POWER APPARATUS MODELING AND PER UNIT

SYSTEMS
System Modeling
Generator, Transformer and Load Modeling
Per Unit (PU) Analysis
17-Jan-11 EE 308 Power Systems 18
System Modeling
Systems are represented on a per-phase basis
A 1- representation is used for a balanced system
the system is modeled as one phase of a Y-connected network
Symmetrical components are used for unbalanced
systems
unbalance systems may be caused by: generation,
network components, loads, or unusual operating
conditions such as faults
The per-unit (PU) system of measurements is used
Review of basic network component models
Generators, Transformers, Loads, and Transmission
lines
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Generator Models
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Generator may be modeled in three different ways:
Power Injection Model - the real, P, and reactive, Q, power of
the generator is specified at the node that the generator is
connected
either the voltage or injected current is specified at the
connected node, allowing the other quantity to be determined
Thevenin Model - induced AC voltage, E, behind the
synchronous reactance, X
d
Norton Model - injected AC current, I
G
, in parallel with the
synchronous reactance, X
d
Transformer Model
Transformer equivalent circuit, with secondary impedances
referred to the primary side
17-Jan-11 EE 308 Power Systems 21
Figure source: wikipedia
Load Models
Models are selected based on both the type of analysis and
the load characteristics. Three main static load models are:
Constant impedance, Z
load
Load is made up of R, L, and C elements connected to a network node
and the ground (or neutral point of the system)
Constant current, I
load
The load has a constant current magnitude I, and a constant power factor,
independent of the nodal voltage
Also considered as a current injection into the network
Constant power (PQ) , S
load
The load has a constant real, P, and reactive, Q, power component
independent of nodal voltage or current injection
Also considered as a negative power injection into the network
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Per Unit (PU) Analysis (1/4)
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P.U. : ratio of the actual quantity to its base values
ActualQuantity
P.U.Quantities
BaseQuantity
=
( )
2
Base
PU Actual
Base
S
Z Z
V
=
1- system
Base
Base
Base
Base
S MVA
V kV

3- system
A
V
S
I
Base
Base
Base

=
1000
( )
Base
Base
Base
Base
Base
S
V
I
V
Z
2
1000
=

=
( )
2
Base
PU Actual
Base
S
Z Z
V
=
( )
Base
Base
Base
Base
Base
S
V
I
V
Z
2
3
1000
=

=
A
V
S
I
Base
Base
Base
3
1000
=
Per Unit (PU) Analysis (2/4)
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Changing the base of PU quantities
( )
( )
2
2
Old Old
Actual
New
PU Base
PU
New New
Base Base
New Old
Base Base
Old
PU
Old
New
Base
Base
Z
Z Z
Z
Z Z
S V
Z
S
V

= =
=
Per Unit (PU) Analysis (3/4)
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1. Pick for the whole system
2. Pick arbitrarily (according to line-to-line voltage).
Relate all the others by transformer ratio.
3. Calculate for different zones.
4. Express all quantities in P.U.
5. Draw impedance diagram and solve for P.U. quantities.
6. Convert back to actual quantities if needed.
Base
S
Base
V
Base
Z
Steps for a PU analysis
Per Unit (PU) Analysis (4/4)
Divide circuit into zones by transformers.
Specify two base values out of ; for example,
and
Specify voltage base in the ratio of zone voltage (L-L).
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Base
S
Base
V
B B B B
S Z V I , , ,
Source
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
Zone 4
1
Base
V
2
Base
V
3
Base
V
4
Base
V
2 1
:V V
3 2
:V V
4 3
:V V
1
1
Base
Base
Base
S
I
V
=
1
1
1
Base
Base
Base
V
Z
I
=
How to Choose Base Values ?
Example 5.14, p. 164-166
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Given a one line diagram of
the 3- system,
g
I
load
V
load
P
load
I
Tr
I
Find , , , , and .
Power system analysis by
A.R. Bergen and V. Vittal
~
5 MVA
13.2 132 Y kV
10 MVA
138 Y - 69 kV
line
10 100 Z j = + O
g
I
1
0.1 p.u.
T
X =
2
0.08 p.u.
T
X =
( )
13.2
g L L
V kV

=
load
300 Z = O
Tr
I
Load
I
Example 5.14 (Contd)
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Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
3
10
B
S MVA
|
=
1
B
13.8
L L
V kV

=
B
2
138
L L
V kV

=
3
B
69 V kV =
( )
1
1
2
2 L L
B
B
B
13.8
19.04
10
V
kV
Z
S MVA

= = = O
( )
2
2
2
2
B
B
B
138
1904
10
L L
V
kV
Z
S MVA

= = = O
( )
3
3
2
2
B
B
B
69
476
10
L L
V
kV
Z
S MVA

= = = O
Step 1, 2, and 3: Base Values
~
5 MVA
13.2 132 Y kV
10 MVA
138 Y - 69 kV
line
10 100 Z j = + O
g
I
1
0.1 p.u.
T
X =
2
0.08 p.u.
T
X =
( )
13.2
g L L
V kV

=
load
300 Z = O
Tr
I
Load
I
Example 5.14 (Contd)
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Step 4: All per unit quantities
+
-
( )
( )
2
1,p.u. 2
13.2
10
0.1 0.183
5
13.8
T
kV
MVA
X
MVA
kV
= =
2
0.08p.u.
T
X =
( )
2
3 line
line, p.u.
B
10 100
5.25 10 1 10
1904
Z j
Z j
Z

+ O
= = = +
1
g
g, p.u.
B
13.2
0.9565 0
13.8
V
kV
V
V kV
= = = Z
3
load
load, p.u.
B
300
0.63
476
Z
Z
Z
O
= = =
O
( )
( )
2
2
new old
base base
new old
pu pu
old
new
base
base
S V
Z Z
S
V
=
Example 5.14 (Contd)
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Step 5: One phase diagram & solve
+
-
1,p.u.
0.183
T
X =
2
0.08
T
X =
( ) 10 1 10 25 . 5
3
p.u. line,
j Z + =

g,p.u.
0.9565 0 V = Z

63 . 0
p.u. load,
= Z
g,p.u.
load,p.u.
total,p.u.
0.9565 0
1.35 26.4
0.709 26.4
V
I
Z
Z
= = = Z
Z

g,p.u. Tr,p.u. load,p.u.

1.35 26.4 I I I = = = Z

load,p.u. load,p.u. load,p.u.
0.8505 26.4 V I Z = = Z

*
load,p.u. load,p.u. load,p.u.
1.1474 S V I = =
Example 5.14 (Contd)
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Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
~
line
10 100 Z j = + O
g
I
kV V
g
2 . 13 =
load
300 Z = O
1
g g,p.u. B
I I I =
2
,p.u. B Tr Tr
I I I =
3
load load,p.u. B
I I I =
3
load load,p.u. B
V V V =
load load,p.u. B
S S S =
g,p.u. Tr,p.u. load,p.u.
1.35 26.4 I I I = = = Z

load,p.u.
0.8505 26.4 V = Z

load,p.u.
1.1474 S =
Step 6: Convert back to actual quantities
5 MVA
13.2 132 Y kV
1
0.1 p.u.
T
X =
10 MVA
138 Y - 69 kV
2
0.08 p.u.
T
X =
1
1
3
B
L L
B
B
S
I
V
|

=
2
B
13.2
418.4 41.84
132
I = =
6
3
10 10 3
418.4
3 13.8 10

= =

3
B
138
41.84 83.67
69
I = =
Advantages of P.U. System
P.U. representation results in a more meaningful data. It
gives a clear idea of relative magnitudes of various
quantities.
It is more uniform compare to actual impedance value of
different sizes of equipment
It is very useful in simulating power systems for steady-
state and dynamic analysis.
The P.U. equivalent impedance, voltages, and currents of
any transformers are the same referred to either primary
or the secondary side.
Different voltage levels disappear across the entire system.
The system reduces to a system of simple impedances
P.U. impedance is the same irrespective of the type of 3-
transformer
17-Jan-11 EE 308 Power Systems 32