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HANDBOOK OF

Measuring System
DESIGN

EDITORS PETER H. SYDENHAM RICHARD THORN

ARTICLE
OFFPRINT
203: Resistance Measurement
Halit Eren
Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

pull-down, impedance matching, voltage division, gain con-

1 Characteristics of Resistance 1371 trol, bias set, and so on.
2 Basic Theory of Resistance 1372 The resistance of a resistor varies with manufacturing
tolerances, temperature humidity, and voltage stress. Tol-
3 Resistance Measuring Networks 1373
erances arise owing to manufacturing techniques, trimming
4 Bridges for Resistance Measurements 1373 of the material for the desired value, packaging, and solder-
5 Indicators for Use with Bridges 1375 ing of the leads to resistive parts. The percentage variation
6 Substitution Methods 1375 of resistances quoted by the manufacturers is typically 20,
7 Variable Resistance Use 1375 10, 5, and 1%. Precision resistors can have tolerance less
8 Accuracy and Loading Effects 1376 than 1% but they are much more expensive.
9 Power Rating of Resistors 1376 Although resistors are manufactured in set values with
some degree of tolerance, in many cases the exact val-
10 Standards of Resistance 1377
ues must be known. There are many methods of mea-
Further Reading 1377
suring resistances, as will be discussed in detail in this
article. However, during measurements, careful consider-
ation may be necessary due to numerous pitfalls. For
1 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESISTANCE example, when the resistance to be measured is small,
then the resistance of the leads can cause a significant
Resistance can be defined as the element in an electrical cir- source of error. To deal with this problem, appropriate
cuit that limits the flow of current in that circuit. Resistance leads must be selected and the connection resistances must
of a material varies inversely proportional to the cross- be minimized.
sectional area of the material and directly proportional with Apart from the direct measurement of the resistance of
its length and resistivity. Electrical energy flowing in a cir- resistors and circuits, many sensors have resistive prop-
cuit containing resistance is converted to heat as the square erties, thus requiring employment of appropriate signal
of the current flowing through the resistance. processing techniques to monitor minute variations in
Materials that have low resistance are known as conduc- resistances.
tors and those that have very high resistance are known as An example is the resistance temperature detector (RTD),
insulators. At very low and specific temperatures, some which is based on the changes in electrical resistance
materials exhibit zero resistance, a phenomenon termed with respect to temperature – see Article 197, Metallic
superconductivity. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs), Volume 3.
Resistance is one of the basic properties of electri- Another example is the strain gauge displacement sen-
cal circuits and manufactured components called resistors. sor, which is based on resistance properties of electrical
Although the primary function of resistors is to restrict conductors – see Article 192, Strain Sensors, Volume 3.
current, they also find many other uses, such as pull-up, In this case, as the conductor is stretched or compressed,

Handbook of Measuring System Design, edited by Peter H. Sydenham and Richard Thorn.
 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-02143-8.
1372 Common Measurands
its resistance alters owing to dimensional changes in the
metal-film types.
Commercially available resistance measuring devices can
be divided into three main groups: low-resistance meters,
medium-resistance meters, and high-resistance meters.
Many manufacturers supply meters ranging from few nano
ohms to hundreds of tera ohms.
2 BASIC THEORY OF RESISTANCE
Resistance is related to current, voltage, and physical prop-
erties of materials. Current can flow in any medium in
which there are conduction charges free to move. The
conduction charges may be electrons, positively charged
‘holes’, or positive or negative ions, depending on the mate-
rial. During current flow, the charges exhibit continuous
random motion, colliding with each other as well as with
atomic structure of the material.
When a conducting material is placed in an electric field,
the conducting charges are accelerated in the direction of
the field. The field adds a small average drift velocity to
the random velocity. The magnitude of the drift velocity,
vd , is related to the strength of the field E by
vd = µE (1)
where µ is known as the mobility of the charge carriers.
The rate of flow of electric charge across a unit area of
a plane normal to the direction of vd is the current density,
J , is given by
J = nqvd (2)
where n is the density of charge carriers and q is the
charge of each particle. For electronic conductors, the elec-
tron charge, e = q = 1.6 × 10−19 C. Combining (1) and (2)
gives
J = nqµE = σ E (3)
where σ is the conductivity of the material, in Siemens
per meter and J is the current density in coulombs per
square meter per second. The inverse of conductivity is
called the resistivity (ρ), which is measured in VmA−1
or m. While the range of conductivity is somewhat
arbitrary, it is very low in insulators, σ < 10−15 S cm−1 ,
intermediate in semiconductors, σ = 10−5 to 103 S cm−1 ,
very high in conductors, σ = 104 to 106 S cm−1 , and infinite
in superconductors.
The mobility, µ, usually decreases with increasing tem-
perature due to collisions between the moving electrons,
that is, lattice vibrations. The number of charge carriers,
n, remains constant for metallic conductors with increasing
temperature, but increases exponentially for semiconductors
and insulators. Thus, at very high temperatures some insu-
lators become semiconducting, while at low temperatures
some semiconductors become insulators.
Equations (1), (2), and (3) may be linked to basic electri-
cal circuit theory by considering the flow of electric current
in a section of a wire having a cross-sectional area of
A and length l. Assuming a current I is uniformly dis-
tributed across the cross-section, the current density can be
expressed as
I
J = (4)
A
Expressing the relationship between the electric field in the
wire and the potential difference between its ends gives
V
E= (5)
l
Thus, from (3), (4), and (5), the relation between voltage
and current becomes


ρl
V = I = RI (6)
A
Therefore, the resistance R of a material can be expressed
as
ρl
R= (7)
A
R is a quantity representing the electric behavior of the
circuit element under DC conditions. When a sinusoidal
voltage is applied, the behavior of other circuit elements,
such as capacitors and inductors, becomes significant.
In sinusoidal operation, the current flowing is determined
by the reactance of the components of the circuit. Reactance
is the ratio of the applied voltage to the applied current.
Inductors have inductive reactance XL = 2πf L , where
f is the frequency in Hz and L is the inductance in Henrys.
Capacitance has capacitive reactance XC = (1/2πf C) ,
where C is the capacitance in Farads.
The total effect of combined resistance and reactance in
an AC circuit is called the impedance, Z, and its unit is
ohm. Impedance is the vector sum of the resistance and
reactance in the circuit. Impedance can be expressed in the
vector form as
Z = R + j (XL − XC ) (8)
It can be seen in (8) that measurement of resistance may
not be all that easy in circuits as the circuits will often
contain some degree of inductive and capacitive proper-
ties, these often being the unpreventable imperfections of
real systems.

In addition, resistors themselves may exhibit inductive
and capacitive properties, which may have significant reac-
tive properties at certain frequencies.
The impedance properties of circuits may be signifi-
cant in many applications; hence, numerous measurement
techniques have been developed. However, in this arti-
cle, we will primarily concentrate on the measurement
of resistance.
Thus, it can be seen that the simple resistance element is
actually a complex component when its precise measure-
ment is needed.
3 RESISTANCE MEASURING NETWORKS
Impedance in the AC, and resistance in the DC circuits are
important parameters that characterize the circuit behavior,
components, and materials used to make these components.
In order to measure impedance, it is necessary to mea-
sure at least two values since it is a complex quantity,
as expressed by 8. There are many modern impedance-
measuring instruments that determine the total impedance
and then determine the real and imaginary part for resistive
and reactive components.
There exist many resistance and impedance measurement
methods, each of which has advantages and disadvantages.
Some of these methods are
• bridge method
• I-V method
• constant current source method
• network analysis method
• resonant method and more.
3.1 Bridge method
The unknown resistance or impedance forms one of the
arms of an electrical bridge – see Article 126, Electrical
Bridge Circuits – Basic Information, Volume 2. When
no current flows through the detector, the value of the
unknown component can be expressed from the relationship
with the other bridge elements. The electrical bridge method
is used extensively in resistance measurements; hence,
Section 4 is dedicated to this method. This method gives
typical accuracies of 0.1% and is applicable for a frequency
range of DC to 300 MHz.
3.2 I-V method
The unknown impedance or resistance is calculated from
the measured voltage and current values. Current is calcu-
lated using the voltage measurement across an accurately
Resistance Measurement 1373
known resistor. In some cases, low-loss transformers are
used to prevent the effects caused by the use of low-value
resistor in the circuit. This is the most suitable for probe-
type tests and the frequency range is typically from 10 KHz
to 100 MHz.
3.3 Constant current source method
This is the method employed in most multimeters to mea-
sure resistances. The resistance measurements are made
using a current source and a normal voltage input. The cur-
rent flows through the unknown resistance and the voltage
drop across the resistance is measured. For example, a 1-
mA current source will provide a voltage of 100 mV across
the 100  of a Pt100 temperature measuring device at 0 ◦ C.
This method is applicable in the laboratory environment for
a wide range of resistances.
3.4 Network analysis method
In AC applications, the reflection coefficient from the
unknown impedance or resistance is obtained by measuring
the ratio of the incident signal and the reflected signal. A
directional coupler or bridge is used to detect the reflected
signal and a network analyzer is used to supply and mea-
sure the signals. This is mainly used in high-frequency
applications from 300 kHz and above. It gives good results
when the unknown impedance is close to the characteris-
tic impedance.
3.5 Resonant method
When a circuit is adjusted to resonance by tuning capaci-
tors, the unknown impedance can be determined from the
frequency, capacitance value, and Q-factor. The Q-factor
can directly be measured by using a voltmeter across the
tuning capacitor. It is accurate in low-impedance measure-
ments in the range of 10 kHz to 70 MHz.
Some of these methods will be explained in greater detail
in the sections to follow.
4 BRIDGES FOR RESISTANCE
MEASUREMENTS
Bridges are commonly used to measure basic electri-
cal quantities such as resistance, capacitance, inductance,
impedance, and admittance. There are two groups of
bridges, the AC bridge and the DC bridge. In each type,
there exist numerous configurations such as the Wheatstone,
1374 Common Measurands

and Kelvin DC bridges, and Schering, Maxwell, Hay, and

Owen AC bridges.
Bridges are essentially two-port networks in which the Z1 Z2
component to be measured is connected to one of the V
branches of the network. For a detailed explanation of
electrical bridges, refer to Article 126, Electrical Bridge Z4 Z3
Circuits – Basic Information, Volume 2 and Article 127,
Unbalanced DC Bridges, Volume 2. +
In a particular instrument, the selection of the bridge to
be employed and the determination of values and tolerances −
of its components are very important. A typical example of
an AC bridge, a series RC bridge, is given in Figure 1. We Figure 2. A deflection bridge.
also offer some analysis briefly to illustrate their typical
principles of operation.
the bridge diagonal as illustrated in Figure 2. This figure
From Figure 1, at balance when the detector D shows
also symbolizes a typical bridge amplifier. There are many
zero:
other configurations of bridge amplifiers, depending on the
Z1 Z3 = Z2 Zx (9) grounding and the availability of grounded or floating ref-
erence voltages.
Substitution of impedance values to this gives In Figure 2, the output of the bridge is a nonlinear


 function of unbalance. In small ranges of measurements,
R1 − j Rx − j the nonlinearity may be considered to be quasi-linear, but
R3 = R2 (10)
ωC1 ωCx must be linearized by suitable techniques for large ranges.
The null-bridge requires it to be balanced at all times.
Equating the real and imaginary terms gives the values of This is achieved by adjusting one of the arms in response
unknown components as to variations in the other arm that carries the sensor. Null
R1 R3 bridges have superior linearization characteristics compared
Rx = (11) to deflection bridges.
R2
Wheatstone bridges, either in null or deflection modes,
and are commonly used for the conditioning of signals of the
C1 R2 outputs of many sensors.
Cx = (12) In some applications, the use of incorrect leads between
R3
the sensing elements and the signal conditioning circuits
Bridges can also be used in a deflection, or a null- can result in severe errors. If care is not taken, some of
balanced mode. A deflection bridge, known as the unbal- these leads may have resistance values comparable to the
anced bridge, is based on the detecting voltage across resistances of the sensing elements thus resulting in poor
stability. In such cases, a three-lead circuit, as shown in
Figure 3, can be used.
C1
In the three-lead circuits, the sensing elements are con-
R1 nected to the bridge using three wires made from the same
r1
R2
Z1 Z2
Three lead
wires
D
Unknown
resistance
Cx Z3
Zx eo
R3
Rx

+ −

Figure 1. A series RC bridge. Figure 3. Three-lead configuration.


material and having identical lengths. Although the temper-
ature changes the values of the resistances of the connecting
wires, the effects of the one arm is canceled by the changes
in the other arm. The third wire represents an additional
resistance in series with the reading device and does not
affect the measurements.
When very high accuracy is required, a four-wire or six-
wire scheme can be adopted. In these cases, a voltage source
excites the sensing device, and the corresponding output
voltage is measured by a potentiometer. This device can be
characterized by a virtual infinite input resistance. Neither
the resistance of the connecting wires nor its variations can
now affect the measurement results.
5 INDICATORS FOR USE WITH BRIDGES
Indicators for the bridge outputs can be simple voltmeters
and galvanometers as well as sophisticated digital devices.
In auto-balancing bridges, for example, a current is supplied
to maintain a zero potential at the terminals. A detector
detects potential at the low terminal and controls both mag-
nitude and phase of an oscillator to maintain the detected
potential at zero. When the bridge is unbalanced, the null
detector detects an error current and the phase detector sep-
arates the vector components of this current. After having
been filtered, the resultant signal is used to adjust the error
current to zero in the null detector. This balancing opera-
tion can be performed automatically over a wide range of
frequencies.
Most of the commonly used indicators are based on the
principles of voltmeters. Once the error voltage is detected,
the signal is processed either in the analog or digital
form for suitable displays. Conventional resistance meters
use needle displays based on galvanometers. Nowadays,
displays are in digital form using LED arrays or LCDs.
Once the digital platform is selected, the results may be
displayed on a computer screen as indicators or numbers.
6 SUBSTITUTION METHODS
In some measurements, external effects such as temperature
must be seriously taken into account. The resistance vari-
ation because of temperature can be of the same order of
magnitude as the sensor-induced variations, thus prompting
the selection of suitable compensating circuits. Best solu-
tions for temperature compensation are obtained by using a
dummy gauge as well as active gauges in the opposite legs
of a Wheatstone bridge, as shown in Figure 4 (the so-called
half bridge configuration). The bridge is balanced under
the no-load condition and the sensors are mounted in such
a way as to experience the same temperature fluctuations
Resistance Measurement 1375
eo
Dummy gauge Active element
+ −
ee
Figure 4. Wheatstone bridge by using dummy elements.
and hence undergo similar changes in resistance values.
This assures that the bridge equilibrium is not altered due
to temperature. In this arrangement, the sensor acts exclu-
sively on the active gauge and the unbalance of the bridge
becomes a factor of sensor resistance only.
The maximum value of the excitation voltage in Figure 4
is set by the self-heating phenomenon of the circuit owing
to the currents flowing through the bridge arms. In fact,
self-heating could destroy the sensing element and cause a
series of alterations in the resistances.
7 VARIABLE RESISTANCE USE
Variable resistors, trimmers, and potentiometers find fre-
quent use in all types of circuits including balancing of
bridges. In electronic circuits, they are used for trimming
op-amps, tapping reference voltages, setting trip points,
adjustments voltages, currents, and frequencies, and so on.
In electrical circuits, they are used to limit currents, and
to adjust power flow in and out of the circuits. Variable
resistors are available in carbon-composition and wire-
wound types. Variable resistors tend to have good tem-
perature stability. Nevertheless, they can be a source of
externally induced noise, so it is advisable to provide
good shielding for any possible electromagnetic interfer-
ence (EMI).
Variable resistors are basically mechanical devices hav-
ing inertia, friction, and their associated limitations. The
sliding electrical contacts can be prone to oxidization and
thus variable contact resistance as they move. In gen-
eral, they can be sensitive to moisture, dirt, and wear
and tear, and should be avoided whenever possible. Fixed
resistors with the desired settings are preferable for preci-
sion operation.
Resistive potentiometers are basically resistance elements
that have a movable arm that transform mechanical dis-
placements into voltage forms. A simple potentiometer is
illustrated in Figure 5.
In this Figure 5, ee is the excitation voltage and eo (t)
is the output voltage. The input signal is proportional to
1376 Common Measurands
+ This is a discussion topic in its own right in such measure-
+
ee
− by the sample under test or imposed externally by means
e o(t ) M of electromagnetic interference – see the Section on Noise
−
Figure 5. Schematic representation of a potentiometer.
the displacement x(t) of the wiper. Under the no-load
conditions, the output voltage is a linear function of the
displacement. However, when a user device is connected
to the output eo (t), a loading effect occurs that can make
the device nonlinear. There are a number of techniques
available to minimize the loading effects.
8 ACCURACY AND LOADING EFFECTS
For real measurements, it is reasonable to assume that
results always contain some errors. Typical errors are
• loading effect
• instrument inaccuracies, such as DC biasing
• residuals in test fixtures and cables
• noise.
8.1 Loading effect
If the resistance of the measuring device shown in Figure 5
is comparable in size with the unknown resistance under
investigation, the current drawn by the meter can distort
the readings. One of the solutions to this problem is to
select a high input–impedance meter that is at least 50 to
100 times higher than the impedance of the load. If loading
effect is unavoidable, mathematical techniques can be used
to make corrections.
8.2 Instrument inaccuracies
There may be many reasons for instrument inaccuracies.
Many manufacturers design and produce precision instru-
ments to measure high-resistances (called Megger) and
low-resistances.
8.3 Residuals in test fixtures and cables
Typical examples are parasitic effects, cable impedances,
test signal levels, guarding, contact resistances, and so on.
8.4 Noise
ments. Noise can be generated by the measuring equipment,
and Interference.
In applications in which sensitivity and precision are
required, adequate compensation techniques and specially
designed cables must be employed in highly controlled
environments.
9 POWER RATING OF RESISTORS
The power absorbed (in the form of heat) by a resistor is
a product of resistance and square of the current through it
(i.e. P = I 2 R). Therefore, the size, surface area, thermal
properties, and composition of resistance are important
for it to be able to dissipate the generated heat without
changing its electrical properties, especially in the long
term. Resistors, therefore, are manufactured for specific
applications. The selection of an appropriate resistor for
an application must meet the requirements of the circuit.
In electronic applications, resistors can be viewed under
six different groups, these are: carbon-composition, carbon-
film, thin-film, metal-film, wire-wound, and foil resistors.
9.1 Carbon-composition resistors
These are made from graphite, ceramic, and resin com-
pressed at high temperatures. These resistors have poor
temperature coefficients, stability, and shelf life. Carbon-
film resistors generally are used in low power and higher-
resistance applications, above 1 M. They have low-noise
properties.
9.2 Metal-film resistors
These are formed by sputtering metal onto ceramic tubes.
They have good accuracy and low variability, therefore
are most suitable for long term and continual use. Their
noise figures are much lower than the carbon-composition
resistors. Metal-film resistors have very low temperature
coefficients and are suitable for linear circuits.
9.3 Thin-film resistors
These are made from tantalum nitrate sputtered and etched
on a silicon substrate. They have low temperature coeffi-
cients and are suitable for resistance networks and surface-
mount technology.
 Resistance Measurement 1377

Table 1. Properties of resistor types.

Carbon composition Carbon-film Metal-film Thin film Wire wound Foil
Accuracy (±ppm) 10 000 5000 100 50 20 5
Maximum resistance (M) 22 50 10 1 1 0.25
Temperature coefficient (±ppm/ ◦ C) 1200 1000 100 100 10 2
Maximum voltage (V) 500 500 350 200 1000 500
Humidity effects (%) 15 3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.02
Power range Low Low Low Low Any Low
Noise Low Low High Low Low Low
Long-term stability Poor Low Fair Fair Excellent Excellent
Price Very low Low Moderate Moderate High High

9.4 Wire-wound resistors
These are made from nickel-chromium wire wound on
a beryllium oxide core. They have excellent temperature
coefficients. Wire-wound resistors find applications partic-
ularly in high-power circuits where accuracy is of prime
importance. One drawback of the wire-wound resistors
is that they may have substantial inductances, which can
make them unsuitable in high-frequency applications (say
above 50 kHz).
9.5 Foil resistors
These are made from nickel-chromium bonded onto a
ceramic substrate and laser trimmed for accuracy. They
have the best temperature coefficients and have very high
precision. Foil resistors have low inductive and capacitive
properties. They are good for high-frequency applications.
General-purpose, high-quality resistors are available in
DIP packages, which look like ICs. They are used in many
applications, particularly in digital circuits as pull-up or
pull-down resistors.
The properties of the various kinds of resistors are
summarized in Table 1.
It is worth noting that resistors for applications in elec-
tronic circuits are much smaller compared to their electrical
and power applications counterparts, but their composition
and thermal properties are similar.
temperatures (T ∼ = 1 K). Under these conditions, the Hall
resistance takes discrete values:
h
RH = (13)
ie2
Where i is an integer, h is the Plank constant and e is the
electron charge.
The quantity h/e2 is called von Klitzing constant and
has a value of 25812.807 , known with a relative uncer-
tainty of 2 × 10−7 . Moreover, experiments that lead to the
determination of this constant has a reproducibility of about
10−9 . However, experiments require strict environmen-
tal conditions (low temperature, high magnetic–induction
field) that can be obtained only by a few National Stan-
dard Organizations. For this reason, resistance standards are
obtained by means of stable, low temperature–coefficient
alloys that are usually maintained in the laboratories with
these standard resistors being offered by many vendors.
The resistance values of standard resistors are referred to
as Hall-effect-based standard for calibration.
There are many standards for determining resistance
under specific applications, such as
• IEEE 81-1983 Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground
Impedance, and Earth Surface Potentials of a Ground
System (Part 1)
• IEEE 81.2-1991 Measurement of Impedance and Safety
Characteristics of Large Extended or Interconnected
Grounding Systems (Part 2)
• IEEE 118-1978 Test Code for Resistance Measurements

10 STANDARDS OF RESISTANCE FURTHER READING

The most accurate resistance standard presently available
is based on the Hall-effect – see Article 43, Units, Vol-
ume 1. This is a quantum effect that takes place in a
bidimensional electronic gas (that can be obtained on a
very thin layer of semiconductor materials like the Si MOS-
FETs and GaAs thin structures) in the presence of a very
high magnetic–induction field (B ∼= 10 T) and at very low
Eren, H. (2003) Electronic Portable Instruments-Design and
Applications, CRC Press, LLC, Boca Raton, FL.
Eren, H. and Ferraro, A. (2003) Electronic Voltmeters and Amme-
ters, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems, EOLSS/UNESCO,
http://www.eolss.net/E6-39A-toc.aspx.
Doebelin, E.O. (1990) Measuring Systems-Application and De-
sign, 4th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York.
 1378 Common Measurands

Dyer, S.A. (ed.) (2001) Instruments, Survey of Instrumentation Schlabbach, J. (2001) Voltage Quality in Electrical Power Sys-
and Measurement, Wiley, New York. tems, IEE, Stevenage.
Hoeschelle, D.F. (1994) Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Webster, J.G. (ed.) (1999) The Measurements, Instrumentation
Conversion Techniques, Wiley, New York. and Sensors Handbook, CRC Press, New York.

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