English II TAP

Guidebook

Tomball Memorial High School

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 Table of Contents
AP Terminology ............................................................................................................... 2
Critical Thinking .................................................................................................... 2
Literary Elements .................................................................................................. 2
Figures of Speech ................................................................................................. 4
Sound Devices ...................................................................................................... 4
Literary Techniques .............................................................................................. 5
Grammar............................................................................................................... 5
Kinds of Sentences and Their Punctuation ........................................................... 6
Syntax Techniques ............................................................................................... 9
Points of View ..................................................................................................... 10
What is Diction?............................................................................................................. 11
8.2 Paragraph Instructions............................................................................................. 12
Theme Statements ........................................................................................................ 13
Thematic Ideas and Concepts ....................................................................................... 14
Argument Analysis ......................................................................................................... 15
Language of Literary Analysis ....................................................................................... 16
Tone Vocabulary ........................................................................................................... 20
TPCASTT ...................................................................................................................... 22
Poetry: Devices and Structures ..................................................................................... 23
Annotating Poetry Guide................................................................................................ 24
Poetry Focus Statements .............................................................................................. 25
The STAAR 26 line Argument Essay ............................................................................. 26
Transitions for Writing .................................................................................................... 27
Better Verbs for Writing ................................................................................................. 28
Generic Scoring Guide for AP Essay Questions ............................................................ 29

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 Students will be expected to learn the following terminology. This

AP TERMONOLOGY
study of terminology is a three-step process:
1. Learning the definition,
2. Identifying the device when it appears in literature, and
3. Being able to discuss the effect or purpose of the device.

Critical Thinking
Literal Comprehension, knowledge, paraphrase, summary
Understanding
Analysis Argument, analogy, cause/effect, classification, comparison, contrast
Interpretation Application, evaluation, inference, generalization, prediction, synthesis

Literary Elements
Allegory A story in which persons, places, and things form a system of clearly labeled equivalents,
standing for other definite meanings, which are often abstractions.
Allusion Reference to a mythological, literary, or historical person, place or thing
Archetype Character, action, situation that is a prototype or pattern of human life generally; a situation
that occurs over and over again in literature, such as a quest
Atmosphere The prevailing tone or mood of a literary work, particularly when that mood is established
by the setting and the author’s choice of objects described
Blank Verse Unrhymed Iambic Pentameter
Catastrophe The conclusion of a play, particularly a tragedy in which it involves the death of the hero;
sometimes used to designate an unhappy ending or event
Characters People or animals who take part in the action of a literary work. Readers learn about them
from what they say (dialogue), what they do (actions), what they think (interior monologue),
and what others say about them, and through the author’s direct statement.
Flat one-dimensional, one trait may be emphasized
Round three-dimensional, complex, fully-rounded personality
Static character remains unchanged throughout narrative
Dynamic character changes as a result of the action
Stock stereotyped character; one whose nature is familiar from previous fiction
Protagonist main character
Antagonist adversary of the protagonist
Conflict Tension between opposing forces in a work of literature – types include:
External: Person vs. person Person vs. Society
Person vs. fate Person vs. animal
Person vs. nature Internal – Peron vs. Himself
Couplet Two lines of verse that rhyme
Details Facts revealed by an author or speaker that support the attitude or tone in a piece of poetry
or prose
Diction Word choice intended to convey a certain effect
Denotation dictionary definition
Connotation feelings and attitudes associated with a word
Slang recently created words used in informal situations
Colloquialism casual conversation, informal, or regional writing (often includes slang)
Jargon the special language of a group or profession
Dialect a variety of language spoken by a social group or spoken in a certain locality
Drama Type of literature designed to be performed in a theatre
Act Major division of a play
Aside Short passage spoken directly to the audience; unheard by other characters
Scene Division of action within an act

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Stage Direction Information to an actor, director, reader that is not part of the dialogue of the play

Monologue Extended speech by one character

Epilogue Speech by an actor at the end of a play
Farce Comic scene
Tragic Flaw Character trait that causes the downfall
Soliloquy Monologue with no one else on stage – Reveals character’s true thoughts, etc.
Prologue Opening of play; tells themes and action to come
Epiphany Some moment of insight, discovery, or revelation by which a character’s life of view of life
is greatly altered
Flashback Scene that interprets the action of a work to show a previous event
Foreshadowing Use of hints or clues in a narrative to suggest future action
Imagery Words or phrases a writer uses to represent persons, objects, action, feelings, and ideas
descriptively by appealing to the senses
Mood Atmosphere or predominant emotion in a literary work (how it makes the reader feel)

Narrator The author or teller of a story

Persona The person created by the author to tell the story
Plot Sequence of events or actions in a short story, novel, play, or narrative poem
Exposition author lays groundwork for the reader (setting – time/place, characters, basic situation)

Inciting Incident conflict

Rising Action events that build toward a revelation of meaning

Climax pivotal or turning point
Falling Action leads inevitably toward a revelation of meaning
Denouement or unraveling of the problem
resolution
Point of View Perspective from which a narrative is told
Rhetorical Shift A change or movement in a piece resulting from an epiphany, realization, or insight gained
or Turn by the speaker, a character, or the reader
Setting environment in which the action of a fictional work takes place, including time period,
place, historical milieu, and social, political, and perhaps even spiritual realities; usually
established through description, though narration is also used
Structure Framework or organization of a literary selection (chapters, acts and scenes, organization of
ideas, stanzas, etc.)
Style Writer’s characteristic manner of employing language
Suspense Quality in a short story, novel, play, or narrative poem that makes the reader or audience
uncertain or tense about the outcome of events
Syntax The arrangement of words and the order of grammatical elements in a sentence
Theme Central message of a literary work; not the same as the subject which can be stated in one or
two words, but it is the author’s idea about the subject; expressed as a sentence or general
statement about life or human nature
Tone Writer’s or speaker’s attitude toward a subject, character, or audience; it is conveyed
through the author’s choice of words and details

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Figures of Speech
Figures of Words or phrases that describe one thing in terms of something else – always involve some
Speech sort of imaginative comparison between seemingly unlike things – not meant to be taken
literally – used to produce images in a reader’s mind and to express ideas in fresh, vivid, and
imaginative ways
Apostrophe A form of personification in which the absent or dead are spoken to as if present and the
inanimate, as if animate
Metaphor Comparison of two unlike things NOT using like or as
 Extended Metaphor: a metaphor which is drawn out beyond the usual word or phrase to
extend throughout a stanza or an entire poem, usually by using multiple comparisons
between the unlike objects or ideas
 Conceit: an extended and elaborate metaphorical comparison that may form the
framework of an entire poem
Metonymy A form of metaphor; the name of one thing is applied to another thing with which it is
closely associated EX: I just bought a Picasso.
Oxymoron A form of paradox that combines a pair of opposite terms into a single unusual expression

Paradox Occurs when the elements of a statement contradict each other; the statement may appear
logical, impossible, or absurd, but turns out to have a coherent meaning that reveals a hidden
truth
Personification Kind of metaphor that gives inanimate objects or abstract ideas human characteristics

Pun A play on words that are identical or similar in sound but have sharply diverse meanings;
can be used for serious as well as humorous purposes
Simile Comparison of two different things or ideas through the use of the words like or as

Synecdoche A form of metaphor; a part of something is used to signify the whole, or the whole can
represent a part, or the container can represent the thing being contained

Sound Devices
Sound Devices Stylistic techniques that convey meaning through sound
Alliteration Practice of beginning several consecutive or neighboring words with the same sound

Assonance Repetition of vowel sounds in a series of words

Consonance Repetition of a consonant sound within a series of words to produce a harmonious effect

Onomatopoeia Use of words that mimic the sounds they describe

Rhyme Repetition of sounds in two or more words or phrases that appear close to each other in a
poem
 End Rhyme: occurs at the end of lines
 Internal Rhyme: occurs within a line
 Rhyme Scheme: the pattern of end rhymes

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Literary Techniques
Allusion Reference to a mythological, literary, or historical person, place or thing
Anachronism The placement of an event, person, or thing out of its proper chronological relationship,
sometime unintentional, but often deliberate as an exercise of poetic license

Hyperbole Deliberate exaggeration of conditions for emphasis or effect

Irony
Verbal occurs when a speaker or narrator says one thing while meaning the opposite
Situational occurs when a situation turns out differently from what one would normally expect –
though often the twist is oddly appropriate
Dramatic occurs when a character or speaker says or does something that has different meanings from
what he or she thinks it means, though the audience and other characters understand the full
implications of the speech or action
Motif Term that describes a pattern or strand of imagery or symbolism in a work of literature

Sarcasm Use of verbal irony in which a person appears to be praising something but is actually
insulting it
Satire Refers to the use of humorous devices like irony, understatement, and exaggeration to
highlight a human folly or a societal problem – the purpose is to bring the flaw to the
attention of the reader in order that it may be addressed, remedied, or eradicated

Symbolism The use of any object, person, place, or action that both has a meaning in itself and that
stands for something larger than itself, such as a quality, attitude, belief, or value

Understatement Opposite of hyperbole; a kind of irony that deliberately represents something as being less
(Meiosis) than it really is
 Litotes: a form of understatement which is generated by denying the opposite or
contrary of the word which otherwise would be used

Grammar
Mechanics Capitalization, punctuation, and spelling
Usage Direct / Indirect Objects
Predicate Nominative / Adjectives
Pronoun / Antecedent Agreement
Subject / Verb Agreement
Use of Subjective and Objective Pronouns
Phrases Preposition, infinitive, participial, gerund, appositive, absolute
Clauses Dependent / subordinate, independent
Sentence Types  Declarative: makes a statement
According to  Imperative: gives a command
Purpose  Interrogative: asks a question
 Exclamatory: provides emphasis or expresses strong emotion

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 Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences – OH MY!
Phrase: Does not contain a subject and a verb
Phrases are NOT sentences

 Preposition phrase – consists of a preposition, its object, and any modifiers of the object
 Examples: According to Katie, you will find your phone under the couch.

 Appositive phrase – a noun or pronoun that identifies or renames another noun or pronoun
 Examples: My favorite sibling is my only sister, Katie.
Charles, a winning prize-fighter, put on his gloves.
My teacher Mr. Smith needs to calm down.

 Verbal – a verb form that acts as a noun, adjective, or an adverb

o Participle – a verb for that acts as an adjective. It modifies (describes) a noun or pronoun.
 Usually ends in –ing, -ed, -en.
 Examples: The child lost in the store began to cry.
Suspecting the butler, Detective Conroy set a trap.
Frozen peanut butter cups are my favorite.

o Gerund – a verb form that acts as a noun and ends in –ing.

 Examples: The sudden ringing startled me.
My favorite pastime is shopping.
We enjoyed your singing.
Julia gave fencing a try.
You can help us by cooperating.
My favorite exercise, swimming, keeps me in shape.

o Infinitive – a verb form usually beginning with the word to

 Can act as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb
 Examples: To interrupt a speaker abruptly is impolite.
She is the person to see about the job.
They were glad to hear the news.

Sentence Structure CHEAT CHART

Simple Sentence one subject and one verb; also called The dog looked out the window.
an independent clause
subject verb
Independent Clause one subject and one verb; can stand The dog looked out the window.
alone
can stand alone
Compound Sentence two independent clauses that are The dog looked out the window,
joined together
Independent clause
but John’s car was nowhere in sight.

Independent clause

coordinating
conjunction
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Coordinating  used in compound sentences to
Conjunctions join two independent clauses
 must be preceded by a comma
Semi-colons Used to connect two independent
clauses without a conjunction
For And Nor But Or Yet So
The dog looked out the window; John’s car was
nowhere in sight.

Conjunctive Adverbs  used in compound sentences to Common Conjunctive Adverbs

with a semi-colon join two independent clauses
 must be preceded by a semi-
colon and followed by a comma
The dog looked out the window;
Independent clause
however, John’s car was not there.
Independent clause
conjunctive adverb
Time & first /firstly, secondly, next, then,
Order lastly, finally, after that,
eventually, previously, earlier,
subsequently, meanwhile,
currently, at that time,
immediately, thereafter, in the
past, later, in the beginning,
simultaneously
Comparison equally, likewise, similarly, in a
similar way, in the same way,
Contrast on the other hand, however, in
contrast, instead, rather,
alternatively, on the contrary,
conversely, otherwise,
nonetheless, even so, nevertheless
Cause & consequently, as a consequence,
Effect as a result, accordingly, therefore,
hence, thus, in effect
Addition also, furthermore, moreover, in
addition, additionally
Example for example, for instance
Detail specifically, particularly, in fact,
Conclusion / above all, in conclusion, to sum
Summary up, in the end, ultimately, on the
whole
Re-stating namely, in other words, that is
Generalizing overall, ultimately, in general
Introducing clearly, obviously, unfortunately,
information interestingly, cleverly,
with an fortunately, luckily, naturally, of
attitude course, admittedly, indeed,
predictably

**Be careful with these – in

academic style, they are only used in
a context where it’s appropriate for
you to show points of view
Compound  Independent clause, Coordinating conjunction Independent clause.
Sentence Patterns Tom reads novels, but Jack reads comics.

 Independent clause; Independent clause.

Tom reads novels; Jack reads comics.

 Independent clause; Conjunctive adverb, Independent clause.

Tom reads novels; conversely, Jack reads comics.

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Complex Sentence one independent and dependent The dog looked out the window
clauses joined together
Independent clause
as if he was waiting for John’s car to pull up the
driveway.

Dependent clause

subordinating
conjunction
Dependent Clause  begins with a subordinating as if he was waiting for John’s car to pull up the
conjunction driveway.
 cannot stand alone

Subordinating are used to introduce a dependent Common Subordinating Conjunctions

Conjunction clause after even though that
although except though
as if unless
as far as if only until
as if in order that when
as long as now that whenever
as soon as once where
as though rather than whereas
because since wherever
before so that whether
even if than while

Relative Pronouns
whose, who, whom, that, which, where
Complex Sentence  Dependent clause, Independent clause.
Punctuation Patterns Although Tom reads novels, Jack reads comics.

 Independent clause Dependent clause.

Jack reads comics although Tom reads novels.

 Independent, nonessential dependent clause, clause.

Jack Smith, who reads comics, rarely reads novels.

 Independent, essential dependent clause, clause.

People who read comics rarely read novels.
Compound- At least one dependent clause and at The dog looked out the window (ind) as if he was
Complex Sentence least two independent clauses joined waiting for John’s car to pull up in the driveway
together. (dep) ,but his car was nowhere in sight (ind).

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Syntax Techniques
Juxtaposition A poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are
placed next to one another, often creating an effect of surprise and wit

Omission
Asyndeton Deliberate omission of conjunctions in a series of related clauses – speeds up the pace of a
sentence
Ellipsis Deliberate omission of a word or words, which are readily implied by the context – it
creates an elegant or daring economy of words
Parallelism A grammatical of structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence; involves an
arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal
importance are equally developed and similarly phrased
 Antithesis: a thought is balanced with a contrasting thought in parallel arrangements of
words and phrases
Polysyndeton Deliberate use of many conjunctions for emphasis – to highlight quantity or mass of detail
or to create a flowing, continuous sentence patter; it slows the pace of the sentence
Repetition A device in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once to enhance rhythm and
to create emphasis
Anaphora Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses; it
helps to establish a strong rhythm and produces a powerful emotional effect
Anadiplosis Repetition of the last word or group of words of one clause at the beginning of the
following clause; it ties the sentence to its surroundings
Rely on his honor; honor such as his…
Epanalepsis Repetition at the end of a clause of the word that occurred at the beginning of the clause; it
tends to make the sentence or clause in which it occurs stand apart from its surroundings

Epistrophe Repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses; it sets up a
pronounced rhythm and gains a special emphasis both by repeating the word and by putting
the word in the final position
Do all the good you can, for all the people you can, in all the ways that you can…
Periodic Sentence main clause is at the end of the sentence
Balanced phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or
Sentence length
Antithetical contain two statements which are balanced, but opposite
Sentence Give me liberty, or give me death!
Telegraphic a concise sentence typically containing five words or less.
Sentence Kill the pig! Cut his throat! Bash him in!
Reversal Sentence Inversion or Inverted Order – involves constructing a sentence so the predicate
comes before the subject
 Antimetabole: a sentence strategy in which the arrangement of ideas in the second
clause is a reversal of the first; adds power through its inverse repetition
Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.
 Chiasmus: words, grammatical constructions, or concepts are repeated in reverse
order, in the same or a modified form
Don’t sweat the petty things, and don’t pet the sweaty.
Working hard or hardly working?
 Anastrophe: wherein the order of the noun and the adjective in the sentence is
exchanged
He spoke of times past and future, and dreamt of things to be.
Rhetorical a question asked in order to create a dramatic effect or to make a point rather than to get an
Question answer.

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 POINTS OF VIEW
Third-Person – third-person pronouns (he, him, she, her, they, them) are used to tell the
story – the author is not a character in the story

Omniscient - the author can enter the minds of all the characters

Limited - the author limits his omniscience of the minds of a few of the characters
or to the mind of a single character

Objective - the author does not enter a single mind, but instead records what can be
seen and heard

First-Person - first-person pronouns (I, me, my, we, us, our) are used to tell the story

Second-Person - the narrator tells the story to another character using the word 'you.' The author
could be talking to the audience, which we could tell by the use of 'you,'
'you're,' and 'your.'

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 What is Diction?
Diction refers to the author’s choice of words.
Words are the writer’s basic tools:
They create the color and texture of the written work.
They both reflect and determine the level of formality.
They shape the reader’s perceptions.
Student should rarely skip words they do not know when studying serious literature. (It’s like
wearing earplugs to a symphony.) To understand voice, students must “hear” the words and “feel”
their effects.
Diction reflects the writer’s vision and steers the reader’s thought.

Effective voice is shaped by words that are clear, concrete and exact.
Good writers eschew words like pretty, nice, and bad. Instead, they use words that invoke a specific
effect
A coat isn’t torn; it is tattered.
The U.S. Army does not want revenge; it is thirsty for revenge.
A door does not shut; it thuds.
Specific diction brings the reader into the scene, enabling full participation in the writer’s world.

Diction depends on topic, purpose, and occasion. The topic often determines the specificity and
sophistication of diction.
Articles on computers are filled with specialized language: email, e-shopping, web, interface.

The writer’s purpose—whether to convince, entertain, amuse, inform, or plead—partly determines

diction.
Words chosen to impart a particular effect on the reader reflect and sustain the writer’s purpose.
If the author’s purpose is to inform, the reader should expect straightforward diction.
If the writer’s purpose is to entertain, the reader will likely encounter words used in ironic,
playful, or unexpected ways.

Diction also depends on the occasion. As with clothes, level of formality influences appropriate
choices.
Formal diction is largely reserved for scholarly writing and serious prose or poetry.
Informal diction is the norm in expository essays, newspaper editorials, and works of fiction.
Colloquial diction and slang borrow from informal speech and are typically used to create a mood or
capture a particular historic or regional dialect.
Appropriateness of diction is determined by the norms of society.

When studying diction, students must understand both connotation (the meaning suggested by the
word) and denotation (the word’s literal meaning).
When a writer calls a character slender, the word evokes a different feeling from calling the
character gaunt.
A word’s power to produce a strong reaction in the reader lies mainly in its connotative meaning.

Diction can impart freshness and originality to writing.

Words used in surprising or unusual ways make us rethink what is known and re-examine meaning.
Good writers often opt for complexity rather than simplicity, for multiple meanings rather than
precision.
Thus diction, the foundation of voice, shapes a reader’s thinking while guiding reader insight into
the author’s idiosyncratic expression of thought: the writer’s voice.
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 8.2 Detailed paragraph format – Structure and Description
(for Response to Literature essays)

The 8.2 paragraph format is an eight-sentence paragraph that provides a structure that allows the writer to
prove a stated assertion, or position, with textual evidence. It’s eight sentences, with two of them being
evidence statements.

The 8.2 Structure

1. Assertion/Thesis - topic, position, and reason(s)
2. Context and Evidence – embedded or noted
3. Commentary – How was your evidence used?
4. Commentary – Why is it effective (to prove your assertion)
5. Transition, Context, and Evidence – This should be different from #2 – but still should support your
assertion/thesis
6. Commentary – How does your evidence prove your assertion?
7. Commentary – Why is it effective in proving assertion?
8. Concluding Statement – Wrap up thoughts, reword assertion/thesis

Sentence 1: The ASSERTION/THESIS – Answer the question directly, providing your topic, position, and your
REASONS for your position. The rest of the paragraph will prove how these reasons support this position.
Question: How does Harper Lee convey the thematic concept of racism in To Kill a Mockingbird?
Assertion: In To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee conveys the thematic concept of racism through
characterization and conflict.

Sentence 2 and 5: EVIDENCE – Provide evidence from the text of your how your reasons support your position.
This is how you know you’re right.
Example: Racism is first noted when Tom Robinson is described as “_____________” before the jury of all
white men in the courtroom of Maycomb.

Sentences 3 & 4 and 6 & 7: COMMENTARY – Explain how the QUOTES/DETAILS you selected support
your position in your thesis. How is the evidence connected to your position? By stating an opinion or comment, these
sentences help to further explain the point that has just been made by offering analysis, interpretation, evaluation, or
personal response. This is the hardest part because it is your original thought. It’s also the most important part
because this is where you convince me to see your point. Commentary sentences demonstrate the writer’s ability to
“read between the lines.” More than one commentary sentence is necessary.
Example Commentary: This example depicts Tom as a weak and inferior character in his society. Through
this subtle description, the reader is able to see how characterization is used to build the concept of racism.

DETAILED PARAGRAPH SAMPLE:

(This paragraph is taken from an essay on The Diary of Anne Frank)

Mr. Van Daan’s pessimistic attitude is one of his most annoying traits. His negativity is apparent in the scene
where his wife tells him they are having beans for dinner, and Mr. Van Daan complains, “Not again” (361). Instead
of being grateful for the food that Miep and the Frank family work so hard to provide, he shows only disappointment
and disgust. Although people are rationing food during war-time and Miep risks her life daily trying to buy food on
the Black Market, Mr. Van Daan thinks of nothing but his own appetite. Another example of Mr. Van Daan’s gloomy
outlook is when he speaks to the bewildered Mr. Dussel upon his sudden arrival in the Annex, asking Dussel, “Did
Mr. Kraler warn you that you won’t get much to eat here? You can imagine… and now with you make eight” (369).
Instead of thinking of the importance of saving another life, Mr. Van Daan thinks only of the difficulties created by
adding another refugee to the hiding place. It is no wonder that Anne Frank writes such scathing comments in her
diary about the ill-mannered Mr. Van Daan.

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 THEME

Theme: the message an author intends to convey about an abstract concept or topic like love or perseverance or
prejudice
It is a message expressed in a complete sentence; it is NOT a single word.
A literary work often has more than one theme.
Themes are implied, not directly stated.

To determine the theme(s) of a literary work, one must

 First read the entire work. The topics or concepts will show up early in the piece, but the author’s message
about those topics will not be revealed until the resolution.

 Next, create a list of the topics / concepts addressed in the piece.

 Then, write what the author is trying to express about those topics / concepts.

Consider the following concepts and theme statements from contemporary works:

Harry Potter Destiny vs. Free Will In recognizing one’s destiny, one must also recognize the
power of free will.

Transformers Acceptance/Working Unless we accept others, we cannot achieve the greatness

together that may come in working together.

Spider Man Limitations The only limitations we have are those we place on ourselves.

Avoid Common Mistakes When Writing a Theme:

 A theme is NOT a moral, a command, or a criticism. It should not tell us what to do or how to behave. Words
like “should” and “ought” are not appropriate in a theme statement.
 Themes should not refer to specifics (names or events) of the literary piece, but instead use general terms like
"leaders" or "times of conflict".
 Themes should not be trite or cliché. Avoid aphorisms such as “Actions speak louder than words” or “Absence
makes the heart grow fonder.”
 Themes should not be written in 2nd person. (Avoid “you”)
 Themes should not include absolute terms such as “all,” “none,” “everything,” or “always.”

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Thematic Ideas and Concepts to Consider:

1. ALIENATION 43. HEART vs. REASON 86. KNOWLEDGE

2. AMBITION 44. HOME 87. PASSION
3. APPEARANCE 45. INITIATION 88. NATURE
4. APPEARANCE vs. 46. ILLUSION 89. HUMAN NATURE
REALITY 47. INNOCENCE 90. PEACE
5. CHANCE / FATE / LUCK 48. INSTINCT 91. VALUE
6. CHILDREN 49. JOURNEY 92. PROGRESS
7. CUSTOM / TRADITION 50. LAW 93. BUREAUCRACY
8. CULTURE 51. JUSTICE 94. CONFORMITY
9. EMPATHY 52. EDUCATION 95. CONTENTMENT
10. BETRAYAL 53. LONELINESS 96. INTELLIGENCE
11. COURAGE 54. LOYALTY 97. HATRED
12. COWARDICE 55. MATERIALISM 98. ENVY
13. FEMINISM 56. MEMORIES/PAST 99. FRIENDSHIP
14. CRUELTY 57. MOBS 100. GENIUS
15. VIOLENCE 58. MUSIC / DANCE 101. TALENT
16. DEFEAT / FAILURE 59. PERSISTENCE 102. TRUTH
17. DESPAIR 60. PERSEVERENCE 103. CHANGE
18. DISCONTENT 61. PATRIOTISM 104. CRIME
19. DISILLUSIONMENT 62. POVERTY 105. IMMORTALITY
20. FATE 63. PREJUDICE 106. IDEALISM
21. DOMINATION 64. PROPHECY 107. GENERATION GAP
22. SUPPRESSION 65. REASON 108. INDIFFERENCE
23. DREAMS 66. REPENTENCE 109. ASPIRATION
24. FANTASIES 67. REBELLION 110. BELIEF
25. DUTY 68. REVENGE 111. BEAUTY
26. ESCAPE 69. CEREMONY 112. CIVILIZATION
27. EXILE 70. RITUAL 113. GOOD vs. EVIL
28. FAITH 71. VICTORY 114. HEROES
29. LOSS 72. VICTIM 115. MEN vs. WOMEN
30. PRETENSE 73. SOCIAL STATUS 116. INTEGRITY
31. FAMILY 74. IDENTITY 117. DISTRUST
32. FREE WILL 75. SUPERNATURAL 118. PUBLIC OPINION
33. WILLPOWER 76. ETERNITY 119. NONVIOLENCE
34. COMPETITION 77. WAR 120. PERSECUTION
35. GAMES / SPORT 78. WISDOM 121. RETRIBUTION
36. TRICKERY 79. SUCCESS 122. TRADITION
37. DECEIT 80. SELF CONFIDENCE 123. SURVIVAL
38. GREED 81. SACRIFICE 124. DESIRES
39. GUILT 82. RESPECT 125. YOUTH
40. PARADISE 83. MODESTY 126. WEALTH
41. UTOPIA 84. RACISM 127. LOVE
42. SAFETY 85. PERCEPTION 128. SELF

14
 GLOSSARY for ARGUMENT ANALYSIS
Terminology
 Claim – what you are trying to prove, your point of view
 Support – evidence used to convince the audience that your claim is sound
 Concession – concern for the feelings of those who may disagree with the writer’s position
 Refutation – asserting that an opponent’s arguments are wrong and arguing against them
 Counterargument – a rhetorical device consisting of a concession and a refutation
 Call to Action – action required of the reader as a result of the argument
 Qualifier – word or phrase that limits the claim, such as usually, sometimes, in many cases, etc.

Supporting an Argument
Persuasive Appeals –
o Logos – appealing to a person’s LOGIC or intellect. Focus is on the SPEAKER’S MESSAGE. Logical
reasoning depends on the following:
 reliance on authority  tradition (precedent)
 facts as evidence, statistics  cause/effect
 research, science  effective metaphors
Types of Reasoning –
 Deductive Reasoning - Starts with a general truth and moves to a specific application of that truth
 Inductive Reasoning - Begins with specific evidence and then moves to a generalized conclusion to account for that
evidence

o Pathos – appealing to a person’s FEELINGS or EMOTIONS of pity, sorrow, or compassion. Pathos in Greek
loosely translates to “pain.” Focus is on the AUDIENCE’S REACTION. Pathos can backfire if used to
manipulate. Pathos appeals to needs that all humans have in common:
 physical needs (life and health)
 psychological needs (a person’s need for love and respect)
 social needs (the need for freedom, respect, acceptance)

o Ethos – appealing to a person’s ETHICS or MORAL judgment of an individual. Ethos in Greek loosely
translates to “character.” Focus is on CREDIBILTY of SPEAKER. Effective writers not only possess good
character but also argue in ways that reveal good character. Ethos appeals depend on the audience seeing the
writers as people very much like themselves (or the
way they ideally would like to be). Therefore, they
have the audience’s best interests at heart.

Rhetorical Devices / Methods –

o Syntax Techniques
 Antithesis (contrast)
 Juxtaposition
 Parallel Structure
 Repetition
o Literary Techniques
 Metaphor
 Alliteration
 Allusion
 Imagery

Remember, the writer does not use Ethos,

Logos, or Pathos, but creates these appeals
through the use of various devices or choices.

15
 The Language of Literary Analysis
generously provided by former Consol AP English IV teacher Liz Davis

VERBS
These verbs will be especially effective when the subject is the author or a character. They are excellent replacements for “be”
verbs and instrumental in the formulation of thesis and theme statements. Careful use of these verbs can result in precise
identification of an author’s purpose. Follow your teacher’s directions to categorize the verbs as transitive, intransitive, positive,
negative, or neutral.
VERBS FOR LITERARY ANALYSIS
accentuates accepts achieves adopts advocates*
affects alleviates allows alludes* alters*
analyzes approaches argues ascertains* assesses*
assumes attacks attempts attributes* avoids
bases believes challenges changes characterizes
chooses chronicles claims comments compares
compels* completes concerns concludes condescends
conducts conforms confronts* considers contends*
contests* contrasts contributes conveys convinces
defines defies demonstrates depicts* describes
delineates* despises details determines develops
deviates* differentiates* differs directs disappoints
discovers discusses displays disputes disrupts*
distinguishes distorts* downplays dramatizes elevates
elicits* emphasizes encounters enhances enriches
enumerates* envisions evokes excludes expands
experiences explains expresses extends extrapolates*
fantasizes focuses forces foreshadows functions
generalizes* guides heightens highlights hints
holds honors identifies illustrates illuminates
imagines impels* implies* includes indicates
infers* inspires intends interprets interrupts
inundates* justifies juxtaposes* lambasts laments*
lampoons* lists maintains makes manages
manipulates minimizes moralizes* muses* notes
observes opposes organizes overstates outlines
patronizes* performs permits personifies* persuades
ponders* portrays postulates* prepares presents
presumes produces projects promotes proposes
provides qualifies* questions rationalizes reasons
recalls recites recollects records recounts
reflects refers regards regrets rejects
represents results reveals ridicules satirizes*
seems sees selects specifies speculates*
states strives* suggests summarizes supplies
supports suppresses* symbolizes sympathizes traces
understands vacillates* values verifies*

VERBS TO USE INSTEAD OF EXEMPLIFIES

appears asserts attests to certifies confirms
connotes* corroborates* defines demonstrates denotes*
depicts discloses* elucidates* endorses* establishes
evinces* exhibits expounds* exposes intimates*
manifests* points to proves ratifies* relates
shows substantiates* suggests typifies* upholds
validates*

16
 ADJECTIVES FOR USE IN LITERARY/RHETORICAL DISCUSSION

DESCRIBING THE AUTHOR

cultured intellectual erudite* well-read sagacious*
sensible rational philosophic* analytical imaginative
perceptive visionary* prophetic* optimistic broad-minded*
idealistic* spiritual orthodox* unorthodox* sympathetic
sophisticated* original whimsical* humorous conservative*
liberal* progressive* radical* reactionary* unprejudiced
realistic* romantic* shallow superficial bigoted
opinionated* intolerant hypocritical* fanatical* provincial*
narrow-minded* sentimental skeptical* cynical*

DESCRIBING STYLE/CONTENT
lucid* graphic* intelligible* explicit* precise
exact concise* succinct* condensed* pithy*
piquant* aphoristic* syllogistic* allusive* metaphorical
poetic prosaic* plain simple homespun*
pure vigorous* forceful eloquent* sonorous*
fluent glib* natural restrained* smooth
polished* classical artistic bombastic* extravagant
rhetorical* turgid* pompous* grandiose* obscure*
vague diffuse* verbose* pedantic* ponderous*
ungraceful harsh abrupt* labored* awkward
unpolished crude* vulgar* formal artificial
utilitarian* humanistic* pragmatic* naturalistic* impressionistic*
subjective* melodramatic* fanciful* authentic* plausible*
credible* recondite* controversial mystical* improbable*
absurd trivial commonplace heretical*

DESCRIBING DICTION
high or formal low or informal neutral precise exact
concrete abstract* plain simple homespun
esoteric* learned cultured literal* figurative*
connotative* symbolic picturesque* sensuous* literary
provincial* colloquial* slang* idiomatic* neologistic*
inexact euphemistic* trite* obscure* pedantic*
bombastic* grotesque vulgar* jargon* emotional
obtuse* moralistic* ordinary scholarly insipid*
proper pretentious* old-fashioned

DESCRIBING SYNTAX
loose* periodic* balanced* interrupted simple*
compound* complex* compound-complex* declarative* interrogative*
imperative* exclamatory* telegraphic* antithetic* inverted*
euphonic* rhythmical epigrammatic* emphatic incoherent
rambling tortuous jerky cacophonic* monotonous
spare austere* unadorned* jumbled chaotic
obfuscating* journalistic* terse* laconic* mellifluous*
musical lilting* lyrical* elegant solid
thudding dry ornate* elaborate flowery
erudite* grating* staccato* abrupt* sprawling

DESCRIBING ORGANIZATION/STRUCTURE/POINT OF VIEW

spatial* chronological flashback flash forward* in media res*
step-by-step objective* subjective* nostalgic* reminiscent
contemplative* reflective* clinical* impersonal* dramatic*
omniscient* limited* alternating oscillating

17
DESCRIBING CHARACTERS (Great substitutions for pretty and ugly!)

Physical Qualities
manly virile* robust* hardy* sturdy
strapping* stalwart* muscular brawny* lovely
fair comely* handsome dainty delicate
graceful elegant shapely attractive winsome*
ravishing* dapper* immaculate adroit* dexterous*
adept* skillful agile* nimble* active
lively spirited* vivacious* weak feeble*
sickly frail decrepit* emaciated* cadaverous*
effeminate* unwomanly hideous homely* course*
unkempt* slovenly* awkward clumsy ungainly*
graceless bizarre* grotesque incongruous* ghastly
repellent* repugnant* repulsive odious* invidious*
loathsome*

Mental Qualities (Great substitutions for smart and stupid! Which comments would you like to see on your papers?)
educated erudite* scholarly wise astute*
intellectual precocious* capable competent gifted
apt* rational reasonable sensible shrewd*
prudent* observant clever ingenious* inventive
subtle* cunning* crafty* wily* unintelligent
unschooled* unlettered* ignorant illiterate* inane*
irrational puerile* foolish fatuous* vacuous*
simple thick-skulled* idiotic imbecilic* witless*
deranged* demented* articulate* eloquent*

Moral Qualities (Great substitutions for good and bad!)

idealistic* innocent virtuous* faultless righteous*
guileless* upright* exemplary chaste* pure
undefiled* temperate* abstentious* austere* ascetic*
puritanical* truthful honorable trustworthy straightforward*
decent respectable wicked corrupt* degenerate*
notorious* vicious incorrigible* dissembling* infamous*
immoral* unprincipled* reprobate* depraved* indecent*
ribald* vulgar* intemperate* sensual* dissolute*
deceitful dishonest unscrupulous* dishonorable* base*
vile* foul* recalcitrant* philandering* opportunistic*

Spiritual Qualities (More great substitutions for good and bad!)

religious reverent pious* devout* faithful
regenerate* holy saintly angelic skeptical*
agnostic* atheistic* irreligious* impious* irreverent*
profane* sacrilegious* materialistic carnal* godless
diabolic* fiendlike* blasphemous* unregenerate* altruistic*
charitable

Social Qualities (Terrific substitutions for nice and mean!)

civil* amicable* contentious* unpolished* sullen*
tactful* courteous cooperative genial* affable*
hospitable* gracious* amiable* cordial* congenial*
convivial* jovial* jolly urbane* suave*
anti-social* acrimonious* quarrelsome antagonistic* misanthropic*
discourteous impudent* impolite insolent* ill-bred
ill-mannered unrefined rustic* provincial* boorish*
brusque* churlish* fawning* obsequious* sniveling*
grumpy fractious* crusty* peevish* petulant*
waspish* taciturn* reticent* gregarious* garrulous*

18
DESCRIBING IMAGERY ( Substitute these precise adjectives for less precise ones such as vivid, colorful, and powerful.)
bucolic* pastoral* gustatory* olfactory* tactile*
kinetic* kinesthetic* sensual* sacred chaotic
auditory* religious animal war/military
of death, decay, decomposition

THE LANGUAGE OF ARGUMENT

VERBS
attack charge claim propose defend
challenge qualify counter repudiate* allege*
validate confirm affirm* argue assume
answer agree/disagree verify resolve concede*
assert generalize specify debate dispute

NOUNS
warrant validity plausibility* practicality proposal
solution resolution bias credibility accountability
vested interest conflict of interests enthymeme* pathos* ethos*
logos* counterargument premise* syllogism* deduction*
induction* fallacy* ad hominem exigence* speaker
audience purpose message precedent* testimonial*
rebuttal* antithesis* non sequitur* circular reasoning* bandwagon*
refutation slippery slope* anecdote* advocacy* rhetoric*
invective* proponent* assertion adherent * red herring*
qualifier* begging the question* justification cause/effect

OTHER SUGGESTIONS

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 Tone Vocabulary
Like the tone of a speaker’s voice, the tone of a work of literature expresses the writer’s feelings. To determine the tone of a
passage, ask yourself the following questions:
1. What is the subject of the passage? Who is its intended audience?
2. What are the most important words in the passage? What connotations do these words have?
3. What feelings are generated by the images of the passage?
4. Are there any hints that the speaker or narrator does not really mean everything he or she says? If any jokes are made,
are they lighthearted or bitter?
5. If the narrator were speaking aloud, what would the tone of his or her voice be?

Positive Tone/Attitude Words

Amiable Consoling Friendly Playful
Amused Content Happy Pleasant
Appreciative Dreamy Hopeful Proud
Authoritative Ecstatic Impassioned Relaxed
Benevolent Elated Jovial Reverent
Brave Elevated Joyful Romantic
Calm Encouraging Jubilant Soothing
Cheerful Energetic Lighthearted Surprised
Cheery Enthusiastic Loving Sweet
Compassionate Excited Optimistic Sympathetic
Complimentary Exuberant Passionate Vibrant
Confident Fanciful Peaceful Whimsical

Negative Tone/Attitude Words

Accusing Choleric Furious Quarrelsome
Aggravated Coarse Harsh Shameful
Agitated Cold Haughty Smooth
Angry Condemnatory Hateful Snooty
Apathetic Condescending Hurtful Superficial
Arrogant Contradictory Indignant Surly
Artificial Critical Inflammatory Testy
Audacious Desperate Insulting Threatening
Belligerent Disappointed Irritated Tired
Bitter Disgruntled Manipulative Uninterested
Boring Disgusted Obnoxious Wrathful
Brash Disinterested Outraged
Childish Facetious Passive

Humor-Irony-Sarcasm Tone/Attitude Words

Amused Droll Mock-heroic Sardonic
Bantering Facetious Mocking Satiric
Bitter Flippant Mock-serious Scornful
Caustic Giddy Patronizing Sharp
Comical Humorous Pompous Silly
Condescending Insolent Quizzical Taunting
Contemptuous Ironic Ribald Teasing
Critical Irreverent Ridiculing Whimsical
Cynical Joking Sad Wry
Disdainful Malicious Sarcastic

20
Sorrow-Fear-Worry Tone/Attitude Words
Aggravated Embarrassed Morose Resigned
Agitated Fearful Mournful Sad
Anxious Foreboding Nervous Serious
Apologetic Gloomy Numb Sober
Apprehensive Grave Ominous Solemn
Concerned Hollow Paranoid Somber
Confused Hopeless Pessimistic Staid
Dejected Horrific Pitiful Upset
Depressed Horror Poignant
Despairing Melancholy Regretful
Disturbed Miserable Remorseful

Neutral Tone/Attitude Words

Admonitory Dramatic Intimae Questioning
Allusive Earnest Judgmental Reflective
Apathetic Expectant Learned Reminiscent
Authoritative Factual Loud Resigned
Baffled Fervent Lyrical Restrained
Callous Formal Matter-of-fact Seductive
Candid Forthright Meditative Sentimental
Ceremonial Frivolous Nostalgic Serious
Clinical Haughty Objective Shocking
Consoling Histrionic Obsequious Sincere
Contemplative Humble Patriotic Unemotional
Conventional Incredulous Persuasive Urgent
Detached Informative Pleading Vexed
Didactic Inquisitive Pretentious Wistful
Disbelieving Instructive Provocative Zealous

Language Words-Used to describe the force or quality of the entire piece

Like word choice, the language of a passage has control over tone. Consider language to be the entire body of words used in
a text, not simply isolated bits of diction, imagery, or detail. For example, an invitation to a graduation might use formal language,
whereas a biology text would use scientific and clinical language.
Different from tone, these words describe the force or quality of the diction, images, and details AS A WHOLE. These words
qualify how the work is written.

Artificial Exact Literal Pretentious

Bombastic Figurative Moralistic Provincial
Colloquial Formal Obscure Scholarly
Concrete Grotesque Obtuse Sensuous
Connotative Homespun Ordinary Simple
Cultured Idiomatic Pedantic Slang
Detached Informal Picturesque Symbolic
Emotional Insipid Plain Trite
Esoteric Jargon Poetic Vulgar
Euphemistic Learned Precise

21
 Using TPCASTT for Analysis of Poetry
Title What do the words of the title suggest to you? What denotations are presented in the title? What

T
connotations or associations do the words posses? Write down what you think the poem might be about
based solely on the meanings you draw from the words in the title.

Paraphrase Translate the poem in your own words. Be careful to look at complete sentences rather than line by line.

P
What is the poem about?

Connotation What meaning does the poem have beyond the literal meaning? Answer all of the following questions.

C
Form / Structure
What physical aspects of the
poem do you notice that could be
contributing to meaning? Look for
emphasis, form, stanzas,
punctuation, etc.
Irony
explain the irony in the poem by
writing the word or phrase and an
explanation of why you believe it
to be ironic – consider all types of
irony and techniques (ex:
paradox, understatement, etc)
Symbolism
List the symbols in the poem and
write an explanation of what each
might mean.
Attitude Analyze the point of view of the poem. Is there a difference between the SPEAKER of the poem and the
Diction
What kinds of words does the
poet use? List the most important
words and then judge whether
each is positive, negative, or
neutral.
Effects of Sound Devices
Write the words and the effects of
the sound devices used by the
poet (ex: alliteration, assonance,
onomatopoeia, rhyme, etc.)
Figurative Language
Explain significant examples of
figurative language including
similes, metaphors,
personification, etc.
Imagery
Write out words or phrases that
paint a picture or stimulate the
senses (sight, sound, touch,
smell, taste) in the reader’s mind.
Allusions
Write the word(s) or phrase(s)
and an explanation of what each
refers to – be sure to explain the
significance / meaning
Other Devices
Look for items such as: antithesis,
apostrophe, sound devices, irony,
oxymoron, paradox, pun,
sarcasm, understatement

A
poet? What is the speaker’s attitude? How does the speaker feel about himself, about others, and about the
subject? What is the author’s attitude? How does the author feel about the speaker, about other characters,
about the subject, and the reader? Use specific tone words to describe these attitudes.

Shifts Where do the shifts in tone, setting, voice, etc. occur? Look for time and place, keywords, punctuation,

S
stanza divisions, changes in length or rhyme, and sentence structure. What is the purpose of each shift?
How do they contribute to effect and meaning?

Title Reanalyze the title on an interpretive level. What part does the title play in the overall interpretation of the

T
poem? The title should now have a deeper, more complicated meaning.

Theme List the subjects and the abstract ideas in the poem. Then determine the overall theme. The theme must be

T
written in a complete sentence. Ask yourself these questions to determine the theme:
(1) What is the poem about (abstract concepts)?
(2) What is the poem saying about it? (The complete sentence answer to this question is the theme.)

22
 Poetry: Literary Devices and Poetic Structures
Poetic Terms:
stanza - the paragraph of a poem.
Stanza Structures:
couplet – two lines quatrain – four lines sestet – six lines octave – eight lines
tercet – three lines quintain – five lines septet – seven lines
structure - the way the poem is built (four line stanzas, one stanza, etc.)
speaker – the voice that talks to the reader, similar to the narrator in fiction – not necessarily the poet.
rhythm – a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry
rhyme scheme – a pattern of end rhymes in a poem

Figurative Language:
 anthropomorphism - to give human qualities to animals.
 apostrophe - a speaker directly addresses something or someone that is not living.
 diction - the poet's choice of words.
 denotation - the exact meaning of the word that can be found in any dictionary.
 connotation - the suggested meaning beyond the words exact meaning that usually deals with
the emotional qualities.
 hyperbole - using exaggeration to extend reality.
 imagery - language that appeals to the five senses allowing the reader to form a picture in their mind.
 metonymy – a form of metaphor – the name of one thing is applied to another thing with which it is
closely associated. (“The bill will not pass unless the crown approves it.”)
 metaphor - a comparison of two unlike things, usually says the one thing "is" something else.
 oxymoron - juxtaposing two things apparently contradictory that still reinforce one idea.
 personification - to attribute human qualities or characteristics to nonliving things.
 pun - a play on words where the meaning is ironic or humorous.
 repetition – a device in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once to enhance rhythm
and to create emphasis.
 simile - a comparison that uses words such as "like" or "as".
 synecdoche - the use of a part for the whole. ("all hands on deck")
 understatement - this is the opposite of hyperbole. Understatement is used when less is stated for the
situation or meaning.

Sound Devices
 cacophony - harsh, unpleasing sounds
 euphony - pleasing, pleasant sounds

Repetition Devices
 alliteration - repetition of beginning sounds in close proximity to one another ("Sally sells seashells
by the seashore")
 assonance - repetition of internal vowel sounds. The words do not need to rhyme exactly, but can
also mirror the vowel sound (lake, fake, break, ache)
 consonance - repetition of consonant sounds (exact rhyme - Ireland, England, island) (internal rhyme
- gamma, grammar, Santana ) (slant rhyme - will, shall, bill)
Rhyme Devices
 end rhyme - when the final words at the end of the lines rhyme with one another.
 exact rhyme - ray, fray, bay (masculine - one syllable rhymes) / projectile, percentile (feminine - two
or more syllable rhymes)
 internal rhyme - rhyme happens within the lines of poetry
 slant rhyme - the words sound similar, but are not exact rhymes (begun, afternoon / came, time)
23
 Annotating Poetry Guide
When annotating a poem look at the following six elements:

1. Speaker
 Who is the speaker?
 What is the speaker's point of view?
 Who is the speaker's audience?
 What is the speaker's topic, argument, etc.?

2. Tone
 What is the dominant tone in the poem?
 Examine the poet’s diction (word choice). Positive? Negative? What feelings/emotions are evoked in
the reader?
 Does the tone of the poem shift? Where? Why?

3. Imagery
 Using the five senses (feel, hear, see, smell, taste) isolate the main images
 What is suggested by the use of the image?
 Does the image provoke an emotion or idea? How?

4. Figurative Language
 Be able to find, discuss, and understand the figurative language used in the poem.
 Use the list of literary devices that are listed on page 22 in the guidebook.

5. Sound
 What sound elements are the most prominent? Why?
 Use the list of literary devices that are listed on page 22 in the guidebook.
 How does the sound element help to reinforce the meaning of the poem.

6. Theme
 What is the theme of the poem?
 What is the purpose of the poem?
 How does the poem help to exemplify the theme?
 Remember that THEME is the message (the complete idea) that the poet is suggesting stated in a
complete sentence. See page 12 in the guidebook.

24
 POETRY FOCUS STATEMENTS
DEFINITION:
 A one to two-sentence summary of the narrative situation, theme, and tone of a
poem; potential thesis for a free-response poetry question on the AP Literature exam

CRITICAL ATTRIBUTES:
 Includes the “title of the poem” and the name of the poet (include last name)
 Is written in literary present tense
 Specifies the narrative situation of the poem
 Includes a thoughtful but concise indication of theme
 Identifies the tone(s) of the poem. These may be differing but complementary.
Shifts in tone may be identified as well.
 The syntax of poetry focus statements is compound or complex because you are
addressing both the literal (the narrative situation) and the thematic.

Model:
Title Poet Tone(s)

In “Sonnet 29,” William Shakespeare creates a depressed speaker

Narrative Situation
who reflects upon the love of a close friend in order to prove to the reader that
Theme
no matter how difficult life becomes, we can be content in the blessings of love.

25
 26 Line Argument Essay Outline
I. Introduction:
a. Get the reader’s attention by using a "hook."
b. Give some background information if necessary.
c. Thesis statement – states your position (CLAIM) and introduce your two reasons.

II. First reason to support your position:

a. Transition and Topic sentence naming your point / reason
b. Details, explanation, examples that support your reason
i. Many sentences
ii. Write only about this reason
iii. Every sentence should help the reader understand why this is a good reason to support
your thesis
c. Clincher (mini conclusion for this point only)

III. Second reason to support your position (concession / refutation)

a. Topic sentence conceding and then refuting the opposing opinion
“Some people might say _________; however, _________”
b. Details, explanation, examples that support your reason
i. Many sentences
ii. Write only about this reason
iii. Every sentence should help the reader understand why this is a good reason to support
your thesis
c. Clincher (mini conclusion for this point only)

IV. Conclusion:
a. Restate thesis statement which includes summary of main points
b. Leave your reader with a Call to Action or your personal thought

Helpful Hints for selecting two good reasons.
 Try to use examples from the real world that cover the spectrum.
o immediate effect and the long term effects
o Benefits to individual and to the world.
o Emotion aspects and physical aspects.
Remember to incorporate Appeals:
 Ethos (anecdotes, pronouns)
 Pathos (connotative diction)
 Logos (facts, cause/effect)

26
Transitions for writing
Transitions are words and phrases that connect ideas and show how they are related.

To mark a new idea as an addition to what has been said:

Similarly, Also, Too, Besides, Furthermore, Further, Moreover, In addition,

To repeat an idea just stated:

In other words, That is, To repeat, Again,

To illustrate an idea:
For example, For instance, In particular, To illustrate, In this manner, Thus

To announce a contrast, a change in direction:

Yet, However, Still, Nevertheless, On the other hand, In contrast, Instead of, On the
contrary, I n spite of this,

Time:
At once, At length, Immediately, At last, Meanwhile, In the meantime, Presently, At the
same time, In the end, Thereafter,

To restate an idea more precisely:

To be exact, To be specific, To be precise, More specifically, M ore precisely,

To show cause and effect:

As a result, For this reason, Therefore, Hence, Consequently, Accordingly,

Conclusion:
In short, To conclude, In brief, On the whole, In summary, To sum up

27
 Better verbs to use when writing…
CONVEYS REVEALS

 Expresses  Clarifies REINFORCES

 Relates  Demonstrates
 Reveals  Displays  Adds to
 Illustrates  Backs up
 Confirms
COMMUNICATES  Defends
DESCRIBES  Emphasizes
 Concludes  Proves
 Connects  Depicts  Stresses
 Declares  Explains  Supports
 Implies  Expresses
 Introduces  Illustrates
 Provides
 Reports USES
 Reveals RELATES
 Signifies  Employs
 States  Depicts  Utilizes
 Suggests  Describes
 Expresses
 Narrates
DEVELOPS  Presents
 Reports SYMBOLIZES
 Expands  Reveals
 Explains  Illustrates
 Personifies
CLAIMS  Represents
EXAMINES  Shows
 Argues  Signifies
 Analyzes  Asserts
 Compares  Reasons
 Contrasts  States
 Explores
 Investigates
 Questions
COMMENTS

ENHANCES  Asserts
 Clarifies
 Exaggerates  Criticizes
 Reinforces  Explains
 Mentions
 Notes
 Points out

28
29
30
 Resources for this Handbook
Crest, Catherine Bartlett. Teacher’s Guide—AP English Literature and Composition. College

Board, 1999.

McIntire, Debra. Introduction Materials: Summer Institute for Advanced Placement Literature and

Composition, 2002.

Potts, Mary Jo. Teacher’s Guide—AP English Language and Composition. College Board, 1998.

Schaffer, Jane. Teaching the Multiparagraph Essay. Jane Schaffer Publications, 1995.

Student Handbook: Advanced Placement English Program. Yukon High School, 2001.

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