EXPERIMENT 1 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this experiment aimed to determine the equivalent resistance of

resistors, measure resistor values using a multimeter, and experimentally determine
the equivalent resistance of resistors connected in series and parallel. These
objectives were successfully achieved through a process of experimentation and
data collection, utilizing the fundamental principles of electrical resistance and their
practical applications as our foundation.

Since the experiment began with color coding each resistor, it is perceived
that to successfully identify the actual values of a resistor, the computed values from
the color codes are vital. In between the computation of the color codes and the
measured value from the multimeter, there has always been a percentage error as
seen in Figure 1. The gathered data from the components of the circuit must be
accurate to record the following values like the current and voltage of each resistor
as well. Since an assumption is made that each component on the circuit affects the
other, the experiment itself proves that once a circuit component malfunctions, the
rest of the circuit is affected. It may lead to a short circuit or a busted resistor. Hence,
there will be an expected error, on the following computations on the other
components of the circuit.

Throughout the experiment, safety measures were diligently observed,

emphasizing the importance of handling electrical components with care. It became
evident that not only is resistance a fundamental property of electrical components,
but it also plays a critical role in impeding current flow while dissipating electrical
energy as heat. This phenomenon was illustrated vividly when a visible plume of
smoke was observed around a resistor element, suggesting thermal degradation or
incipient failure. In response, the experimenters replaced the resistors with higher
ohmic values to ensure they could withstand heat dissipation, highlighting the
practical importance of understanding resistance's impact on component longevity.

The experiment also shed light on temperature effects, showcasing how

resistors' resistance can change as they heat up during operation. This knowledge is
crucial for engineers designing circuits meant to operate in extreme conditions.
Ohm's Law, a cornerstone principle in electrical engineering (V=IR), was emphasized
throughout the experiment to explain the relationships between voltage, current, and
resistance in circuits.
 Figure 1. Computed color code values of each resistor

Starting with the experiment involving a total of two leading to a total of four
resistors situated in a series circuit, measuring the total resistance was aided with
the help of individually measuring each resistor with the multimeter and
consequently, summing up the values measured. To verify, the measured values are
compared to the color code values computed beforehand as seen in Figure 2. Upon
observing the results from both experiments, series circuits can handle low
resistances since the current that travels from one resistor has the same value as
what travels to and from the other resistors.

Figure 2. Computed and measured resistances of each resistor

Considering that each resistor in a series circuit is consecutively aligned, the

current in each resistor is the same throughout every resistor, hence, the whole
circuit. In this part of the experiment, the percentage error calculation will be
dependent on the computed and measured values of the resistances. The values
could be verified through the formula of the resistance of each resistor multiplied by
the current through each resistor resulting in the voltage of each resistor. The voltage
of each resistor and the total voltage are highly dependent on the measured values
of the resistors since they are proportional.

As presented in Figure 3, the total voltage in each resistor remained constant

even when the number of resistors increased or decreased. In addition, the
comparison from the values of the computed from the measured values has an
increased percentage error. This conclusion is connected to the percentage error
from the computed color code and measured values of the resistors presented in
Figure 1.

Figure 3. Computed and measured values of voltage through each resistor with
resulting total voltage and current

To conclude, a series circuit is highly dependent on the resistances from each

resistor since they are consecutively aligned from one point to another with a
continuous flow. The regulation of the voltage and currency from the power source,
the battery, is highly dependent on the resistance of each resistor. Minimal to
increased percentages of error must be considered since the construction of an
actual circuit impacts the accuracy of the values measured. It may result in values of
high accuracy or low accuracy since numerous factors may affect the circuit flow
specifically, errors from the circuit components used in the experiment. Therefore, in
real-life applications, it could be perceived that utilizing series circuits will be highly
suitable on flashlights and lampshades because they do not require a complex
circuit to function and there is only one outsource that will be affected once the
circuit malfunctions.

Yet the same conclusions cannot be proven when it comes to parallel circuits.
Parallel circuits require a certain resistance value especially when dealing with
batteries such as a 9V battery because any resistor lower than 100 ohms will
malfunction and overload. The total resistance can be calculated by getting the sum
of resistances but in the form of 1/R1-1. Another point is that the voltages and currents
in both circuits are different. While the current is the same throughout the whole
series circuit, the current on parallel decreases as it distances the source. That also
shows the same as the idea of voltage. Since the voltage in a series circuit
experiences a voltage drop, the voltage significantly decreases as it approaches
each resistor. It needs to be added in each measurement in a resistor to get the total
voltage of the whole circuit.

In conclusion, the experiment focusing on resistors connected in parallel

aimed to determine their equivalent resistance through measuring individual resistor
values using a multimeter, and experimentally analyzing the behavior of resistors in
parallel circuits. These objectives were accomplished through a systematic
approach of experimentation and data collection, relying on the foundational
principles of electrical resistance and its practical implications.

Similar to the previous experiment, the process began with identifying the
actual values of the resistors using color codes; there was a noticeable percentage
error between computed values and those measured with the multimeter (Figure 4).
This underscores the importance of accuracy in data collection, especially when
dealing with interconnected components in a parallel circuit, as deviations in one
resistor's value can affect the overall equivalent resistance.
 Figure 4. Data on percentage error

Throughout the experiment, safety protocols were strictly adhered to,

highlighting the critical importance of handling electrical components with caution.
Furthermore, it became evident that resistance not only influences current flow but
also plays a pivotal role in distributing electrical energy within parallel branches,
leading to distinct voltage characteristics for each branch.

One notable observation was the minimal impact of thermal effects in parallel
circuits compared to series configurations. Unlike in series, where resistors in the path
of current experienced significant heating, resistors in parallel maintained relatively
stable resistance values. This knowledge is invaluable for engineers designing
circuits that require consistent voltage across multiple branches.

In summary, this experiment elucidated the behavior of resistors in parallel

circuits, emphasizing the need for precision in data collection and the varying effects
of resistance in parallel as opposed to series configurations. Ohm's Law (V=IR)
continued to serve as a fundamental guiding principle, helping explain the
relationships between voltage, current, and resistance within parallel circuitry.

The results demonstrated that resistance, a fundamental property of electrical

components, plays a critical role in impeding the current flow while dissipating
electrical energy as heat. This phenomenon became evident when a visible plume of
smoke was observed around the resistor element suggesting the presence of
thermal degradation or an incipient failure within the resistor component. In
response, the experimenters opted to replace the resistors with higher ohmic values
to ensure they could withstand the heat dissipation. Consequently, the experiment
provided a comprehensive understanding of resistance and equipped the
experimenters with the skills to accurately measure resistance values using
multimeters and decipher resistor values based on color codes.

Figure 5. Computed and measured resistances of each resistor

As shown by the present table with resistor values and color codes, the overall
resistance (RTOTAL) falls when adding additional resistors to a parallel circuit. Because
each resistor offers several paths of current transfer under a parallel configuration,
this reduction in overall resistance will occur. The measured values highlight the
inverse relationship between resistance and the number of parallel pathways,
confirming the expected behavior of parallel circuits.

To sum up, a series circuit varies from a parallel circuit, initially from its
structure to each circuit flow upon operation. Parallel circuits are more effective than
series circuits for real-life applications since continuity of current is well achieved
without dependence on the other resistors in the circuit. In reviewing Figure 5, there
are various changes with the circuit resistors since a parallel circuit demands greater
resistance to ensure circuit stability despite the voltage source.

Furthermore, by investigating resistors in both series and parallel

configurations, the experimenters gained valuable insights into how the
arrangement of resistors affects the overall equivalent resistance in a circuit. This
knowledge is essential for the design and analysis of intricate electrical circuits. In
summary, this experiment not only deepened our understanding of electrical
principles but also empowered the experimenters with practical skills applicable to
various engineering and scientific endeavors.
EXPERIMENT 2 CONCLUSION

In Experiment 2, the objectives included determining the equivalent resistance

of a series-parallel circuit using measured current and voltage, calculating the
equivalent resistance of a delta-wye network using measured current and voltage,
and supporting the nearly equal values between experimental and computed
results.

Experiment 2 can be divided into two distinct parts: the Series-Parallel circuit
and the Delta-Wye network. Similar to Experiment 1, this experiment also placed
significant emphasis on accurate measurement and the identification of resistor
values, particularly during the transition from color code calculations to multimeter
measurements. A consistent percentage error was observed, with two of the resistors
reaching a high 90% percentage error in the Series-Parallel Circuit alone. This can be
attributed to tolerance discrepancies or unexpected variations in the resistors. To
elaborate, these percentage errors are from the compared true value and observed
value. Additionally, in this instance, there were more resistors involved as compared
to Experiment 1. Some of the resistors were retained from Experiment 1, and higher
ohmic values were employed to prevent thermal degradation as the circuit worked
(See Figure 1).

Figure 1. Experimented and actual resistances of each resistor in a Series-Parallel Circuit

As shown in Figure 6 the resistance table for the Series-Parallel Circuit shows
that the total resistance values of the experimental and actual are nearly equal. The
resistance values in this experiment were obtained by measuring each resistor with a
multimeter and validating their accuracy against pre-calculated values derived
from their color codes. To calculate the total resistance, the resistors connected in
series and those connected in parallel were identified. The total resistances for both
series and parallel configurations were then combined to determine the overall total
resistance.

Figure 2. Experimented and actual voltages of each resistor in a Series-Parallel Circuit

Additionally, individual voltage measurements for the Series-Parallel Circuit

were measured using a multimeter and were compared to their actual values, as
depicted in Figure 2. The actual voltage values were determined by applying
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law to relate voltage drops to sources and the use of Ohm's Law
to calculate specific component voltages.

The percentage of errors ranged from 1.41% to 14.16%. These percentages

maintained low to moderately high percentages as compared to the data table of
resistances (Figure 1). The voltages in each resistor are dependent on the type of
connection it has. Since this is a combination of Series-parallel circuits, there are
definite calculations to determine the voltage flowing through each resistor. Hence,
the voltages present in Figure 2 do not directly correlate with calculating the value
based only on one formula. It is through a combination of formulas depending on the
circuit construction.

Figure 3. Experimented and actual currents of each resistor in a Series-Parallel Circuit

 In Figure 3, the experimented and actual currents of each resistor in the
Series-Parallel Circuit are shown. Similar to obtaining resistance and voltage values,
individual currents were measured using a multimeter and then compared to their
actual values. The actual currents were determined by simplifying the circuit and
applying Ohm's law to calculate both total and individual currents.

The Delta-Wye network, on the other hand, is a challenging but insightful

experiment. The main goal was to compare the experimental and actual values of
the resistances, voltages, and currents in the given complex circuit arrangement. The
delta-wye transformation enabled a systematic switching between the two types of
networks throughout the experiment, greatly simplifying the analysis.

Furthermore, the relationships between resistors in both delta and wye

configurations were better understood by comparing the computed values to the
experimental measurements. This experiment demonstrated the usefulness and
importance of delta-wye conversions in engineering and circuit analysis, providing
important insights into realistic electrical systems.

Figure 4. Experimented and actual resistances of each resistor in a Delta-Wye Network

In Figure 4, the table shows the percentage error between the experimental
and actual values of a resistor. The percentage error for resistor R5 is the highest, at
90.79%. This means that the experimental value for resistor R5 is significantly different
from the actual value. These discrepancies are due to the chemical and mechanical
differences that may have happened during the manufacturing of the resistor. The
percentage error for resistor R4 is the lowest, at 0.45%. This means that the
experimental value for resistor R4 is very close to the actual value claiming that there
could only be minimal differences despite the manufacturing errors it may have
undergone. It is desirable to have a low percentage error when measuring the
resistance of a resistor. This is because a high percentage error can lead to
inaccurate results in electrical circuits considering that the circuit is highly
dependent on the value of resistances connecting the circuit.

Overall, the table demonstrates that each resistor has a different percentage
error. This is likely caused by several elements, the position of the measurement
about the environment, and the caliber of the resistors applied. Hence, a 0% error is
possible as the resistances are dependent on the chemical and mechanical
structure of the resistor.

Figure 5. Experimented and actual voltages of each resistor in a Delta-Wye Network

In Figure 5, the table illustrates several discrepancies between the

experimental and actual values of the voltages. These variations have been
evaluated using the percentage inaccuracy for each resistor. The percentage errors
for resistors V1 through V3 vary from 0.44% to 1.28% demonstrating minor differences
and indicating that the experimental measurements are reasonably accurate for
these resistors. The percentages are proportional to the percentage errors of its
resistance values.
 However, for resistors V5, V6, V8, V9, and V10, the percentage errors are
significantly larger, ranging from 23.60% to 57.14%. These high percentage errors
suggest significant discrepancies between experimental measurements and the
actual values for these resistors. These variations could be attributed to
measurement inaccuracies, equipment limitations, or other experimental factors
present during the conduct of the experiment. The voltages listed in each resistor are
highly dependent on the values of the resistors discussed beforehand. Since it is
mentioned that there are low to moderately high resistance discrepancies, actual
and experimented values, there could be a direct correlation between its voltage
drop per resistor.

Figure 6. Experimented and actual current of each resistor in a Delta-Wye Network

As observed in Figure 6, the percentage errors varied from 0% to 100%. This is a

notable difference from the actual and experimented current values. Given that the
formula calculating for the current on a resistor includes the voltage and resistance
values, the values for the current may correlate with the combined range of errors
noted for both values. Hence, the high percentage of errors could be concluded as a
resulting discrepancy from both the voltage and resistance values.
 The current from I4, I5, I7, and I10 are the current values that have the highest
percentage of errors among all the resistors (See Figure 6). This percentage error
might be due to the circuit construction. On the other hand, the current values are
also reliable since there are multiple resistors with a 0% percentage error. The total
current shows that the margin of error does not totally result in a high value as
compared to the individual current values per resistor.

Overall, the experimental measurements for some resistors in the table show
commendable accuracy with minimal discrepancies, while most of the resistors,
voltages, and current notably display inconsistency. These inconsistencies could be
due to measurement inaccuracies from the equipment, experiment limitations,
equipment limitations, environmental factors, or other experimental factors.