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Spintronics Documentation
Spintronics Documentation
SPINTRONICS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
An emerging research field in physics focused on spin-dependent phenomena applied to electronic devices is called spintronics. The promise of spintronics is based on manipulation not only of the charge of electrons, but also their spin, which enables them to perform new functions. Currently, the ability to manipulate electron spin is expected to lead to the development of remarkable improvements in electronic systems and devises used in photonics, data processing and communications technologies only.
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of the electron has been exploiteda characteristic known as spin. Spin is a purely quantum phenomenon. The electrons have spin pointing either up or down in relation to a magnetic field. Spin therefore lends itself elegantly to a new kind of binary logic of ones and zeros. The movement of spin, like the flow of charge, can also carry information among devices.
1.3 SPINTRONICS
Spintronics is a new, quickly developing field of science and technology, which deals with relationships responsible for specific features of the spin interactions in metals, semiconductors doped with transition or rare earth elements, and hetero structures that ensure unique properties of these materials. An electron is just like a spinning sphere of charge. It has a quantity of angular momentum (its "spin") and an associated magnetism, and in an ambient magnetic field its energy depends on how its spin vector is oriented. Every electron exists in one of two states, namely, spin-up and spin-down with its spin either +1/2 or 1/2. In other words, an electron can rotate either clockwise or counterclockwise around its own axis with constant frequency. . Two spins can be "entangled" with each other, so that neither distinctly up nor down, but a combination of the two possibilities. The main avenues of the development of spintronics are i) fabrication of magnetic nanostructures including novel materials, thin films, hetero structures, and multifunctional materials; ii) research on magnetism and spin control of magnetic nanostructures, theory of ferromagnetic exchange in dilute magnetic semiconductors (DMS),tunneling effects and spin injection, as spin transport and detection of magnetism; iii) magneto electronics and devices employing the giant magneto resistance (GMR) effect, tunneling devices, semiconductor hetero structures for spin injection, spin transport and detection, and pulsed ferromagnetism;
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iv) magneto optical properties of dc magnetic semiconductor hetero structures and time resolved experiments, optical spin injection and detection, optically induced ferromagnetism, transmission; v) pattern recognition; imaging and metrology including magnetic pattern recognition and anomalous Hall effect; and vi) instrument engineering and applied studies. In order to make a spintronic device, the primary requirement is to have a system that can generate a current of spin polarized electrons, and a system that is sensitive to the spin polarization of the electrons. Most devices also have a unit in between that change the current of electrons depending on the spin states. The simplest method of generating a spin polarized current is to inject the current through a ferromagnetic material. The most common application of this effect is a giant magneto resistance (GMR) device. A typical GMR device consists of at least two layers of ferromagnetic materials separated by a spacer layer. When the two magnetization vectors of the ferromagnetic layers are aligned, then an electrical current will flow freely, whereas if the magnetization vectors are anti parallel then the resistance of the system is higher. Two variants of GMR have been applied in devices, current-in-plane where the electric current flows parallel to the layers and current-perpendicular-to-the-plane where the electric current flows in a direction perpendicular to the layers. ultrafast magneto optic switches; and quantum information
Spins can arrange themselves in a variety of ways that are important for spintronics
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devices. They can be completely random, with their spins pointing in every possible direction and located throughout a material in no particular order (upper left). Or these randomly located spins can all point in the same direction, called spin alignment (upper right). In solid state materials, the spins might be located in an orderly fashion on a crystal lattice (lower left) forming a nonmagnetic material. Or the spins may be on a lattice and be aligned as in a magnetic material (lower right),
One device already in use is the giant magnetoresistive, or GMR, sandwich structure, which consists of alternating ferromagnetic (that is, permanently magnetized) and nonmagnetic metal layers. Depending on the relative orientation of the magnetizations in the magnetic layers, the electrical resistance through the layers changes from small (parallel magnetizations) to large (antiparallel magnetizations).
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Investigators discovered that they could use this change in resistance (called magnetoresistance, and giant because of the large magnitude of the effect in this case) to construct exquisitely sensitive detectors of changing magnetic fields, such as those marking the data on the types of computations than is possible with electron-chargebased systems. Spintronic disk drive read/write heads have been wildly successful, permitting the storage of tens of gigabytes of data on notebook computer hard drives, and has created a billion-dollar per year industry. Groups have also been working to develop nonvolatile memory elements from these materials, possibly a route to instant-on computers.
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semiconductors can function as spin polarizers and spin valves. This is crucial because, unlike semiconductor transistors, existing metal-based devices do not amplify signals (although they are successful switches or valves).
In this device, the gate electrode produces a field that forces the electron spins to process, just like the precession of a spinning top under the force of gravity. The electron current is modulated by the degree of precession in electron spin introduced by the gate field: An electron passes through the collector if its spin is parallel, and does not if it is antiparallel, to the magnetization. The Datta-Das effect should be most visible for narrow band-gap semiconductors such as InGaAs, which have relatively large spin-orbit interactions (that
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is, a magnetic field introduced by the gate current has a relatively large effect on electron spin). Despite several years of effort, however, the effect has yet to be convincingly demonstrated experimentally.
The all-metal spin transistor is tri-layer structure consists of a nonmagnetic metallic layer sandwiched between two ferromagnets. The all-metal transistor has the same design philosophy as do giant magnetoresistive devices: The current flowing through the structure is modified by the relative orientation of the magnetic layers, which in turn can be controlled by an applied magnetic field. In this scheme, a battery is connected to the control circuit (emitter- base), while the direction of the current in the working circuit (base-collector) is effectively switched by changing the magnetization of the collector. The current is drained from the base in order to allow for the working current to flow under the reverse base-collector bias (antiparallel magnetizations). Neither current nor voltage is amplified, but the device acts as a switch or spin valve to sense changes in an external magnetic field.
(a)
(b)
Fig 1.2 The Spin transistor when ferromagnets are (a) aligned ; (b) non-aligned
In the spin transistor , two ferromagnetic electrodes-the emitter and collectorsandwich a nonmagnetic layerthe base. When the ferromagnets are aligned, current flows from emitter to collector (left). But when the ferromagnets have different directions of magnetization, the current flows out of the base to emitter and collector (right).
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A potentially significant feature of the all-metal spin transistor is that, being all metallic, it can in principle be made extremely small using nano lithographic techniques (perhaps as small as tens of nanometers). An important disadvantage of this transistor is that, being all-metallic, it will be difficult to integrate this spin transistor device into existing semiconductor microelectronic circuitry.
A critical disadvantage of metal-based spintronic devices is that they do not amplify signals. There is no obvious metallic analog of the traditional semiconductor transistor in which draining one electron from the base allows tens of electrons to pass from the emitter into the collector (by reducing the electrostatic barrier generated by electrons trapped in the base)
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It is very important that the cancer cells should be diagnosed at the earlier stages itself failing which develop rapidly into acute tumors.
2.3.1 X-RAYS
X-rays or gamma rays are passed through a particular part of the body to generate an image, e.g. a chest radiograph or a mammogram. To achieve a clearer image, especially in the gastrointestinal tract, lymphatic vessels, urinary tract, etc., contrast medium can be used. This involves injecting or, in the case of gastrointestinal studies, asking the patient to swallow a contrast medium. These contrast media enhance
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Fig 2.1 Diagnosis using X-rays The most important problem with X-Rays is the danger they pose due to prolonged exposure. The radiation can cause damage to the soft tissues. X-Rays use radiation in order to get an internal view of the body and hence many X-Rays cannot be taken at a single time. The rays are so powerful that they can knock electrons off of the atoms when they hit them. The result is the production of ions that create many abnormal reactions in the body. X-Rays have the ability to alter DNA as well. But with the MRI several cross sectional images can be taken at the same time without creating any biological hazards.
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Due to the high contrast resolution of CT scanning, differences between the tissues are more apparent compared to other techniques. Further, imaging in CT scan removes the superimposition of structures other than the area of interest. The data from a single procedure can be viewed in different planes and thus increases diagnostic ability. This technique is also popular because it can be used to diagnose a number of conditions. This might eliminate the need for other diagnostic techniques such as colonoscopy. CT scans are associated with the risk of causing cancers, such as lung cancer, colon cancer and leukemia This is mainly due to the use of X-rays. . There are other safety concerns associated with the use of contrast agents which are administered intravenously. However, these disadvantages can be reduced with the use of lower doses.
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PATHlOLOGY: pathology tests can be used to confirm a clinical diagnosis and, more recently, to monitor a patients disease and response to treatment. The types of pathology tests that can be undertaken include the following.
Pathology tests can be used to confirm a clinical diagnosis and, more recently, to monitor a patients disease and response to treatment. The types of pathology tests that can be undertaken include the following.
Pathology tests can be used to confirm a clinical diagnosis and, more recently, to monitor a patients disease and response to treatment. The types of pathology tests that can be undertaken include the following.
2.4.1 BIOCHEMISTRY
Body fluids such as blood, urine, etc. can be used to identify values that fall outside the range expected in a healthy individual, e.g. an elevated bilirubin and alkaline phosphates could be indicative of liver disease. A raised calcium could indicate bone metastases.
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tests of body fluids, including blood, can be useful in reaching a diagnosis or monitoring an individuals disease.
2.4.4 BIOPSY
A biopsy provides tissue for histological examination.
2.4.5 CYTOLOGY
This involves looking at cells that have been obtained from fluid, secretions or washings from irrigation of cavities or brushing from tissues.
2.5 ENDOSCOPY
This involves the passage of a long flexible bundle of fiber optic lights. Images are reflected back to the head of the endoscope to provide the operator with a clear picture of the tissues/organs being viewed. It is possible for the operator to obtain samples of tissue for histological examination. A pair of special forceps is passed through the endoscope to the area requiring biopsy. The tissue is then retrieved through the endoscope and sent to the laboratory. Cells for cytological examination can also be obtained via endoscopic examinations
An innovative idea of extending the hands of spintronics in MEDICAL FIELD has been developed, in the detection of cancer cells even when they are very few in number in the human body. This approach is relied on two important aspects: (i) the behavior of electron spin in a magnetic field
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The steps involved are, 1) The patient is exposed to a strong magnetic field so that his body cell gets magnetized. 2) A beam of electrons with polarized spin is introduced on the unaffected part of the body and the change in spin is detected by a polarimeter. Let it be X 3) A beam of electrons with polarized spin is introduced on the part which had undergone surgery. And the corresponding change in spin be Y 4)If X - Y = 0, it indicates that cancer cells have been removed from the body, if not it indicates the presence of traces of cancer cells and it has to be treated again for ensuring complete safety to the patient. Thus this technique efficiently identifies the presence of cancer cells in that part of the body that has undergone surgery to prevent any further development The following setup is used for the detection of cancer cells in a human body: (i) Polarized electron source (ii) Magnetic field (iii)Spin detector
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The following are the ways to meet the above said requirement: (i) Photoemission from negative electron affinity GaAs (ii) Chemi-ionization of optically pumped meta stable Helium (iii)An optically pumped electron spin filter (iv) A Wein style injector in the electron source A spin filter is more efficient electron polarizer which uses an ordinary electron source along with a gaseous layer of Rb. Free electrons diffuse under the action of an electric field through Rb vapour that has been spin polarized in optical pumping. Through spin exchange collisions with the Rb, the free electrons become polarized and are extracted to form a beam. To reduce the emission of depolarizing radiation, N2 is used to quench the excited Rb atoms during the optical pumping cycle.
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Fig 3.1 spin filter 1) dc-discharge cold cathode; (2) discharge anode; (3) discharge high-voltage feed through; (4) electrically isolated field plate and exit aperture; (5) Rb ampoule; (6) optical pumping radiation. A magnetic field is applied to the entire apparatus The figure shows the apparatus for achieving significant electron polarization with modest N2 and Rb densities. It consists of a 2.75 Conflat nipple with a glass window at one end, attached to a noble gas optical electron polarimeter at the other. As an electron source, two coaxial electrodes are used to maintain a cold-cathode discharge. The outer anode is generally held at ground, with the cathode at several hundred volts. The intense, light emitting part of the discharge is ring shaped and is well localized between the electrodes. The laser pump beam enters through the window, passes through the electrodes and discharge ring, and is partially reflected by a copper extraction aperture that is also electrically isolated. A longitudinal electric field of ~20 V/cm established between the cathode and the extraction aperture drives the free electrons
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through the Rb/buffer mixture. As with the test cell, nRb can be controlled by heating the source chamber. Nitrogen is admitted from a side port. The laser probe beam enters through the window and passes through the extraction aperture and the optical polarimeter before being detected by a photodiode. During use, the source tube is heated to ~100
0
weeks. A longitudinal field of up to 600 G is applied to the source and the entrance to the polarimeter. The polarimeter chamber is made of Pyrex and is pumped with a 1000 l/s diffusion pump which maintains the vacuum below 10-4 Torr. Electrons extracted from the source are guided to a region where they collisionally excite an effusive neon target. The Stokes parameters of radiation from the Ne 2p53p3D3 state are measured with an optical polarimeter, which views the collision region through the side of the chamber. The Stokes parameters can then be used to determine the electron polarization. The extracted electron currents are larger and more stable when the N2 pressure is kept quite low.
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last lens. The electrons next enter the target chamber. The chamber consists of a cylindrical target within a polished stainless steel hemisphere. A common material used for the high-Z nuclei target is gold. Low-Z nuclei help minimize unwanted scattering, so aluminum was chosen. Scattered electrons then exit the target chamber and are collected in the detectors. Thus there are many methods for detecting the spin polarization of electrons.
There are two forces that act on the electron as it approaches the Au nucleus, one due to
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the magnetic field and one due to the electric field. Because the electron has a spin angular momentum, the force exerted by the magnetic field depends on whether the electron scatters to the left or right. If the potential scattering curves are plotted for the electron, the curves become skewed one way or the other depending on the electrons spin. This leads to an asymmetry in the left/right scattering probabilities:
where IL and IR are the currents detected in the left and right channels of the polarimeter. Another important parameter in discussing Mott polarimeters is the figure of merit:
where Io is the current entering the polarimeter, I is the total scattered current, and S eff2 is the analyzing power of the apparatus:
The electrons next enter the target chamber. The chamber consists of a cylindrical target within a polished stainless steel hemisphere. A common material used for the high-Z nuclei target is gold. Careful consideration must also be employed in choosing the material. Low-Z nuclei help minimize unwanted scattering, so aluminum was chosen. Scattered electrons then exit the target chamber and are collected in the detectors. The
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target is shown in red and the inner hemisphere in orange. A simple filament and aperture produce a small beam of electrons. The deflectors in the transport system were used to raster the beam across the opening to the target chamber. Current was then measured on the target. This is shown schematically below. The background current is due to electrons scattered upstream of the target.
Polarized electrons are an indispensable probe of spin-dependent phenomena in many areas of physics , but they are difficult to produce. State-of-the-art sources of polarized electrons use either photoemission from negative-electron-affinity GaAs (or variants of its basic structure) or chemi-ionization of optically pumped metastable He.
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Fig 3.6 graph of downstream Deflectors Both of these methods can yield average currents on the order of 100 mA with polarizations in excess of 70%. Unfortunately, such sources are technically and operationally complex.
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Fig 3.7 The spintronic scanner experimental setup The procedure for doing this experiment is as follows: i) After surgery and the removal of the tumor, the patient is exposed to a strong magnetic field. ii) Now the polarized electron beam is applied over the unaffected part and spin orientation of electrons are determined using polarimeter. iii) Then the same polarized beam is targeted over the affected part of the body and from the reflected beam, change in spin is determined. Based on these two values of spin orientation, the presence of tumor cells can be detected even if they are very few in numbers. Hence this method is suggested for the detection purpose. A detailed view of this approach is given as follows.
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Fig 3.8 Applying magnetic field to the unaffected part of the body
When the magnetic field is applied to the unaffected part of the human body, the normal somatic cells absorbs the magnetic energy and retains it.
When the electrons get incident on the cells the magnetic energy absorbed by the cells alters the spin orientation of the electrons. These electrons get reflected and it is detected by the Mott polarimeter. Then the change in spin orientation of the electrons is measured as Sx.
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In the surgery undergone part of the body an external magnetic field is applied.The cancer cells which are present, if any, will absorb more magnetic energy than the normal cells since they differ in their electromagnetic pattern.
Fig 3.10 Applying magnetic field to surgery undergone part of the body
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electron beam. Since cancer cells absorb more magnetic energy, the change in orientation caused by them are also more. If no cancer cells are present the amount of change is equal to the previous case. The change in spin is measured by the polarimeter as Sy.
3.10 INFERENCE:
If the change in the spin in the unaffected part of the body is same as that of the surgery undergone part, i.e. If Sx=Sy Then, There are no cancer cells in the surgery undergone part of the body and all the cells have been removed by the surgery. If the change in spin in the unaffected part is not equal to the change caused by the surgery undergone part of the body, i.e. If Sx not equals Sy , Then, There are some cancer cells in the surgery undergone part of the body and the cancer cells are not completely removed by the surgery.
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3.11 ADVANTAGES The various advantages of Spintronics are as follows: Spintronics does not require unique and specialised semiconductors, therefore it can be implemented or worked with common metals, such as Copper, Aluminium and Silver. Spintronics devices would consume less power compared to conventional electronics, because the energy needed to change spin is a easy compared to energy needed to push charge around. Since Spins don`t change when power is turned off, the memory remains nonvolatile. The peculiar nature of spin and quantum theory describes it point to other wonderful possibility like various logic gates whose function can be changed billion times per second. Avoiding energy loss or dissipation at room temperature:
So far, only superconductors were known to carry current without any dissipation, which was possible only at extremely low temperatures, typically -150 degree Celsius. And due this characteristic they could not be used in commercial devices. But by modifying electron`s spin property with a sensitive spin detector, dissipationless spin current could be made to flow even at room temperature. With lack of dissipation, spintronics may be the best mechanism for creating eversmaller devices. With lack of dissipation, spintronics may be the best mechanism for creating ever-smaller devices.
3.12 DISADVANTAGES
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There
will
be
interference
of
fields
with
the
nearest
element.
Suppose individual memory elements are addressed by flipping their spins up or down to yield the zeros and ones of binary computer logic. In that case, the common strategy of running current pulses through wires to induce magnetic fields to rotate the elements is flawed. This may happen because the fringe fields that are generated may interfere with neighboring elements.
3.13 CONCLUSION
With lack of dissipation, spintronics may be the best mechanism for creating ever-smaller devices. Spin can be easily manipulated by externally applied magnetic fields. Another property of spin is its long coherence, or relaxation, timeonce created it tends to stay that way for a long time, unlike charge states, which are easily destroyed by scattering or collision with defects, impurities or other charges. The Spintronic scanner is used in MEDICAL FIELD for the detection of cancer cells even when they are very few in number in the human body. If the change in the spin in the unaffected part of the body is same as that of the surgery undergone part, then there are no cancer cells in the surgery undergone part of the body and all the cells have been removed by the surgery. If the change in spin in the unaffected part is not equal to the change caused by the surgery undergone part of the body, then, there are some cancer cells in the surgery undergone part of the body and the cancer cells are not completely removed by the surgery.
3.14 REFERENCES
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V. M. Novotortsev and V. T. Kalinnikovb., November 2004, Spintronics and spintronics materials - Russian Chemical Bulletin., Vol. 53, No. 11 (pg. 2357 2405). Zutic, Fabian, and Das Sarma., APRIL 2004, Spintronics: Fundamentals and applications - Reviews of Modern Physics, Vol.76, No.9, (pg. 323-382)
Janice Gabriel., 2004 , Whurr Publishers Ltd., The Biology of Cancer. (Pg. 311, 96-110)
H. Batelaan, A. S. Green., 24 MAY 1999., Optically Pumped Electron Spin Filter., Vol 82, No.21, (Pg 4216-4219) .
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