Revision Flash Cards

1 Atomic structure The nucleus contains protons (positively charged) and neutrons (neutrally charged i.e. no charge). The atomic number (proton number) is equal to the number of protons in the atoms nucleus. The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Ions do not have the same number of electrons as protons, and so have an overall charge. 2 Isotopes and relative masses Isotopes are atoms having the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. The relative atomic mass is the weighted mean mass of an atom relative to 12C, so that carbon is exactly 12 on this scale. The average relative atomic mass is equal to the sum of each isotopes mass for an element x its relative abundance. The relative formula mass of a compound is equal to the sum of the individual relative atomic masses.

3 The mole A mole is the S.I. unit for amount of substance and has units of mol. One mole of a substance is simply the relative formula mass for a compound, or relative atomic mass for an element in grams. The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound. The molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.

4 Calculations using the mole Mass calculations: calculate the amount of substance and then use the chemical equation to deduce the moles of required substance. Gas calculations: 1mol of any gas occupies 24000 cm3 or 24dm3 at room temperature. Solution calculations: the amount of substance dissolved is equal to the concentration x the volume of solution (in dm3). A dilute solution consists of a small amount of dissolved solute. A concentrated solution consists of a large amount of solute. 6 Reactions of acids and bases Salts are formed when a hydrogen ion from the acid is replaced by a metal ion, or an ammonium ion. Acids react with bases to form a salt and water only; they react with metal carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas. Metals react with acids to form a salt and hydrogen gas. Salts may chemically combine with water as water of crystallisation in hydrated salts. (Without water in anhydrous salts.)

5 Acids and bases An acid is a hydrogen ion (H+) or proton donor in solution, whereas a base is a hydrogen ion or proton acceptor in solution. Hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) are common acids. Bases include metal oxides (e.g. MgO), metal hydroxides (e.g. NaOH) and ammonia (NH3). Alkalis are soluble bases and form hydroxide ions, OH-, in solution.

7 Oxidation numbers An oxidation number indicates the formal charge of a chemically combined particle in a compound. The oxidation number of metals usually equals the group number (as a positive value) and minus (8 group number) for non-metals. An element has been oxidised if the oxidation number increases, and reduced if the oxidation number decreases. When they react, metals are normally oxidised (they lose electrons), whereas non-metals gain electrons and are reduced.

8 Electronic structure Electrons occupy energy levels around the nucleus of the atom, where each shell has a principal quantum number. For principal quantum number, n = 1, the number of electrons is 2; for n = 2, the number is 8; then 18; then 32 electrons for n = 4. Main energy levels are sub-divided into sub-shells and these consist of orbitals called s, p and d-orbitals. Elements have an electronic configuration that can be shown in s, p or d notation, for example, sodium is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1.

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9 Chemical bonding Ionic bonding takes place when positive ions and negative ions are attracted in a giant ionic structure. Covalent bonding is the sharing of electron pair(s) between nuclei of atoms. The covalent bond and ionic bond are both very strong chemical bonds. A dative covalent bond is one formed in which both electrons are donated from the same atom. 10 Molecular shapes The shape of a molecule is determined by the repulsion between bonded electrons and non-bonded electrons (lone pairs). Lone electron pairs repel more than bonded pairs of electrons and give rise to distorted shapes. By deducing the number of bonded electron pairs and lone pairs of electrons, the shape of a molecule may be predicted. BF3 is trigonal planar; CH4 and NH4+ are tetrahedral; SF6 is octahedral; H2O is non-linear (V-shaped/bent); CO2 is linear and ammonia, NH3, as pyramidal 12 Bonding and physical properties Metals consist of a close-packed arrangement of positive ions, through which delocalised electrons move. Metals are very good electrical conductors as a result of having mobile electrons. Giant structures have high melting and boiling points due to strong chemical bonds acting throughout the structure. Giant ionic structures conduct electricity when molten, and when dissolved in water due to mobile ions, not electrons. 14 Group 2 elements the alkaline earth metals These elements all react with water to form a solution of the hydroxide and hydrogen gas. These elements react with oxygen to form the oxide. Reactivity increases on descending the group because the outer two electrons are further from the nucleus and are less shielded. Metal hydroxides are weak alkalis and typically have a pH between 8 and 11. Group 2 carbonates decompose with greater difficulty as the group is descended, to form the metal oxide and carbon dioxide gas. 16 Reactions of chlorine and halide ions Chlorine disproportionates in water to form hydrochloric acid and chloric(I) acid, the latter being an oxidising agent. Chlorine also disproportionates in cold, aqueous sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride, sodium chlorate(I) and water. Chlorine is used to kill germs in water supplies, but is also toxic to humans at higher doses. Halide ions are detected with silver(I) nitrate solution and the subsequent reaction with ammonia solution.

11 Intermolecular forces An intermolecular force exists between molecules and may include hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole or van der Waals forces. Electronegativity is the ability of an atom in a covalent bond to attract a bonded pair of electrons towards itself. Hydrogen bonding arises in molecules in which a hydrogen atom is bonded to either an N or O atom. Water molecules, and other substances consisting of hydrogen bonding, have anomalous properties as a result. 13 Periodicity When the elements are arranged in order of their atomic number, there is a regular repetition of physical and chemical properties. Elements in the same group have similar chemical and physical properties. In the Periodic Table, ionisation energies increase moving across a period from left to right, and decrease moving down a group. Electron structures, atomic radii, melting points and boiling points all show periodicity.

15 Group 7 elements the halogens All halogens exist as diatomic molecules in which van der Waals intermolecular forces act between the molecules. Halogens dissolve in organic solvents, like hexane, to form characteristic colours, for example, iodine forms a purple solution. Halogen atoms gain one electron to form halide ions, X-, and this ability becomes easier on moving up the group. Halogen atoms become larger on descending the group, so a gained electron is only weakly attracted due to greater shielding.

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17 Representing organic compounds The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound. The molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule. The general formula is an algebraic formula for a member of a homologous series, for example, CnH2n+2 for an alkane. Structural, displayed and skeletal formulae are all used to show organic molecules in different ways. 18 Isomerism Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula, but different structural formulae. Stereoisomers are compounds with the same structural formula, but with a different arrangement in space. E/Z isomerism is an example of stereoisomerism in which lack of free rotation about the C=C bond allows two different forms to exist. Cis-trans isomerism occurs when two hydrogen atoms, on different carbon atoms, adopt either the same or opposite sides of the C=C.

19 Hydrocarbons from crude oil A hydrocarbon is a compound containing hydrogen and carbon atoms only. Crude oil is separated by fractional distillation, in which the fractions have different boiling points. The carbon atom in hydrocarbons, as in alkanes, is forming four single covalent bonds in a tetrahedral arrangement. As the chain length of the hydrocarbons increases, so too does the size of the van der Waals force, resulting in a high boiling point.

20 Reaction of alkanes Alkanes are hydrocarbons, and their molecules are weakly attracted by van der Waals forces. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons; this means that they consist of only carbon single bonds. Alkanes are mainly used as fuels, when combusted they provide heat energy. Alkanes react with halogens in ultraviolet light to form halogenoalkanes. This is a free radical substitution mechanism.

21 Alkenes Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons; they consist of one or more carbon double bonds, making them more reactive than alkanes. A double bond consists of a and a bond. The bond is formed by the adjacent overlap of p-orbitals. The bond is the reactive part of the double bond; the bond is of lower reactivity. The arrangement of the bond about the carbon double bond is trigonal planar, with an internal angle of 120.

22 Chemical reactions of the alkenes Alkenes react with hydrogen (to form alkanes); with halogens (to form dihalogenoalkanes); and steam (to form alcohols). Alkenes also react with hydrogen halides (to form halogenoalkanes) and can polymerise to form addition polymers, e.g. polypropene. The reaction between a halogen and an alkene involves an electrophilic addition mechanism. An electrophile is a lone pair electron acceptor.

23 Properties and preparation of ethanol Alcohols consist of one or more OH groups in an organic molecule. Alcohols are all water soluble and have relatively high boiling points (are not very volatile) as a result of hydrogen bonding. Ethanol can be made industrially by the reaction of ethane with steam in the presence of a phosphoric(V) acid catalyst. Ethanol for the drinks industry is produced by the fermentation of sugars, such as glucose.

24 Reactions of alcohols Alcohols may be classed as either primary, secondary or tertiary. Primary alcohols may be oxidised to form aldehydes then carboxylic acids, and secondary alcohols to form ketones. Alcohols may react with carboxylic acids, in the presence of a concentrated sulfuric(VI) acid catalyst, to form esters. Alcohols may eliminate water, in the presence of an acid catalyst, to form alkenes.

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25 Halogenoalkanes Halogenoalkanes are formed when a hydrocarbon has one or more hydrogen atoms substituted for halogen atoms. Halogenoalkanes may be hydrolysed to form alcohols, using hot sodium hydroxide solution. The hydroxide ion acts as a nucleophile when reacting with a halogenoalkane. A nucleophile is a lone pair electron donor. The CI bond is weaker than the CBr and CCl bond, and so it breaks faster when attacked by nucleophiles. 26 Uses of halogenoalkanes Chloroethene and tetrafluoroethene are used to make the polymers PVC and PTFE (Teflon) respectively. CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) were manufactured for use in aerosols and refrigerants because of their low reactivity and high volatility. CFCs have caused the ozone layer to break down, leading to an increased intensity in damaging ultraviolet radiation on Earth. Biodegradable CFCs and HCFCs are now used as alternatives to CFCs.

27 Modern analytical techniques Infrared spectroscopy is used to detect the presence of certain covalent bonds in an organic molecule by bond vibration. An absorption of approximately 3000cm-1 appears in most organic molecules, as this relates to the C-H bond. Mass spectrometry can be used to detect the presence of isotopes and their abundances. When an organic molecule is placed into a mass spectrometer, fragments may appear, such as C2H5+ at m/z = 29. 29 Rates of reaction The collision theory enables us to explain the effect of changing concentration, surface area, temperature etc on reaction rates. For a reaction, collisions must take place between particles with sufficient energy before a successful collision may result. A catalyst works by increasing the rate of a chemical reaction, at the end of which the catalyst is chemically unchanged. A catalytic converter allows pollutant gases like CO and NO to react on the surface of Pd, Pt and Rh to form less harmful products. 31 Dynamic chemical equilibrium In a reaction at equilibrium, the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal. Le Chateliers principle: an equilibrium will oppose a change in external conditions by shifting to reduce the effect of the change. In the Haber process, a compromise temperature is used between the rate and yield for ammonia. A greater yield of ammonia is formed at high pressure due to fewer gas molecules existing on the product side of the equilibrium.

28 Enthalpy changes Exothermic reactions are those that produce heat energy, while endothermic reactions absorb heat energy. Standard enthalpy of formation is the heat change involved when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements under standard conditions. Standard enthalpy of combustion is the heat released when one mole of a compound is combusted in excess oxygen under standard conditions. Average bond enthalpy is the heat energy required to break one mole of the specified bonds in the gas phase. 30 Temperature and its effect on reaction rate Particles at a fixed temperature: a range of energies some have low and some high, but most have a middling energy. Reactions have a certain minimum energy requirement for a reaction to take place; this is called the activation energy. As temperature increases, the distribution moves to the right, giving a greater proportion of molecules exceeding the activation energy. As more particles have an energy exceeding the activation energy, there will be a greater chance of a successful collision. 32 The chemistry of the air The greenhouse effect results from certain gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, absorbing infrared radiation. Bonds like C=O, OH and CH bonds in carbon dioxide, water and methane absorb infrared radiation. Ozone in the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the Sun and oxygen is formed. This is a reversible process. Air pollution can be controlled by reducing hazardous chemicals from industry and using high atom economy processes.

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