

1937

Journal of the Franklin Institute, 223, 4354

[278] General relativity. Co-authored with N. Rosen. This important paper established that gravitational waves are possible despite the nonlinear nature of the Einstein field equations. Interestingly, Einstein and Rosen originally [279] reached the opposite conclusion !

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[280] General relativity. Co-authored with L. Infeld and B. Hoffmann. Classical unified field theories. Co-authored with P. Bergmann. General relativity. [282] [281]

165
Annals of Mathematics (ser. 2), 39, 65100 Annals of mathematics (ser. 2), 39, 683701 Annals of Mathematics (ser. 2), 40, 922936

Schilpp 283 Schilpp 284 Schilpp 285

1938

Gravitational equations and the problems of motion Generalization of Kaluza's theory of electricity Stationary system with spherical symmetry consisting of many gravitating masses Gravitational equations and the problems of motion. II Considerations concerning the fundamentals of theoretical physics Demonstration of the non-existence of gravitational fields with a non-vanishing total mass free of singularities The work and personality of Walter Nernst Non-existence of regular stationary solutions of relativistic field equations Bivector fields, I

1938

1939

Schilpp 286 Schilpp 287

1940

Annals of Mathematics (ser. 2), 41, 455464 Science, 91, 487492

General relativity. Infeld.

[283]

Co-authored with L.

1940

[284] History of physics. Partly reprinted in Nature, 145, 920924. [285]

Schilpp 290

1941

Tucumn universidad nac., Revista (ser. A), 2, 1116

General relativity.

Schilpp 292 Schilpp 293

1942

Scientific Monthly, 54, 195196

History of physics.

[286]

1943

Annals of Mathematics (ser. 2), 44, 131137

General relativity. Wolfgang Pauli.

[287]

Co-authored with

Schilpp 295 Schilpp 296 Schilpp 298 Schilpp 299

1944

Annals of mathematics (ser. 2), 45, 114 Mathematics.[288] Co-authored with V. Bargmann. Annals of mathematics (ser. 2)296, 45, 1523 American Scholar, 14, 137156, 269 (correction) Annals of mathematics (ser. 2), 46, 578584 Mathematics. [289]

1944

Bivector fields, II

1945

On the cosmological problem Generalization of the relativistic theory of gravitation Influence of the expansion of space on the gravitation fields surrounding the individual stars Generalization of the relativistic theory of gravitation, II

General relativity. A pre-printing of the appendix to publication #297. Classical unified field theories. [290]

1945

Schilpp 300

1945

Reviews of modern physics, 17, 120124 General relativity.[291] Co-authored with E. G. Straus. Corrections and additions, ibid., 18, 148149 (1946). Annals of mathematics (ser. 2), 47, 731741 [292]

Schilpp 301

1946

Classical unified field theories. Co-authored with E. G. Straus.

Schilpp 302

1946

Elementary derivation of the Technion Journal, 5, 1617,link [293] equivalence of mass and energy

[294] Special relativity. Novel, simplified derivation in the Yearbook of American Society for Advancement of the Hebrew Institute of Technology in Haifa. Also published in Hebrew in 1947, in the Scientific Publications of Hebrew Technical College (Institute of Technology) in Haifa.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[295]

166
Dialectica, 2, 320324

Schilpp 307

1948

Quantenmechanik und Wirklichkeit Quantum mechanics and reality

Quantum mechanics.

Schilpp 308 Schilpp 309 Schilpp 310

1948

Generalized theory of gravitation Motion of particles in general relativity theory Dem Gedchtnis Max Plancks In memory of Max Planck

Reviews of modern physics, 20, 3539

Classical unified field theories. [297]

[296]

1949

Canadian Journal of Mathematics, 1, 209241 Angewandte Chimie, 61, U114

General relativity. Infeld.

Co-authored with L.

1949

History of physics.

Schilpp 311

1950

The Bianchi Identities in the Generalized Theory of Gravitation On the General Theory of Gravitation The Advent of the Quantum Theory A Comment on a Criticism of Unified Field Theory Algebraic Properties of the Field in the Relativistic Theory of the Asymmetric Field An Interview with Einstein

Canadian Journal of Mathematics, 2, 120128

Classical unified field theories.

[298]

Schilpp 313 Schilpp 314 Schilpp 316 Schilpp 317

1950

Scientific American, 182, 1317

Classical unified field theories. Quantum mechanics.

[299]

1951

Science, 113, 8284

1953

Physical Review, 89, 321

Classical unified field theories.

[300]

1954

Annals of Mathematics, 59, 230244

Classical unified field theories. Co-authored with B. Kaufman.

[301]

Schilpp 318 Schilpp 319

1955

Scientific American, 193, 6973

History of physics. Co-authored with I. B. Cohen. [302] Classical unified field theories. Simplified derivation using an ancillary field instead of the usual affine connection. Co-authored with B. Kaufman.

1955

A New Form of the General Relativistic Field Equations

Annals of Mathematics, 62, 128138

Book chapters
With the exception of publication #288, the following book chapters were written by Einstein; he had no co-authors. Given that most of the chapters are already in English, the English translations are not given their own columns, but are provided in parentheses after the original title; this helps the table to fit within the margins of the page.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

167

Index

[21] Year

Chapter title (English [22] translation )

Book title (English [22] translation ), page numbers Rapports du premier Conseil de Physique (1911), Instituts Solvay Reports of the 1st Solvay Conference of Physics

Book author/editor

Publisher (Location)

Classification and notes

[24]

Schilpp 51

1912 tat actuel du problme des chaleurs spcifiques Present State of the Problem of Specific Heats)

Unknown

Gauthier (Paris)

[303] Specific heats. The German text is publication #63.

Schilpp 76

1915 Theoretische Atomistik Theoretical Atomic Science)

Die Physik, pp.251263 Physics

E. Lecher

Teubner (Leipzig)

[304] Atomic physics. Part of the series Kultur der Gegenwart (3. Teil, Abt. 3, Band 1).

Schilpp 77

1915 Relativittstheorie Relativity Theory

Die Physik Physics

E. Lecher

Teubner (Leipzig)

Special and general [305] relativity. Part of the series Kultur der Gegenwart (3. Teil, Abt. 3, Band 1) General relativity.

Schilpp 87

1916 Vorwort Foreword

Grundlagen der Einsteinschen Gravitationstheorie Foundations of Einstein's Gravitational Theory

Erwin F. Freundlich

Springer (Berlin)

Schilpp 111

1918 Motiv des Forschens Motives for Research

Zu Max Plancks 60. Geburtstag: Ansprachen in der deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft, pp.2932 Talks in Honor of Max Planck's 60th Birthday

Unknown

Mller (Karlsruhe) Philosophy of physics.[306]

Schilpp 146

1921 Einfache Anwendung des Newtonschen Gravitationsgesetzes auf die Kugelfrmigen Sternhaufen Simple Application of Newton's Law of Gravitation to Spherical Collections of Stars

Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft zur Frderung der Wissenschaft, Festschrift zu ihrem zehnjhrigen Jubilum, pp.5052 Celebratory Work for the 10th Anniversary of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society

Unknown

Springer Verlag (Berlin)

Gravitation.

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168
Unknown Ijdo (Leiden) Superconductivity.

Schilpp 158

1922 Theoretische Bemerkungen zur Supraleitung der Metalle Theoretical Observations on the Superconductivity of Metals

Leyden. Rijksuniversiteit Naturkundig Laboratorium, Gedenkboek aangeboden aan H. Kamerlingh Onnes, pp.429435 A Book Honoring H. Kamerlingh Onnes

Schilpp 180

1924 Geleitwort Preface

Lucretius, De rerum natura

H. Diels

Weidmann (Berlin)

History of physics.

[307]

Schilpp 190

1925 Anhang: Eddingtons Theorie und Hamiltonsches Prinzip Appendix: Eddington's Theory and Hamilton's Principle

Relativittstheorie in mathematischer Behandlung Relativity Theory, Treated Mathematically

AS Eddington

Springer Verlag (Berlin)

Classical unified field [308] theories. Written exclusively for this German translation of Eddington.

Schilpp 191

1925 Theoretische Atomistik Theoretical Atomic Science

Die Physik, 2. Auflage, pp.281294 Physics, 2nd edition

Unknown

Teubner (Leipzig)

Atomic physics.

Schilpp 192

1925 Relativittstheorie Relativity theory

Die Physik, 2. Auflage, pp.783797 Physics, 2nd edition

Unknown

Teubner (Leipzig)

Special and general relativity.

Schilpp 204

1927 Introduction

Di spetsyele relativitets-teorye The Special Theory of Relativity

T. Shalit

privately printed (Berlin)

Special relativity. Both Yiddish and German versions are provided.

Schilpp 220

1929 Space-time

Encyclopdia Britannica, 14th ed., vol. 21, pp.105108 Festschrift Prof. Dr. A. Studola berreicht, pp.126ff. Celebratory Work for Dr. A. Studola

Franklin Henry Hooper

Encyclopdia Britannica Inc. (Chicago) Fssli (Zrich)

Special and general relativity.

Schilpp 221

1929 ber den gegenwrtigen Stand der Feldtheorie On the Present Status of Field Theory

Unknown

[309] General relativity. Less technical and more historical than (journal) publication #235.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

169
D. Reichinstein Barth (Leipzig) History of physics.

Schilpp 231

1929 Begleitwort Foreword

Grenzflchenvorgnge in der unbelebten und belebten Natur Boundary Surface Processes in Biological and Inorganic Nature

Schilpp 244 Schilpp 245

1931 Foreword

Newton, the man, p. v

R. de Villamil

Knox (London)

History of physics.

1931 Maxwell's influence on the James Clerk Maxwell: A development of the Commemoration Volume, conception of physical pp.6673 reality 1931 Foreword Opticks, 4th edition (London 1730), pp. viiviii Where is science going?, pp.712 Where is science going?, pp.201213

Unknown

Cambridge University Press (Cambridge)

[310] History of physics. The German text is found in Mein Weltbild (The world as I see it). [311]

Schilpp 246

Isaac Newton

McGraw (New York)

History of physics.

Schilpp 256 Schilpp 257

1932 Prologue

Max Planck

Norton (New York) Norton (New York)

Philosophy of physics.

[312]

1932 Epilogue: a socratic dialogue, interlocutors, Einstein and Murphy 1934 Introduction

Max Planck

Philosophy of physics.

[312]

Schilpp 269

The World in Modern Science, pp.56

Leopold Infeld

V. Gollancz (London)

[313] Philosophy of physics. The German original is on p.275.

Schilpp 288

1941 Five-dimensional representation of gravitation and electricity

Theodore von Karman Anniversary Volume, pp.212225

California Institute Classical unified field [314] of Technology theories. Co-authored (Pasadena) with Bargmann V and Bergmann PG. Unknown Unknown Philosophy. Reported in the New York Times (11 September 1940, p.30, col. 2) and also in Nature, 146, 605607. Special and general [315] relativity. [316] Philosophy. Volume 5 of the Library of Living Philosophers. Special and general relativity. Reprinted from The world as I see it. Special and general relativity. Although dated as 1947, the actual issue occurred in 1948. Special and general relativity.

Schilpp 289

1941 Science and religion

1st Conference on Science, Philosophy and Religion

Schilpp 291 Schilpp 294

1942 Foreword

Introduction to the theory of relativity, p. v The philosophy of Bertrand Russell, pp.277291 Man and the universe, pp.82100

Peter G. Bergmann

Prentice-Hall (New York)

1944 Remarks on Bertrand Russell's theory of knowledge 1947 The problem of space, ether and the field in physics 1948 Einstein's theory of relativity

Paul A. Schilpp Northwestern University Evanston) Saxe, Commins, and RN Linscott Random House (New York)

Schilpp 303

Schilpp 305

Grolier Encyclopedia, vol. Unknown 9, p.19

Grolier Society (New York)

Schilpp 306

1948 Relativity: essence of the theory of relativity

American Peoples Unknown Encyclopedia, vol. 16, col. 604608

Spencer Press (Chicago)

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170
Princeton University (Princeton) Classical unified field theories. Appendix II added to the third edition of the Meaning of Relativity (publication #297). History of science and [317] philosophy of physics. Biographical notes and a summary of Einstein's scientific thinking in his later years. Classical unified field [318] theories. Completely revised Appendix II for the fifth and final edition of the Meaning of Relativity (publications #297 and #312).

Schilpp 312

1950 Appendix II: Generalized theory of gravitation

The Meaning of Relativity, Albert Einstein 3rd edition

Schilpp 315

1951 Reply to Criticisms: Remarks Concerning the Essays Brought Together in this Co-operative Volume 1955 Appendix II: Generalized theory of gravitation

Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Volume II, pp.665688

Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor

Harper and Brothers Publishers, Harper Torchbook edition (New York) Princeton University (Princeton)

Schilpp 320

The Meaning of Relativity, Albert Einstein 5th edition

Books
With the exception of publication #278, the following books were written by Einstein; he had no co-authors.
Index [21] Year Book title and English [22] translation Publisher (Location) [24] Classification and notes

Schilpp 6

1906 Eine neue Bestimmung Buchdruckerei K. J. der Molekldimensionen Wyss (Bern) A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions

[319] Statistical mechanics. Inaugural-dissertation from Zrich Universitt. Same as (journal) publication #11.

Schilpp 86

1916 Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativittstheorie Foundations of the General Theory of Relativity

Barth (Leipzig)

General relativity.

[320]

Schilpp 102

1917 ber die spezielle und die allgemeine Relativittstheorie, gemeinverstndlich On the Special and General Theory of Relativity (A Popular Account)

Vieweg (Braunschweig)

[321] Special and general relativity. This is volume 38 (Heft 38) in the series Sammlung Vieweg. Other editions and translations are found in publications #110, 129, 130, 137141, 154, 169 and 215.

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171
Special and general relativity. Other editions and translations are found in publication #102 and 129, 130, 137141, 154, 169 and 215.

Schilpp 110

1918 ber die spezielle und die allgemeine Relativittstheorie, gemeinverstndlich, 3rd edition On the Special and General Theory of Relativity (A Popular Account)

Vieweg (Braunschweig)

Schilpp 129

1920 ber die spezielle und die allgemeine Relativittstheorie, gemeinverstndlich, 10th edition On the Special and General Theory of Relativity (A Popular Account)

Vieweg (Braunschweig)

Special and general relativity. The first edition of this book is listed as publication #102. Editions of this work were published until 1922 (the 14th edition). Editions 10-14 contained an additional section ("Rotverschiebung der Spectrallinien" (Redshift of spectral lines) in the appendix.

Schilpp 131

1920 ther und Relativittstheorie: Rede gehalten am 5. Mai 1920 an der Reichs-Universitt zu Leiden Aether and Relativity Theory: A Talk Given on 5 May 1920 at the University of Leiden

Springer Verlag (Berlin)

[322] Special and general relativity. The French, English, and Italian translations are listed as publications #145, 152, and 153, respectively. An undated Polish translation by L. Freundenheim, Eter a teorja wzglednosci, was published in Lviv.

Schilpp 143

1921 Geometrie und Erfahrung, Erweiterte Fassung des Festvortrages gehalten an der Preussischen Akademie Geometry and Experience: Expanded Edition of the Celebratory Lecture Given at the Prussian Academy

Springer Verlag (Berlin)

[323] General relativity. The original paper is found as (journal) publication #148. French, English and Italian translations are listed as publications #144, 152, and 153. An undated Polish translation, Geometrja a doswiadczenie, was published in Lviv.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

172
Special and general relativity. German text of publication #143. A second printing by Vieweg is dated 1923.

Schilpp 156

1922 Vier Vorlesungen ber Relativittstheorie, gehalten im Mai 1921, an der Universitt Princeton Four Lectures on Relativity Theory, Given in May 1921 at Princeton University

Vieweg (Braunschweig)

Schilpp 157

1922 Untersuchungen ber die Theorie der Brownschen Bewegungen Investigations of Brownian Motion

Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft (Leipzig)

Statistical mechanics. A re-issue of publications #8, 11, 12, 22, and 26 with notes and derivations from the editor, R. Frth. Released as Nr. 199 of Oswalds Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften. An English translation appeared as publication #198.

Schilpp 168

1923 Grundgedanken und Probleme der Relativittstheorie Fundamental Ideas and Problems of Relativity Theory

Imprimerie royale (Stockholm)

[324] Special and general relativity. Nobel prize lecture, delivered before the Nordische Naturforscherversammlung in Gteborg. Reprinted in Nobelstiftelsen, Les prix Nobel en 1921-22.

Schilpp 264 Schilpp 265 Schilpp 266

1933 On the Method of Theoretical Physics 1933 Origins of the General Theory of Relativity 1933 Les fondements de la thorie de la relativit gnrale Foundations of the General Theory of Relativity

Clarendon Press (Oxford) Jackson (Glasgow)

[325] Philosophy of physics. The Herbert Spenser lecture at Oxford University, delivered on 10 June 1933. General relativity. June 1933. [326] Lecture at the University of Glasgow, delivered 20

Hermann (Paris)

General relativity. French translations of publications #89 and 251 by Maurice Solovine, together with a new essay by Einstein, "Sur la structure cosmologique de l'espace", which discusses the cosmological implications of general relativity, together with its historical antecedents.

Schilpp 278

1938 The Evolution of Physics: The Growth of Ideas from Early Concepts to Relativity and Quanta 1938 Die Physik als Abenteuer der Erkenntnis Physics as an Adventure of the Mind

Simon and Schuster (New York)

History of physics. Co-authored with Infeld L.

Schilpp 279

Sijthoff (Leiden)

Philosophy of physics.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[327] Special and general relativity. Second edition of publication #142, with a long appendix covering various topics such as the cosmological implications of general relativity. The appendix was translated by Ernst G. Straus. A "third edition" was published in 1946 by Methuen (London), but it is identical except for a change in pagination. The true third, fourth and fifth editions appeared in 1950, 1953 and 1956, respectively. In the 3rd, Einstein added Appendix II on a generalized theory of gravitation, which was substantially revised for the fifth and final edition.

173

Schilpp 297

1945 The Meaning of Relativity

Princeton University (Princeton)

Authorized translations
The following translations of his work were authorized by Einstein.
Index [21] Year Book title Translator Publisher (Location) Classification and notes [24]

Schilpp 128

1920 The Principle of Relativity: Original Papers

MN Saha and SN Bose

University of Calcutta (Kolkata)

[328] Special and general relativity. Includes English translations of (journal) publications #9 and 89, with a historical introduction by PC Mahalanobis. The work of Hermann Minkowski is also included. Special and general relativity. Authorized translation of the 5th German edition of Ueber die spezielle und die allgemeine Relativitaetstheorie, gemeinverstaendlich (cf. publications #102, 110, 129). The text also includes Dr. Lawson's biographical sketch of Albert Einstein, a short bibliography on relativity theory and an appendix written for this edition entitled "Experimental confirmation of the general theory of relativity". Up to 10 editions were published by Methuen, the last in 1931. Special and general relativity. Effectively the same as publication #130. Later imprints were Smith (New York, 1931) and Hartsdale House, Inc. (New York, 1947). Special and general relativity. Spanish translation of publication #129. Two later editions were Ruiz de Lara (Cuenca, 1923) and Medina (Toledo, 1925). Special and general relativity. Italian translation of publication #129.

Schilpp 130

1920 Relativity, the Special and the General Theory: A Popular Exposition

Robert W Lawson

Methuen (London)

Schilpp 137

1921 Relativity, the Special and the General Theory: A Popular Exposition 1921 Teoria de la relatividad especial y general

RW Lawson Holt (New York)

Schilpp 138

F. Lorente de N

Pelez (Toledo)

Schilpp 139

1921 Sulla teoria speciale e generale della relativit: Volgarizzione 1921 Teoriia Otnositel'nosti: Obshchedostypnoe Izlozhenie 1921 La thorie de la relativit restreinte et gneralise 1921 The Meaning of Relativity: Four Lectures Delivered at Princeton University

G. L. Calisse

Zanichelli (Bologna)

Schilpp 140

G. B. Itel'son

Slowo (Berlin)

Special and general relativity. Russian translation of publication #129. Re-published in 1922 with the same imprint.

Schilpp 141 Schilpp 142

Mlle. J. Rouviere Edwin P. Adams

Gauthier (Paris)

Special and general relativity. French translation of publication #129. [329] Special and general relativity. Reprinted in 1922 and 1923. Also released in 1922 and 1924 under the imprint Methuen (London). Translations are found in publications #166, 167, and 179, whereas the German text is listed as publication #156. A second edition was also released; see publication #297. General relativity. French translation of publication #143. A second edition was also published by Gauthier in 1934.

Princeton University Press (Princeton)

Schilpp 144

1921 La gometrie et l'exprience

Maurice Solovine

Gauthier (Paris)

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174
Gauthier (Paris) Special and general relativity. French translation of publication #131. Reprinted in 1925. Special and general relativity. Translation of publications #131 and 143. Republished in 1923 by Dutton (New York) imprint. The second part, Geometry and Experience, was published separately in 1947 as chapter 8 of Methods of the sciences from the Chicago University. Special and general relativity. Italian translation of publications #131 and 143.

Schilpp 145 Schilpp 152

1921 L'ther et la thorie de la relativit

Maurice Solovine

1922 Sidelights on Relativity: I. GB Jeffrey Ether and Relativity. II. and W Geometry and Experience Perrett

Methuen (London)

Schilpp 153

1922 Prospettive Relativistiche dell'Etere e della Geometria 1922 A Klnleges s az ltalnos Relativits, Elmlete 1922 O Fizicheskoi Prirodie Prostranstva

R. Cant and T. Bembo Unknown

Andare (Milano)

Schilpp 154

Patheon irodalmi (Budapest)

Special and general relativity. Hungarian translation of publication #129.

Schilpp 155

GB Itel'son

Slowo (Berlin)

Special and general relativity. Russian translation of publications #131 and #143 under the title "Physical nature of space". Special and general relativity. Polish translation of publication #142.

Schilpp 166

1923 Cztery odczyty o teorji Wzglednosci wygloszone w 1921 na Uniwersytecie w Princeton

A Gottfryda

Renaissance-Verlag (Vienna)

Schilpp 167 Schilpp 169

1923 Matematicheskija Osnovy GB Itel'son Teorii Otnositel'nosti 1923 [A Popular Exposition of the Special and General Theories of Relativity] Unknown

Slowo (Berlin)

Special and general relativity. Russian translation of publication #142. Special and general relativity. Yiddish translation (in Hebrew characters) of publication #129.

Gitlina (Warsaw)

Schilpp 179

1924 Quatre confrences sur la Maurice thorie de la relativit, Solovine fates l'universit de Princeton 1925 Sur l'lectrodynamique des corps en mouvement 1926 Investigations on the Theory of the Brownian Movement (R. Frth, ed.) 1928 Al Torath Ha-Yahasiuth Ha-Peratith Weha-Kelalith (Harzaah Popularith) Maurice Solovine AD Cowper

Gauthier (Paris)

Special and general relativity. French translation of publication #142. A second printing was dated 1925.

Schilpp 189 Schilpp 198

Gauthier (Paris)

Special relativity. French translation of publications #9 and 10, part of the series Matres de la pense scientifique. Statistical mechanics. English translation of publication #157. Also published under the Dutton imprint in New York.

Methuen (London)

Schilpp 215

Jacob Greenberg

Dvir (Tel Aviv)

Special and general relativity. Hebrew translation of publication #129.

Schilpp 280

1938 Drie Eeuwen Physica van MC Galilei tot Geerling Relativiteitstheorie en Quantumtheorie 1938 L'volution des ides en physique des premiers concepts aux thories de la relativit et des quanta 1948 El Significado de la Relatividad Maurice Solovine

Centen (Amsterdam) History of physics. Dutch translation of publication #279.

Schilpp 281

Flammarion (Paris)

History of physics. French translation of publication #279.

Schilpp 304

Dr. Carlos E. Prelat

Espasa-Calpe (Buenos Aires)

Special and general relativity. Spanish translation of publication #297.

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175

See also
Einstein Papers Project History of special relativity History of general relativity History of the Big Bang theory History of quantum mechanics History of thermodynamics

Footnotes
[1] Pais, pp. 111174. [2] Pais A (1988). Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.232234. ISBN978-0198519973. [3] Pais, pp. 93100. [4] Pais, pp. 9092. [5] Pais, pp. 364388, 402422. [6] Pais, pp. 402415. [7] Pais, pp. 389401. [8] Pais, p. 394. [9] Pais, pp. 177324. [10] Weinberg, S (1972). Gravitation and Cosmology. New York: John Wiley and Sons. pp.175210. ISBN978-0-471-92567-5. [11] R.V. Pound and G.A. Rebka, Jr. "Gravitational Red-Shift in Nuclear Resonance" Phys. Rev. Lett. 3 439-441 (1959) [12] Muhlfelder, B., Mac Keiser, G., and Turneaure, J., Gravity Probe B Experiment Error, poster L1.00027 presented at the American Physical Society (APS) meeting in Jacksonville, Florida, on 1417 April 2007, 2007. [13] Gerssen, Joris, et al.; van der Marel, Roeland P.; Gebhardt, Karl; Guhathakurta, Puragra; Peterson, Ruth C.; Pryor, Carlton (December 2002). "Hubble Space Telescope Evidence for an Intermediate-Mass Black Hole in the Globular Cluster M15. II. Kinematic Analysis and Dynamical Modeling" (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ astro-ph/ 0209315). The Astronomical Journal 124 (6): 32703288. doi:10.1086/344584. . "Hubble Discovers Black Holes in Unexpected Places" (http:/ / hubblesite. org/ newscenter/ archive/ releases/ cosmology/ 2002/ 18/ text/ ). HubbelSite. September 17, 2002. . Retrieved 2007-10-31. [14] J. M. Weisberg and J. H. Taylor, Relativistic Binary Pulsar B1913+16: Thirty Years of Observations and Analysis (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ astro-ph/ 0407149), July 2004. [15] Pais, p. 412. [16] Knudson SK (2006). "The Old Quantum Theory for H2+: Some Chemical Implications". Journal of Chemical Education 83: 464472. doi:10.1021/ed083p464. Strand MP, Reinhardt WP (1979). "Semiclassical quantization of the low lying electronic states of H2+". Journal of Chemical Physics 70: 38123827. doi:10.1063/1.437932. [17] Pais, pp. 405407. [18] Pais, pp. 423439. [19] Pais, pp. 440459. [20] Pais, pp. 325354. [21] These Index numbers are taken from the Schilpp reference cited in the Bibliography, pp. 694730, and from the Collected Papers of Albert Einstein published by Princeton University Press. The latter are indicated by a CP in italic type, the volume number in boldface type, and by the article number within that volume. [22] The translations of article titles are generally taken from the published volumes of Einstein's collected papers. For some articles, however, such official translations are not available; unofficial translations are indicated with a superscript. [23] The volume number is given in boldface type. Terms such as "ser. 4" in the journal name refer to the series of the journal, which is a grouping of volumes. For example, a journal may appear in yearly volumes for 60 years (volumes 160), then start its volume numbering anew in a second series. [24] The subject classification of Einstein's articles are the first item, and are indicated in boldface type. Any co-authors are always indicated by the second item. [25] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1901_4_513-523. pdf [26] Pais, Chap. 3, ref. E13; Chap. 4, ref. E5. [27] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1902_8_798-814. pdf [28] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E6. [29] Pais, Chap. 4, p. 57. [30] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1902_9_417-433. pdf [31] Pais, Chap. 3, ref. E21; Chap. 4, ref. E10.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] [85] [86] [87] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1903_11_170-187. pdf Pais, Chap. 4, refs. E11 and E49. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1904_14_354-362. pdf Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E12; Chap. 5, ref. E17; Chap. 19, ref. E7. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_17_132-148. pdf Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E13; Chap. 7, ref. E7; Chap. 19, ref. E5; Chap. 23, ref. E2. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_17_549-560. pdf Pais, Chap. 4, refs. E4 and E17; Chap. 5, ref. E2. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_17_891-921. pdf Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E5; Chap. 7, ref. E1; Chap. 11, ref. E10; Chap. 26, ref. E13. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_18_639-641. pdf Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E9; Chap. 26, ref. E14. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1906_19_289-306. pdf Pais, Chap. 5, ref. E5. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1906_19_371-381. pdf Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E18; Chap. 5, ref. E8. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1906_20_199-206. pdf Pais, Chap. 19, ref. E8. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1906_20_627-633. pdf Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E10; Chap. 8, ref. E6. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1906_21_583-586. pdf Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E21. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1907_22_180-190. pdf http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1907_22_800. pdf Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E21; Chap. 20, refs. E1 and E2. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1907_22_569-572. pdf Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E22; Chap. 5, ref. E9; Chap. 29, ref. E3. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1907_23_197-198. pdf Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E5. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1907_23_206-208. pdf Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E22. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1907_23_371-384. pdf Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E23; Chap. 8, ref. E5. http:/ / www. soso. ch/ wissen/ hist/ SRT/ E-1907. pdf Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E23; Chap. 6, ref. E7; Chap. 7, refs. E3, E11, and E15; Chap. 8, refs. E1 and E4; Chap. 9, ref. E3; Chap. 11, ref. E9. Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E19; Chap. 5, ref. E11. Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E18; Chap. 29, ref. E1. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1908_27_232. pdf http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1908_26_541-550. pdf Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E19; Chap. 29, ref. E2. Pais, Chap. 10, ref. E4; Chap. 29, ref. E5. Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E20; Chap. 5, ref. E12. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1909_28_445-447. pdf http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1909_28_885-888. pdf Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E25. Pais, Chap. 4, refs. E24 and E47; Chap. 10, ref. E2; Chap. 21, ref. E2. Pais, Chap. 29, ref. R1. Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E25; Chap. 7, ref. E27; Chap. 10, ref. E3; Chap. 12, ref. E25; Chap. 19, ref. E11; Chap. 21, ref. E3; Chap. 26, ref. E15. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1910_33_1096-1104. pdf Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E26; Chap. 29, ref. E10. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1910_33_1105-1115. pdf Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E27; Chap. 21, ref. E12; Chap. 29, ref. E11. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1910_33_1275-1298. pdf Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E29; Chap. 5, E10. Pais, Chap. 7, refs. E16 and E28; Chap. 10, ref. E8. Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E26.

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List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[91] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E30; Chap. 20, ref. E3. [92] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1911_34_590. pdf [93] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1911_34_175-176. pdf [94] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E2. [95] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1911_34_591-592. pdf [96] Pais, Chap. 4, refs. E15 and E30; Chap. 5, ref. E7. [97] Pais, p. 92. [98] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1911_35_679-694. pdf [99] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E31; Chap. 20, ref. E4. [100] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1911_35_898-908. pdf [101] Pais, Chap. 11, ref. E8; Chap. 13, ref. E4. [102] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E29. [103] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E4. [104] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1912_37_832-838. pdf [105] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E32; Chap. 19, ref. E10. [106] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1912_38_881-884. pdf [107] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1912_38_355-369. pdf [108] Pais, Chap. 9, refs. E6 and E7; Chap. 11, ref. E16; Chap. 13, refs. E2 and E5. [109] Pais, pp. 201206. [110] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1912_38_443-458. pdf [111] Pais, Chap. 11, ref. E17; Chap. 12, refs. E10 and E33; Chap. 13, ref. E2. [112] http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1912_38_888. pdf [113] [114] [115] [116] [117] [118] [119] [120] [121] [122] [123] [124] [125] [126] [127] [128] [129] [130] [131] [132] [133] [134] [135] [136] [137] [138] [139] [140] [141] [142] [143] [144] [145] [146] Pais, Chap. 19, ref. E10. Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E17; Chap. 13, ref. E6. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1912_39_704. pdf Pais, Chap. 13, ref. E7. Pais, Chap. 11, ref. E19; Chap. 12, ref. E24; Chap. 15, ref. E36. Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E29; Chap. 13, ref. E1; Chap. 14, ref. E23; Chap. 15, ref. E37. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1913_40_551-560. pdf Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E34; Chap. 14, ref. E36; Chap. 20, ref. E6; Chap. 29, ref. E13. Pais, p. 397. Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E33. Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E36. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E53; Chap. 19, refs. E2 and E6. Pais, Chap. 13, ref. E11; Chap. 15, ref. E39. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1914_44_321-328. pdf Pais, Chap. 13, ref. E18; Chap. 29, ref. E15. http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1914AN. . . . 199. . . . 8E Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E5a. http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1914AN. . . . 199. . . 47E Pais, Chap. 20, ref. E8. Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E6; Chap. 15, ref. E37. Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E35; Chap. 16, ref. E53a. Pais, Chap. 13, ref. E11. Pais, Chap. 13, ref. E13. Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E12. Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E30; Chap. 14, ref. E16; Chap. 15, ref. E13. Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E30; Chap. 13, ref. E12. Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E34; Chap. 14, ref. E10; Chap. 16, ref. E38. Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E37. Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E34. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1915_47_879-885. pdf Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E28; Chap. 14, ref. E30. Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E33. Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E32. Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E28.

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List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[150] [151] [152] [153] [154] [155] [156] [157] [158] [159] [160] [161] [162] [163] [164] [165] [166] [167] [168] [169] [170] [171] [172] [173] [174] [175] [176] [177] [178] [179] [180] [181] [182] [183] [184] [185] [186] [187] [188] [189] [190] [191] [192] [193] [194] [195] [196] [197] [198] [199] [200] [201] [202] [203] [204] [205] Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E1; Chap. 15, ref. E15. http:/ / physics. princeton. edu/ ~mcdonald/ examples/ EM/ einstein_knawp_181_696_15. pdf Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E35. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1916_49_769-822. pdf Pais, Chap. 12, refs. E27 and E31; Chap. 15, ref. E6. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1916_51_639-642. pdf Pais, Chap. 13, ref. E3a. Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E37. Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E35; Chap. 15, ref. E21; Chap. 21, ref. E9. Pais, pp. 410412. Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E36; Chap. 15, ref. E21; Chap. 21, ref. E10. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E54. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E26. Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E6. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E20. Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E51. Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E55; Chap. 15, ref. E16. Pais, Chap. 21, ref. E17. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E55. Pais, Chap. 5, ref. E16. Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E37; Chap. 21, ref. E11; Chap. 26, ref. E16. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E40; Chap. 29, ref. E17. Pais, Chap. 21, ref. E18. Pais, Chap. 1, ref. E1. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1918_55_241-244. pdf Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E42. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E56. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E19a. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E22. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E42b. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E19b; Chap. 17, ref. E33. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E28. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E43; Chap. 17, ref. E17. Pais, Chap. 2, ref. E2. Pais, Chap. 1, ref. E2. Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E16; Chap. 5, ref. E14. Pais, Chap. 20, ref. E7. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E44. Pais, Chap. 9, ref. E1. Pais, Chap. 8, ref. E7; Chap. 12, ref. E22. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E34. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E6; Chap. 21, ref. E19. http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1922_69_436-438. pdf Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E42a. Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E36; Chap. 29, ref. E68. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E60. Pais, Chap. 21, ref. E20. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E7; Chap. 21, ref. E22; Chap. 29, ref. E23. Pais, Chap. 15, refs. E45 and E46. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E11; Chap. 29, ref. E26. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E8; Chap. 29, ref. E18. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E38. Pais, Chap. 17, refs. E35 and E36. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E37. Pais, Chap. 26, ref. E20; Chap. 29, ref. E19. Pais, Chap. 1, ref. E7; Chap. 15, ref. E35; Chap. 16, ref. E72.

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List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[209] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E39; Chap. 23, ref. E8. [210] Bose, SN (1924). "Plancks Gesetz und Lichtquantenhypothese". Zeitschrift fr Physik 26: 178181. doi:10.1007/BF01327326.

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[211] Anderson, MH; Ensher JR, Matthews MR, Wieman CE, and Cornell EA (1995). "Observation of BoseEinstein Condensation in a Dilute Atomic Vapor" (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0036-8075(19950714)3:269:5221<198:OOBCIA>2. 0. CO;2-G). Science 269 (5221): 198201. doi:10.1126/science.269.5221.198. PMID17789847. . [212] Pais, Chap. 23, ref. E6. [213] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E38. [214] Pais, Chap. 26, ref. E33. [215] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E40; Chap. 23, ref. E7; Chap. 24, ref. E2. [216] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E41; Chap. 23, ref. E11. [217] Pais, Chap. 17, refs. E15 and E44; Chap. 29, ref. E20. [218] Pais, Chap. 23, ref. E9. [219] Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E2; Chap. 16, ref. E63. [220] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E12. [221] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E13. [222] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E14. [223] Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E2a. [224] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E44; Chap. 17, ref. E48. [225] Pais, Chap. 1, ref. E9; Chap. 26, ref. E1. [226] Pais, Chap. 1, ref. E12. [227] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E52. [228] [229] [230] [231] [232] [233] [234] [235] [236] [237] [238] [239] [240] [241] [242] [243] [244] [245] [246] [247] [248] [249] [250] [251] [252] [253] [254] [255] [256] [257] [258] [259] [260] [261] Pais, Chap. 17, refs. E19 and E20. Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E52b; Chap. 15, ref. E56; Chap. 26, refs. E28 and E29; Chap. 29, ref. E21. Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E12. Pais, Chap. 8, ref. E11. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E50. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E51a. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E76. Pais, Chap. 2, ref. E4; Chap. 19, ref. E1; Chap. 26, ref. E23. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E67. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E52; Chap. 29, ref. E22. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E54; Chap. 29, refs. E31 and E33. Pais, Chap. 14, ref. E49a; Chap. 16, ref. E68. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E57. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E10; Chap. 17, ref. E60. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E58. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E51. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E59. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E70. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E55. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E66; Chap. 29, ref. E34. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E67. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E57; Chap. 26, ref. E30. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E11; Chap. 17, ref. E61. http:/ / physics. princeton. edu/ ~mcdonald/ examples/ QM/ einstein_pr_37_780_31. pdf Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E15; Chap. 29, ref. E47. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E48. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E68. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E24; Chap. 29, ref. E36. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E64. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E26; Chap 26, ref. E31. Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E10. Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E11; Chap. 16, ref. E65. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E49; Chap. 29, ref. E48. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E69.

[262] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E62. [263] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E27; Chap. 29, ref. E37. [264] Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E23; Chap. 29, ref. E38.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[265] [266] [267] [268] [269] [270] [271] [272] [273] [274] [275] [276] [277] [278] [279] [280] [281] [282] [283] [284] [285] [286] Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E16. Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E21; Chap. 29, ref. E40. Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E22; Chap. 29, ref. E41. Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E45. Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E24. http:/ / physics. princeton. edu/ ~mcdonald/ examples/ mechanics/ einstein_bams_37_39_35. pdf Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E12. http:/ / physics. princeton. edu/ ~mcdonald/ examples/ QM/ einstein_pr_47_777_35. pdf Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E27; Chap. 29, ref. E49. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E53a; Chap. 26, ref. E32; Chap. 29, ref. E50. Pais, Chap. 26, ref. E2. Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E51. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E12b. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E23; Chap. 29, ref. E52; Chap. 29, ref. E61. http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ journals/ doc/ PHTOAD-ft/ vol_58/ iss_9/ 43_1. shtml Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E59; Chap. 29, refs. E58 and E63. Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E29. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E53. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E60; Chap. 29, ref. E59. Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E80; Chap. 26, ref. E34. Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E70. Pais, Chap. 20, ref. E10.

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[287] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E69. [288] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E8; Chap. 17, ref. E71; Chap. 29, ref. E66. [289] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E72; Chap. 29, ref. E67. [290] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E73. [291] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E72 [292] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E77; Chap. 29, ref. E73. [293] http:/ / physics. princeton. edu/ ~mcdonald/ examples/ EM/ einstein_tj_5_16_46. pdf [294] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E13. [295] Pais, Chap. 25, ref. E28; Chap. 27, ref. E2. [296] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E74. [297] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E60. [298] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E75. [299] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E83. [300] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E76; Chap. 29, ref. E54. [301] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E78; Chap. 29, ref. E75. [302] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E79; Chap. 29, ref. E76. [303] Pais, Chap. 4, refs. E42, E44 and E53; Chap. 19, ref. E12; Chap. 22, ref. E11. [304] Pais, Chap. 4, ref. E43; Chap. 5, ref. E6. [305] Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E8; Chap. 7, refs. E31 and E32; Chap. 14, refs. E11 and E29. [306] Pais, Chap. 2, ref. E1. [307] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E74. [308] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E43. [309] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E56. [310] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E55; Chap. 16, ref. E58; Chap. 25, ref. E6; Chap. 26, ref. E19. [311] Pais, Chap. 1, ref. E8. [312] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E77. [313] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E57. [314] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E64. [315] Pais, Chap. 29, ref. E65. [316] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E75. [317] Pais, Chap. 1, refs. E6 and E11; Chap. 4, ref. E1; Chap. 6, ref. E6; Chap. 10, ref. E22; Chap. 15, ref. E27; Chap. 22, ref. E2; Chap. 26, ref. E3; Chap. 27, ref. E3. [318] Pais, Chap. 17, ref. E81. [319] Pais, Chap. 3, ref. E25; Chap. 4, ref. E14; Chap. 5, ref. E3. [320] Pais, Chap. 7, ref. E20; Chap. 12, ref. E21; Chap. 15, ref. E7. [321] Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E8a. [322] Pais, Chap. 16, ref. E39.

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

[323] [324] [325] [326] [327] [328] [329] Pais, Chap. 12, ref. E22. Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E4. Pais, Chap. 2, ref. E7; Chap. 8, ref. E20; Chap. 17, ref. E70; Chap. 25, ref. E17; Chap. 26, ref. E4. Pais, Chap. 10, ref. E21; Chap. 14, ref. E52a; Chap. 15, ref. E2; Chap. 25, ref. E20. Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E9; Chap. 7, ref. E33; Chap. 15, refs. E50 and E54. Pais, Chap. 15, ref. E8. Pais, Chap. 6, ref. E1.

181

References
The following references are drawn from Abraham Pais' biography of Albert Einstein, Subtle is the Lord; see the Bibliography for a complete reference.

Bibliography
Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor (1951). Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Volume II. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook edition). Einstein A (1989). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 2: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1900-1909 (English translation supplement; translated by Anna Beck, with Peter Havas, consultant ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0691085494. Einstein A (1994). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 3: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1909-1911 (English translation supplement; translated by Anna Beck, with Don Howard, consultant ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0691102504. Einstein A (1996). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 4: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1912-1914 (English translation supplement; translated by Anna Beck, with Don Howard, consultant ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0691026107. Einstein A (1997). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 6: The Berlin Years: Writings, 1914-1917 (English translation supplement; translated by Alfred Engel, with Engelbert Schucking, consultant ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0691017341. Einstein A (2002). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 7: The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918-1921 (English translation supplement; translated by Alfred Engel, with Engelbert Schucking, consultant ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0691057187. Abraham Pais (1982). Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0195204384.

External links
(German) List of Scientific Publications of Albert Einstein from 19011922 (http://www.einstein-website.de/ z_physics/wisspub-e.html) from the Einstein website Einstein Papers Project (http://www.einstein.caltech.edu/) at the California Institute of Technology Einstein Archives Online (http://www.alberteinstein.info/) at Hebrew University Einstein's publications on BibNetWiki (http://bibnetwiki.org/wiki/Category:Albert_Einstein_Paper)

Article Sources and Contributors

182

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Introduction Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=391357701 Contributors: RichardF, Tomdo08, X! Albert Einstein Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395473035 Contributors: (aeropagitica), -Paradox-, -jmac-, 01ianeo1, 100110100, 10FingerJoe, 1337u83r, 152.163.195.xxx, 19chris95, 613kpiggy, 67688Q, 84user, 8thRSM, A Kit, A Man In Black, A Quest For Knowledge, A. B., A. di M., A.S. Brown, A333, ABCD, ACM2, ADM, ASA-IRULE, AZDub, Aaron Schulz, Aaronjhill, AbJ32, Abdull, Abdullais4u, Abelster, Abrookins2000, Absecon 49, Academic Challenger, Acdun, Aces lead, Acetic Acid, Adam Carr, Adam1213, AdamRetchless, AdamantlyMike, Adambro, Adamwang, Adashiel, Adjam, Adopp, Adorno Horkheymer, Adraeus, Adrecaled, Adrian, Aenid, After Midnight, AgRince, AgadaUrbanit, Agamemnon2, Ahoerstemeier, Ahop16, Aipeursson, Aiphistory, Aitias, Aixem40, Ajarosik, Ajitflora, Ajmint, Ajnem, Akamad, Akira625, Aksi great, Al Capwned, Alabs56, Alansohn, AlasdairBain, Albert Einsteins pipe, Albo 95, Alderbourne, Alecmconroy, Alex Bakharev, Alex43223, Alexandre linhares, Alexf, Alexhakimi, Alexisrael, Alfio, Algebraist, Ali1986, Alison, Alkivar, Allen Jesus, Allen234, AlphaEta, Altadena, Altenmann, Alvestrand, Amberrock, Ambrosia274, AmericaSings, AmiDaniel, Amire80, Amitch, Amitkasher, AmosY, Amplitude101, AnOddName, Anastrophe, Ancheta Wis, Ancient Apparition, Andie142105, Andonic, Andre Engels, AndreasBWagner, Andrew Maiman, Andrew tyrrell, Andrewlp1991, Andrewpmk, Andries, Andris, Andronico, Andy Marchbanks, Andy120290, Andy5, Andycjp, AngChenrui, Angela, Anger22, Ani1, Ankitbhatt, Ankitsingh83, Annatt 01, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous44, Ans202121, Antandrus, Anthony, Anthony Krupp, Anthonynow12, AntiVan, AntiVanMan, Antonrojo, Anty, Arabani, Aranel, Aranherunar, Archaeogenetics, Archaeopteryx, Ardonik, Aris Katsaris, Arjun01, Armaced, Arniep, Arnon Chaffin, Arpinder, Art LaPella, Artandphysics, Arthur Rubin, Arthursimms, Arvindn, Arwel Parry, Asf3, Ashleybenoit, Assaq, Asterion, Astralusenet, Asyndeton, Atallcostsky, Athaenara, Athkalani, Atlant, Atropos, Aude, Aunt Entropy, Auntieruth55, Auntof6, Austy351, Autonova, Avaya1, Average Earthman, Avraham, Awaiting, Awostrack, AxG, AxelBoldt, Axt, Aycono, Azndomination853, B. 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Themfromspace, ThunderBird, Tide rolls, Tim Q. Wells, Timwi, Titatitatita, Titoxd, Tmbyrd, Toby Douglass, Toddst1, Tolivero, Tom Randolph, Tom harrison, Tomdobb, Tommy2010, Tony1, TotientDragooned, Trelvis, Trevor MacInnis, Trialsanderrors, Trivialist, Troy 07, Twang, Twinsday, TwoOneTwo, Tyrone123321, Tytans brother, Uberross, Ulflarsen, Ultraviolet scissor flame, Uncle Dick, Unomano, Urbanette, Uskill, Van helsing, Vgy7ujm, Vianello, Vishnava, Vladsinger, Vorkagen, Vsmith, Vulture19, WFinch, WVhybrid, Wafulz, Warpflyght, Wavelength, Wes52353, West.andrew.g, Whiner01, Wikidudeman, Wikiklrsc, WikipedianMarlith, Willking1979, Wombatcat, Wonder al, Woofmaster, Ww, Wwoods, X-Fi6, Xhaoz, Xhurtful, Xoepicfailxo, Xos, Xtreambar, Xxjubilee18, Yamaguchi, Yankees76, Yanksox, Ydinfuusio, Yorn, Zaarons, ZekeMacNeil, Zimbabweed, Zurkog, Zzuuzz, Zzyzx11, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, , , 1898 anonymous edits List of things named after Albert Einstein Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=391317677 Contributors: Binksternet, Boobtimelive, Chryed, Clarityfiend, CommonsDelinker, Daren1997, Deor, Dhartung, Eric Yurken, ErkDemon, Headbomb, Keecheril, Legokid, MaxVT, Mwalcoff, Ndickson, Peterdjones, Phil1988, Pokoleo, Quiddity, RadioFan, RobinK, Shanes, Skrilmps, SureFire, Tim!, Tmonzenet, Vegaswikian, Zondor, 41 anonymous edits Albert Einstein in popular culture Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393678930 Contributors: A.Ou, Abu badali, AlphaEta, Ameki, Angie Y., Athaenara, Chowbok, Clarityfiend, D6, DRosenbach, DVdm, DavidFarmbrough, Edward, Ekwos, Gimmemoretime, Hammersfan, Headbomb, Howcheng, Johnathon john, LeaW, Lizlawton, Martarius, McGeddon, Mkrupnic, Noroton, Ou tis, Philip Trueman, Presspiratehunter, Quiddity, RDBury, Reywas92, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Shlishke, TEB728, Tonyfaull, Turtleboy267, Xasz, 48 anonymous edits List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=394925107 Contributors: Apparition11, Athaenara, Awadewit, Baldrick90, Belsazar, BillDeanCarter, Chaser, Chery, Circeus, Crowsnest, D.H, DAGwyn, Docu, Good Olfactory, GregVolk, Headbomb, Indopug, Istcol, JMD, Jdgilbey, Kaldari, Koavf, Lantonov, Littlealien182, M-le-mot-dit, Markus Poessel, Marrio, Mentifisto, Nneonneo, Orlady, Paradoctor, R'n'B, Res2216firestar, Rjwilmsi, Scartol, Soc8675309, Steve Quinn, Suiseiseki, The Anome, The Man in Question, WillowW, , 27 anonymous edits

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File:Einstein1921 by F Schmutzer 4.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein1921_by_F_Schmutzer_4.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ferdinand Schmutzer (1870-1928) File:Albert Einstein signature.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albert_Einstein_signature.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Epson291, User:Pbroks13 File:Speaker Icon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Mobius, 2 anonymous edits File:Einst 4.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einst_4.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: unknown; Credit Apic/Getty Images, Hulton Archive (see ) File:Albert Einstein as a child.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albert_Einstein_as_a_child.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Kenosis at en.wikipedia File:Einstein-with-habicht-and-solovine.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein-with-habicht-and-solovine.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Adnghiem501, Bcrowell, Fadookie, Fschoenm, Infrogmation, Rimshot, 3 anonymous edits File:einsteinhaus4.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einsteinhaus4.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Doctorpete File:Einstein in UK.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_in_UK.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 84user, Wikiwatcher1 File:Einstein citizen.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_citizen.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Wikiwatcher1 File:Einstein and ben gurion.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_and_ben_gurion.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Life magazine file:Death headline.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Death_headline.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Wikiwatcher1 File:Einstein patentoffice.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_patentoffice.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Lucien Chavan UNIQ-ref-0-67a65ec1a8591561-QINU (1868 - 1942), a friend of Einstein's when he was living in Berne. File:Einstein 1911 Solvay.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_1911_Solvay.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 84user, Fadookie, Fastfission, Frank C. Mller, JdH, Juiced lemon, Verdlanco File:1919 eclipse positive.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1919_eclipse_positive.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ComputerHotline, EugeneZelenko, Fastfission, Infrogmation, Quasipalm, Quibik, 3 anonymous edits File:Albert Einstein photo 1920.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albert_Einstein_photo_1920.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: unknown photographer. Scientific Monthly doesn't give photographer credit; the caption reads just "Professor Albert Einstein, University of Berlin" File:Niels Bohr Albert Einstein by Ehrenfest.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Niels_Bohr_Albert_Einstein_by_Ehrenfest.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Paul Ehrenfest Original uploader was Graf at de.wikipedia File:Einsteinwiezmann.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einsteinwiezmann.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: Aviados, Epson291 Image:Einstein patentoffice.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_patentoffice.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Lucien Chavan UNIQ-ref-0-67a65ec1a8591561-QINU (1868 - 1942), a friend of Einstein's when he was living in Berne. Image:Albert Abraham Michelson.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albert_Abraham_Michelson.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Ilario, Ixitixel, Limojoe, Lukius, Pieter Kuiper, 1 anonymous edits Image:Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, in 1916 geschilderd door Menso Kamelingh Onnes.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hendrik_Antoon_Lorentz,_in_1916_geschilderd_door_Menso_Kamelingh_Onnes.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Deadstar, JdH, 1 anonymous edits Image:Poincare.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Poincare.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bohme, Luis Fernndez Garca, Mu, Oxxo, Ske, 1 anonymous edits Image:Einstein1921 by F Schmutzer 4.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein1921_by_F_Schmutzer_4.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ferdinand Schmutzer (1870-1928) Image:Max planck.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Max_planck.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Divna Jaksic, Factumquintus, Limojoe, Lzur, Mstislavl, NicolasDelerue, Pieter Kuiper, Yelm, 1 anonymous edits File:De Raum zeit Minkowski Bild.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:De_Raum_zeit_Minkowski_Bild.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hermann Minkowski Image:Max von Laue.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Max_von_Laue.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 555, Kilom691, TPM, Yann Image:Niels Bohr Albert Einstein by Ehrenfest.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Niels_Bohr_Albert_Einstein_by_Ehrenfest.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Paul Ehrenfest Original uploader was Graf at de.wikipedia Image:Ebohr1.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ebohr1.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Stannered Image:Ebohr2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ebohr2.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Lacatosias at en.wikipedia Image:Ebohr stationary.GIF Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ebohr_stationary.GIF License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Acepectif Image:Energy-time.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Energy-time.PNG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Kripkenstein, Lacatosias Image:Ebohr4.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ebohr4.gif License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Lacatosias Image:Einsteinbox.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einsteinbox.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Korte Image:Eprheaders.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eprheaders.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Physical Review Image:Trinity shot color.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trinity_shot_color.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Avron, Dbenbenn, Fastfission, Henning Blatt, Rdsmith4, 2 anonymous edits Image:Frisch-Peierls Memorandum - Opening Paragraph.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frisch-Peierls_Memorandum_-_Opening_Paragraph.png License: unknown Contributors: Ian Dunster, Sfan00 IMG Image:JROppenheimer-LosAlamos.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JROppenheimer-LosAlamos.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Department of Energy, Office of Public Affairs Image:Los Alamos Primer assembly methods.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Los_Alamos_Primer_assembly_methods.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Fastfission, WikipediaMaster, 1 anonymous edits Image:Manhattan Project US Map.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Manhattan_Project_US_Map.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Fastfission Image:Groves Oppenheimer.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Groves_Oppenheimer.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Eusebius, Fastfission, Pieter Kuiper, W.wolny Image:Gun-type fission weapon en-labels thin lines.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gun-type_fission_weapon_en-labels_thin_lines.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Dake, User:Mfield, User:Papa Lima Whiskey Image:Y12 Calutron Operators.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ed Westcott / US Army / Manhattan Engineering District Image:Implosion Nuclear weapon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Implosion_Nuclear_weapon.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Ausis, User:Fastfission Image:Fat man.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fat_man.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Avron, Davepape, Fastfission, HowardMorland, Oldie, Patricka, Superm401, Tiptoety, Twinsday, Vonvon, 7 anonymous edits Image:Thin Man plutonium gun bomb casings.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thin_Man_plutonium_gun_bomb_casings.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Fastfission, 3 anonymous edits Image:German Experimental Pile - Haigerloch - April 1945.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:German_Experimental_Pile_-_Haigerloch_-_April_1945.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Ian Dunster at en.wikipedia

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Einstein tongue.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_tongue.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Agamemnon2, Conti, FranksValli, Howcheng, Konstable, Melsaran, Moe Epsilon, Quiddity, Qxz, Sasquatch, Shanes, Yamamoto Ichiro, 6 anonymous edits Image:GeneralRelativityTheoryManuscript.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GeneralRelativityTheoryManuscript.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Albert Einstein Image:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Calliopejen1, Frank C. Mller, Hemulen, Lobo, Quibik,

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Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/