Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA)

Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA), also known as Intelligent Speed Assistance, is any system that constantly monitors vehicle speed and the local speed limit on a road and implements an action when the vehicle is detected to be exceeding the speed limit. This can be done through an advisory system, where the driver is warned, or through an intervention system where the driving systems of the vehicle are controlled automatically to reduce the vehicles speed. Intelligent speed adaptation uses information about the road on which the vehicle travels to make decisions about what the correct speed should be. This information can be obtained through use of a digital maps incorporating roadway coordinates as well as data on the speed zoning for that roadway at that location, through general speed zoning information for a defined geographical area (e.g., an urban area which has a single defined speed limit), or through feature recognition technology that detects and interprets speed limit signage. ISA systems are designed to detect and alert a driver when a vehicle has entered a new speed zone, when variable speed zones are in force (e.g., variable speed limits in school zones that apply at certain times of the day and only on certain days), and when temporary speed zones are imposed (such as speed limit changes in adverse weather or during traffic congestion, at accident scenes, or near roadworks ). Many ISA systems will also provide information about locations where hazards may occur (e.g., in high pedestrian movement areas, railway level crossings or railroad grade crossings, schools, hospitals, etc.) or where enforcement actions is indicated (e.g., speed camera and red light camera locations). The purpose of ISA is to assist the driver in keeping to the lawful speed limit at all times, particularly as they pass through different speed zones. This is particularly useful when drivers are in unfamiliar areas or when they pass through areas where variable speed limits are used. Most motorists do not appreciate the extra risks involved in travelling just a few km/h over the speed limit.[citation needed] Most think that the risk of a casualty crash is doubled if you are travelling at least 25 km/h over the speed limit. Research has found that that, in urban areas, the risk of a casualty crash is doubled for each 5 km/h over the limit.

So travelling at 70 km/h in a 60 km/h zone quadruples the risk of a crash in which someone is hospitalized. As a result, it is estimated that about 10% of casualties could be prevented if the large group of motorists who routinely travel at up to 10 km/h over the limit were encouraged to obey the speed limits. About 20% of casualties could be prevented if all vehicles complied with the speed limits. Savings in fatal crashes would be larger."Minor" speeding therefore makes up a large proportion of preventable road trauma. It is difficult for enforcement methods alone to have an effect on this minor speeding. An added problem is that even motorists who want to obey the speed limits (to keep their life, license or livelihood) have difficulty doing so in modern cars on city roads. This is where an ISA system comes into its own.

Types of ISA (Active/ Passive):

The two types of ISA systems, passive and active, differ in that passive systems simply warn the driver of the vehicle travelling at a speed in excess of the speed limit, while active systems intervene and automatically correct the vehicles speed to conform to the speed limit. Passive systems are generally driver advisory systems: They alert the driver to the fact that they are speeding, provide information as to the speed limit, and allow the driver to make a choice on what action should be taken. These systems usually display visual or auditory cues, such as auditory and visual warnings and may include tactile cues such as a vibration of the accelerator pedal. Some passive ISA technology trials have used vehicle modified to provide haptic feedback, wherein the accelerator pedal becomes more resistant to movement (i.e., harder to push down) when the vehicle travels over the speed limit. Active ISA systems actually reduce or limit the vehicles speed automatically by manipulating the engine and/or braking systems. Most active ISA systems provide an override system so that the driver can disable the ISA, if necessary, on a temporary basis. An often unrecognized feature of both active and passive ISA systems is that they can serve as on-board vehicle data recorders, retaining information about vehicle location and performance for later checking and fleet management purposes.

Speed and location determining/ verification technology:

There are four types of technology currently available for determining local speed limits on a road and determining the speed of the vehicle. These are: GPS Radio Beacons Optical recognition Dead Reckoning

Global Positioning System (GPS) Receiver based systems: GPS is based on a network of satellites that constantly transmit radio signals. GPS

receivers pick up these transmissions and compare the signals from several satellites in order to pinpoint the receivers location to within a few meters. This is done by comparing the time at which the signal was sent from the satellite to when it was picked up by the receiver. Because the orbital paths of the satellites are known very accurately, the receiver can perform a calculation based on its distance to several of the orbiting satellites and therefore obtain its position. There are currently 24 satellites making up the GPS network, and their orbits are configured so that a minimum of five satellites are available at any one time for terrestrial users. Four satellites is the minimum number of satellites required to determine a precise three-dimensional position.

FIG: GPS ACCESS THROUGH CAR The popularity of GPS in current ISA and in car navigation systems may give the impression that GPS is flawless, but this is not the case. GPS is subject to a number of fundamental problems. Many of these problems relate to the accuracy of the determined position. The receiver still gets the signal from the satellites, but due to satellites' ephemeris uncertainties, propagation errors, timing errors, multiple signal propagation path, and receiver noises, the position given can be inaccurate. Usually these inaccuracies are small and range from five to ten meters for most systems, but they can be up to hundreds of meters. In most situations this may not matter, but these inaccuracies can be important in circumstances where a high speed road is located immediately adjacent to roads with much lower speed limits (e.g., residential streets). Furthermore, because GPS relies upon a signal transmitted from a satellite in orbit, it does not function when the receiver is underground or in a tunnel, and the signal can become weak if tall buildings, trees, or heavy clouds come between the receiver and the satellites. Current improvements being made to the GPS satellite network will help to increase GPS reliability and accuracy in the future but will not completely overcome the fundamental shortcomings of GPS. In order to be used for ISA systems. e.g., schools, banks, etc. should be there in ISA GPS map.

Radio Beacons: Roadside radio beacons, or bollards, work by transmitting data to a receiver in the

car. The beacons constantly transmit data that the car-mounted receiver picks up as it passes each beacon. This data could include local speed limits, school zones, variable speed

limits, or traffic warnings. If sufficient numbers of beacons were used and were placed at regular intervals, they could calculate vehicle speed based on how many beacons the vehicle passed per second. Beacons could be placed in/on speed signs, telegraph poles, other roadside fixtures, or in the road itself. Mobile beacons could be deployed in order to override fixed beacons for use around accident scenes, during poor weather, or during special events. Beacons could be linked to a main computer so that quick changes could be made. The use of radio beacons is common when ISA systems are used to control vehicle speeds in off road situations, such as factory sites, logistics and storage centres, etc., where occupational health and safety requirements mean that very low vehicle speeds are required in the vicinity of workers and in situations of limited or obscured visibility.

FIG. RADIO BEACONS Optical recognition systems: So far, this technology has been focused solely on recognizing speed signs. However, other roadside objects, such as the reflective "cats eyes" that divide lanes could possibly be used. This system requires the vehicle to pass a speed sign or similar indicator

and for data about the sign or indicator to be registered by a scanner or a camera system. As the system recognizes a sign, the speed limit data is obtained and compared to the vehicles speed. The system would use the speed limit from the last sign passed until it detects and recognizes a speed sign with a different limit. If speed signs are not present, the system does not function. This is a particular problem when exiting a side road onto a main road, as the vehicle may not pass a speed sign for some distance.

FIG: ORIGINAL IMAGE

FI G: ORS IMAGE Dead Reckoning: Dead reckoning (DR) uses a mechanical system linked to the vehicles driving assembly in order to predict the path taken by the vehicle. By measuring the rotation of the road wheels over time, a fairly precise estimation of the vehicles speed and distance

traveled can be made. Dead reckoning requires the vehicle to begin at a known, fixed point. Then, by combining speed and distance data with factors such as the angle of the steering wheel and feedback from specialized sensors (e.g., accelerometers, flux gate compass, gyroscope) it can plot the path taken by the vehicle. By overlaying this path onto a digital map, the DR system knows approximately where the vehicle is, what the local speed limit is, and the speed at which the vehicle is traveling. The system can then use information provided by the digital map to warn of upcoming hazards or points of interest and to provide warnings if the speed limit is exceeded. Some top-end GPS-based navigation systems currently on the market use dead reckoning as a backup system in case the GPS signal is lost. Dead reckoning is prone to cumulative measurement errors such as variations between the assumed circumference of the tyres compared to the actual dimension (which is used to calculate vehicle speed and distance traveled). These variations in the tyre circumference can be due to wear or variations in tyre pressure due to variations in speed, payload, or ambient temperature. Other measurement errors are accumulated when the vehicle navigates gradual curves that inertial sensors (e.g., gyroscopes and/or accelerometers) are not sensitive enough to detect or due to electromagnetic influences on magnetic flux compasses (e.g., from passing under power lines or when travelling across a steel bridge) and through underpasses and road tunnels.

Limitations of Intelligent Speed Adaptation:

An initial reaction to the concept of ISA is that there could be negative outcomes, such as driving at the speed limit rather than to the conditions, but numerous ISA trials around the World have shown these concerns are unsubstantiated. A particular issue is that most ISA systems use a speed database based purely on information regarding the posted maximum speed limit for a roadway or roadway segment. Obviously, many roads have features such as curves and gradients where the appropriate speed for a road segment with these features is less than the posted maximum speed limit. Increasingly, road authorities indicate the appropriate speed for such segments through the use of advisory speed signage to alert drivers on approach that there are features which require a reduction in travelling speed. It is recognised that the speed limit databases used

in ISA systems should ideally take account of posted advisory speeds as well as posted maximum speed limits. The New South Wales ISA trial, underway in the Illwarra region south of Sydney currently, is the only trial that is using posted advisory speeds as well as posted maximum speed limits. Some car manufacturers have expressed concern that some types of speed limiters "take control away from the driver". This is also unsubstantiated, firstly because ISA systems do have provision for over-ride by the driver in the event that the set speed is inappropriate and secondly, the claim is somewhat hypocritical given that cruise control has been in use on vehicles for many years and forces the vehicle to travel at a minimum speed unless there is driver intervention. For some traffic safety practitioners, active intelligent speed adaptation is thought to be an example of 'hard automation', an approach to automation that has been largely discredited by the Human Factors community. An inviolable characteristic of human users is that they will adapt to these systems, often in unpredictable ways. Some studies have shown that drivers 'drive up to the limits' of the system and drive at the set speed, compared to when they are in manual control, where they have been shown to slow down. Conversely, the experience of some drivers with driving under an active ISA system has been that they find they can pay more attention to the roadway and road environment as they no longer need to monitor the speedometer and adjust their speeds on a continuing basis. There is also concern that drivers driving under speed control might accept more risky headways between themselves and vehicles in front and accept much narrower gaps to join traffic (this fact drawing particular criticism from motorcycling groups). Wider criticism also comes from the insistent focus on speed and that road safety outcomes could be better achieved by focusing on driving technique, situational awareness, and automation that 'assists' drivers rather than 'forces' them to behave in particular ways. Intelligent speed adaptation has also been held as an example of a technology which, like speed cameras, can often alienate the driving public and represents a significant barrier to its widespread adoption. Some studies which pre-date the development of ISA systems indicated that drivers make relatively little use of the speedometer and instead use auditory cues (such as engine

and road noise) to successfully regulate their speed. These studies, however, remain unverified. There is an argument in the literature that suggests that as cars have become quieter and more refined speed control has become more difficult for drivers to perform. Thus an alternative 'soft-automation' approach is simply to re-introduce some of those cues that drivers naturally use to regulate speed (rather than incur the expense and unexpected behavioral adaptations of ISA).

Benefits of Intelligent Speed Adaptation:

Real and perceived benefits of ISA are a reduction of accident risks [citation needed] and reductions of noise [citation needed] and exhaust emissions. ISA is universal. Its effect is only limited by either the (geographical) size of the digital road map or by the physical positions of the entry/exit beacons. ISA is invisible. The only implification for infrastructure is the siting of beacons (if used). These can be mounted on lampposts for minimum visual intrusion. ISA can be dynamic. For example, lower speed limits can be enforced during the school-run time, in the vicinity of the school only. In school holidays etc. the limits can be returned to normal. Weekend and off-peak regimes can also be applied. ISA is silent. It is a support system that does not intrude until the maximum allowable speed is reached. It does not affect the acceleration performance of the vehicle, only its top speed.

Commercial use:
Strategic thinking in traffic safety acknowledges that Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), and in-vehicle technologies in particular, hold promise as safety measures to counter the risk of road crashes and the trauma arising from crashes. However, road safety practitioners have been hesitant in embarking on vigorous pursuit of emerging technologies in crash avoidance and occupant protection. This is perhaps best described as a combination of appropriate caution, bureaucratic reluctance, tinged perhaps with historical bias and lack of knowledge. It is recognized that it is difficult indeed to identify

just which of a number of future or proposed technologies will prove to be viable, and to identify those future or proposed technologies that will not, as time progresses, result in significant commercial

Implementation:
Perhaps it is because of such concerns that the development of ISA systems under research and development programs funded by governments has remained at the prototype or trial stages, despite positive experiences and strong endorsement of ISA technologies for more than a decade. It is thus not surprising that the commercialization of ISA systems occurred outside of the mainstream traffic safety community and with only very limited governmental support. In Australia in 2007 two ISA products emerged in the marketplace and have since established commercial success. Some road safety researchers are surprised that Australia is leading the world with this technology. Speed Alert is a passive ISA product marketed by Smart Car Technologies, based in Sydney NSW. It offers full national speed zoning information embedded within a GPSbased navigation system, providing drivers with information on speed limits and vehicle speed, as well as related information on locations such as schools, railway level crossings, speed camera sites, etc.. The software is easily affordable for both fleet and private drivers, typically selling for about A$200. Speed Shield is an active ISA product marketed by Automotion Control Systems, based in Melbourne, Vic. It offers speed zoning information embedded within a GPS-based navigation system, providing drivers with information on speed limits and vehicle speed and is combined with technology that intervenes and controls the vehicle speed to no faster than the posted speed limit for that section of roadway. The technology is generally transferrable across vehicle manufacturers and models, but must be configured for an individual make and model. As the cost is variable (estimated to be A$13,000 depending on vehicle type and number of vehicles to be fitted), its commercial use has tended to be into vehicle fleet operations rather than private owners. Coredination ISA is a passive ISA product marketed by Coredination, based in Stockholm, Sweden. This product is build as a smart phone-application for Android and iPhone. It offers full national speed zoning information, providing drivers with information on speed limits and vehicle speed. The product is very lightweight and no separate

hardware or fixed installations are necessary.

ACCIDENT AVOIDANCE SYSTEM:

Emergency Brake Assist

Traction control system

Anti-lock braking system

Electronic Brake force distribution

Blind Spot Information System

Emergency Brake Assist: Emergency Brake Assist (EBA) is a safety system in motor vehicles designed to

ensure maximum braking power is used in an emergency stop situation. By interpreting the speed and force with which the brake pedal is pushed, the system detects if the driver is trying to execute an emergency stop, and if the brake pedal is not fully applied, the system overrides and fully applies the brakes until the Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) takes over to stop the wheels locking up. Research shows that drivers can react too slowly in emergency braking situations. Many drivers are not prepared for the relatively high efforts required for maximum braking, and nor are they prepared for the "buzzing" feedback through the brake pedal during ABS operation. If an emergency develops, a slow reaction and less than maximum braking input could result in insufficient time or distance to stop before an accident occurs.

EBA is designed to detect such panic stops and apply maximum braking effort within milliseconds quicker than the blink of an eye. It interprets braking behavior by assessing the rate that the brake pedal is activated. If the system identifies an emergency, it automatically initiates full braking faster than any driver can move their foot. Emergency stopping distances can be shortened, reducing the likelihood of accidents especially the common nose to tail incident. An electronic system designed to recognize emergency braking operation and automatically enhance braking effort improves vehicle and occupant safety. Can reduce stopping distances by up to 70 ft (21 m) at 125 mph (201 km/h)

Traction Control System: A traction control system (TCS), also known as anti-slip regulation (ASR), is

typically (but not necessarily) a secondary function of the anti-lock braking system (ABS) on production motor vehicles, designed to prevent loss of traction of driven road wheels. When invoked it therefore enhances driver control as throttle input applied is mis-matched to road surface conditions (due to varying factors) being unable to manage applied torque.

Intervention consists of one or more of the following: Reduces or suppress spark sequence to one or more cylinders Reduce fuel supply to one or more cylinders Brake force applied at one or more wheels Close the throttle, if the vehicle is fitted with drive by wire throttle In turbo-charged vehicles, a boost control solenoid can be actuated to reduce boost and therefore engine power. Typically, traction control systems share the electro-hydraulic brake actuator (but does not use the conventional master cylinder and servo), and wheel speed sensors with the anti-lock braking system.

Overview: The basic idea behind the need of a traction control system is the difference between traction of different wheels evidencing apparent loss of road grip that compromise steering control and stability of vehicles. Difference in slip may occur due to turning of a vehicle or differently varying road conditions for different wheels. At high speeds, when a car tends to turn, its outer and inner wheels are subjected to different speed of rotation, that is conventionally controlled by using a differential. A further enhancement of the

differential is to employ an active differential that can vary the amount of power being delivered to outer and inner wheels according to the need (for example, if, while turning right, outward slip (equivalently saying, 'yaw') is sensed, active differential may deliver more power to the outer wheel, so as to minimize the yaw (that is basically the degree to which the front and rear wheels of a car are out of line.) Active-differential, in turn, is controlled by an assembly of electromechanical sensors collaborating with a traction control unit.

Operation: When the traction control computer (often incorporated into another control unit, like the anti-lock braking system module) detects one or more driven wheels spinning significantly faster than another, it invokes ABS ecu to apply brake friction to wheels spinning with lessened traction. Braking action on slipping wheel(s) will cause power transfer to wheel axle(s) with traction due to the mechanical action within a differential. All-wheel drive AWD vehicles often have an electronically controlled coupling system in the transfer case or transaxle engaged (active part-time AWD), or locked-up tighter (in a true full-time set up driving all wheels with some power all the time) to supply nonslipping wheels with (more) torque. This often occurs in conjunction with the power train computer reducing available engine torque by electronically limiting throttle application and/or fuel delivery, retarding ignition spark, completely shutting down engine cylinders, and a number of other methods, depending on the vehicle and how much technology is used to control the engine and transmission.

Use of traction control: In road cars: Traction control has traditionally been a safety feature in premium high-performance cars, which otherwise need sensitive throttle input preventing spinning driven wheels when accelerating, especially in wet, icy or snowy conditions. In recent years, traction control systems have become widely available in non-performance cars, minivans, and light trucks.

In race cars: Traction control is used as a performance enhancement, allowing maximum traction under acceleration without wheel spin. When accelerating out of turn, it keeps the tires at optimal slip ratio. In motorcycles: Traction control for a production motorcycle was first available with the Honda ST1100 in 1992. By 2009, traction control was an option for several models offered by BMW and Ducati, and the model year 2010 Kawasaki Concours 14 (1400GTR). In off road vehicles: Traction control is used instead or in addition to the mechanical limited slip or locking differential. It is often implemented with electronic limited slip differential, as well as other computerized controls of the engine and transmission. The spinning wheel is slowed down with short applications of brakes, diverting more torque to the non-spinning wheel; this is the system adopted by Range Rover models in the mid 1990's, for example. This form of traction control has an advantage over a locking differential, as steering and control of a vehicle is easier, so the system can be continuously enabled. It creates less stress on drive-trains, particularly important to vehicles with an independent suspension, generally weaker compared to solid axles.[citation needed] On the other hand, only half of the available torque will be applied to a wheel with traction, compared to a locked differential, and handling is less predictable.

Traction control in cornering Traction control is not just used for improving acceleration under slippery conditions. It can also help a driver to corner more safely. If too much throttle is applied during cornering, the drive wheels will lose traction and slide sideways. This occurs as under steer in front wheel drive vehicles and over steers in rear wheel drives vehicles. Traction control can prevent this from happening by limiting power to the wheels. It cannot increase the limits of grip available and is used only to decrease the effect of driver error or compensate for a driver's inability to react quickly enough to wheel slip. Automobile manufacturers state in vehicle manuals that traction control systems should not encourage dangerous driving or encourage driving in conditions beyond the drivers' control.

Anti-lock braking system: An anti-lock braking system (ABS, from German: Antiblockiersystem) is a safety

system that allows the wheels on a motor vehicle to continue interacting tractively with the road surface as directed by driver steering inputs while braking, preventing the wheels from locking up (that is, ceasing rotation) and therefore avoiding skidding.

An ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and slippery surfaces for many drivers; however, on loose surfaces like gravel or snow-covered pavement, an ABS can significantly increase braking distance, although still improving vehicle control. Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have evolved considerably. Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also electronically control the front-to-rear brake bias. This function, depending on its specific capabilities and implementation, is known as electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD), traction control system, emergency brake assist, or electronic stability control (ESC).

ABS brakes on a BMW motorcycle: In 1988, BMW introduced the first motorcycle with an electronic-hydraulic ABS: the BMW K100. Honda followed suit in 1992 with the launch of its first motorcycle ABS on the ST1100 Pan European. In 2007, Suzuki launched its GSF1200SA (Bandit) with an ABS. In 2005, Harley-Davidson began offering ABS as an option for police bikes. In 2008, ABS became a factory-installed option on all Harley-Davidson Touring motorcycles and standard equipment on select models.[citation needed]. Recently(2011) TVS has launched the first Indian two wheeler with ABS in its much famous bike Apache RTR ABS(180 cc).

Fig: BMW K100

Operation: The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock Brake).A typical ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed sensors, and at least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating significantly slower than the others, a condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel then turns faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-lock system can apply or release braking pressure 16 times per second. The ECU is programmed to disregard differences in wheel rotative speed below a critical threshold, because when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the center of the curve turn slower than the outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used in virtually all road going vehicles. If a fault develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually be illuminated on the vehicle instrument panel, and the ABS will be disabled until the fault is rectified. The modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a control system of hub-mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is offered or

comes standard on most road vehicles produced today and is the foundation for ESC systems, which are rapidly increasing in popularity due to the vast reduction in price of vehicle electronics over the years. Modern electronic stability control (ESC or ESP) systems are an evolution of the ABS concept. Here, a minimum of two additional sensors are added to help the system work: these are a steering wheel angle sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation is simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction taken by the car does not coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports, the ESC software will brake the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The steering wheel sensor also helps in the operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC), since this will tell the ABS that wheels on the inside of the curve should brake more than wheels on the outside, and by how much.

Components: There are four main components to an ABS: speed sensors, valves, a pump, and a controller. Speed sensors:The anti-lock braking system needs some way of knowing when a wheel is about to lock up. The speed sensors, which are located at each wheel, or in some cases in the differential, provide this information. Valves:There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some systems, the valve has three positions: The valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed right through to the brake. The valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further should the driver push the brake pedal harder. The valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.

Pump:Since the valve is able to release pressure from the brakes, there has to be some way to put that pressure back. That is what the pump does; when a valve reduces the pressure in a line, the pump is there to get the pressure back up. Controller:The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each individual wheel speed sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sent to the controller, the controller will then limit the brake force (EBD) and activate the ABS modulator which actuates the braking valves on and off.

Use: There are many different variations and control algorithms for use in an ABS. One of the simpler systems works as follows: The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for decelerations in the wheel that are out of the ordinary. Right before a wheel locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration. If left unchecked, the wheel would stop much more quickly than any car could. It might take a car five seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 km/h) under ideal conditions, but a wheel that locks up could stop spinning in less than a second. The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it

reduces the pressure to that brake until it sees acceleration, then it increases the pressure until it sees the deceleration again. It can do this very quickly, before the tire can actually significantly change speed. The result is that the tire slows down at the same rate as the car, with the brakes keeping the tires very near the point at which they will start to lock up. This gives the system maximum braking power. When the ABS system is in operation the driver will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this comes from the rapid opening and closing of the valves. This pulsing also tells the driver that the ABS has been triggered. Some ABS systems can cycle up to 16 times per second.

Brake types: Anti-lock braking systems use different schemes depending on the type of brakes in use. They can be differentiated by the number of channels: that is, how many valves that are individually controlled and the number of speed sensors.

Four-channel, four-sensor ABS:This is the best scheme. There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for all four wheels. With this setup, the controller monitors each wheel individually to make sure it is achieving maximum braking force.

Three-channel, four-sensor ABS:There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for each of the front wheels, but only one valve for both of the rear wheels.

Three-channel, three-sensor ABS:This scheme, commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS, has a speed sensor and a valve for each of the front wheels, with one valve and one sensor for both rear wheels. The speed sensor for the rear wheels is located in the rear axle. This

system provides individual control of the front wheels, so they can both achieve maximum braking force. The rear wheels, however, are monitored together; they both have to start to lock up before the ABS will activate on the rear. With this system, it is possible that one of the rear wheels will lock during a stop, reducing brake effectiveness. This system is easy to identify, as there are no individual speed sensors for the rear wheels.

One-channel, one-sensor ABS:This system is commonly found on pickup trucks with rear-wheel ABS. It has one valve, which controls both rear wheels, and one speed sensor, located in the rear axle. This system operates the same as the rear end of a three-channel system. The rear wheels are monitored together and they both have to start to lock up before the ABS kicks in. In this system it is also possible that one of the rear wheels will lock, reducing brake effectiveness. This system is also easy to identify, as there are no individual speed sensors for any of the wheels.

Effectiveness: A 2003 Australian study by Monash University Accident Research Centre found that ABS: Reduced the risk of multiple vehicle crashes by 18 percent, Reduced the risk of run-off-road crashes by 35 percent. On high-traction surfaces such as bitumen, or concrete, many (though not all) ABSequipped cars are able to attain braking distances better (i.e. shorter) than those that would be easily possible without the benefit of ABS. In real world conditions even an alert, skilled driver without ABS would find it difficult, even through the use of techniques like threshold braking, to match or improve on the performance of a typical driver with a modern ABS-equipped vehicle. ABS reduces chances of crashing, and/or the severity of impact. The recommended technique for non-expert drivers in an ABS-equipped car, in a typical full-braking emergency, is to press the brake pedal as firmly as possible and, where appropriate, to steer around obstructions. In such situations, ABS will significantly reduce the chances of a skid and subsequent loss of control.

In gravel, sand and deep snow, ABS tends to increase braking distances. On these surfaces, locked wheels dig in and stop the vehicle more quickly. ABS prevents this from occurring. Some ABS calibrations reduce this problem by slowing the cycling time, thus letting the wheels repeatedly briefly lock and unlock. Some vehicle manufacturers provide an "off-road" button to turn ABS function off. The primary benefit of ABS on such surfaces is to increase the ability of the driver to maintain control of the car rather than go into a skid, though loss of control remains more likely on soft surfaces like gravel or slippery surfaces like snow or ice. On a very slippery surface such as sheet ice or gravel, it is possible to lock multiple wheels at once, and this can defeat ABS (which relies on comparing all four wheels and detecting individual wheels skidding). Availability of ABS relieves most drivers from learning threshold braking. According to the NHTSA: A June 1999 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) study found that ABS increased stopping distances on loose gravel by an average of 22 percent. ABS works with your regular braking system by automatically pumping them. In vehicles not equipped with ABS, the driver has to manually pump the brakes to prevent wheel lockup. In vehicles equipped with ABS, your foot should remain firmly planted on the brake pedal, while ABS pumps the brakes for you so you can concentrate on steering to safety." When activated, some earlier ABS systems caused the brake pedal to pulse noticeably. As most drivers rarely or never brake hard enough to cause brake lock-up, and a significant number rarely bother to read the car's manual,[citation needed] this may not be discovered until an emergency. When drivers do encounter an emergency that causes them to brake hard, and thus encounter this pulsing for the first time, many are believed to reduce pedal pressure, and thus lengthen braking distances, contributing to a higher level of accidents than the superior emergency stopping capabilities of ABS would otherwise promise. Some manufacturers have therefore implemented a brake assist system that determines that the driver is attempting a "panic stop" (by detecting that the brake pedal was depressed very fast, unlike a normal stop where the pedal pressure would usually be gradually increased, Some systems additionally monitor the rate at the accelerator was released) [citation needed] and the system automatically increases braking force where not

enough pressure is applied. Hard or panic braking on bumpy surfaces, because of the bumps causing the speed of the wheel(s) to become erratic may also trigger the ABS. Nevertheless, ABS significantly improves safety and control for drivers in most on-road situations. Anti-lock brakes are the subject of some experiments centered on risk compensation theory, which asserts that drivers adapt to the safety benefit of ABS by driving more aggressively. In a Munich study, half a fleet of taxicabs was equipped with anti-lock brakes, while the other half had conventional brake systems. The crash rate was substantially the same for both types of cab, and Wilde concludes this was due to drivers of ABS-equipped cabs taking more risks, assuming that ABS would take care of them, while the non-ABS drivers drove more carefully since ABS would not be there to help in case of a dangerous situation. A similar study was carried out in Oslo, with similar results. [Citation needed] Regulation: ABS systems are required on all new passenger cars sold in the EU since 2007. In the USA, the NHTSA has repeatedly considered mandating anti-lock brakes on light vehicles, but has held off due to concerns over testing procedures and real-world crash data that failed to meet expectations. Electronic Brakeforce distribution: Electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD or EBFD), Electronic brakeforce limitation (EBL) is an automobile brake technology that automatically varies the amount of force applied to each of a vehicle's brakes, based on road conditions, speed, loading, etc. Always coupled with anti-lock braking systems, EBD can apply more or less braking pressure to each wheel in order to maximize stopping power whilst maintaining vehicular control. Typically, the front end carries the most weight and EBD distributes less braking pressure to the rear brakes so the rear brakes do not lock up and cause a skid. In some systems, EBD distributes more braking pressure at the rear brakes during initial brake application before the effects of weight transfer become apparent.

How ABS works: Under heavy braking, vehicle wheels may lock-up. The anti-lock braking system (ABS) monitors wheel speeds and releases pressure on individual wheel brake lines, rapidly pulsing individual brakes to prevent lock-up. During heavy braking, preventing wheel lock-up helps the driver maintain steering control. Modern ABS has an individual brake line for each of the four wheels, enabling different braking pressure on different road surfaces. For example, less braking pressure is needed to lock a wheel on ice than a wheel which is on bare asphalt. If the left wheels are on asphalt and the right wheels are on ice, during an emergency stop, ABS detects the right wheels about to lock and reduces braking force on the right wheels, helping to avoid lock-up and loss of vehicle control.

How EBD works: As per SAE technical paper #920646 - Buschmann et al. "The job of the EBD as a subsystem of the ABS system is to control the effective adhesion utilization by the rear wheels. The pressure of the rear wheels is approximated to the ideal brake force distribution in a partial braking operation. To do so, the conventional brake design is modified in the direction of rear axle overbraking, and the components of the ABS are used. EBD reduces the strain on the hydraulic brake force proportioning valve in the vehicle. EBD optimizes the brake design with regard to: adhesion utilization; driving stability; wear; temperature stress; and pedal force." EBD may work in conjunction with ABS and Electronic Stability Control ("ESC") to minimize yaw accelerations during turns. ESC compares the steering wheel angle to

vehicle turning rate using a yaw rate sensor. "Yaw" is the vehicle's rotation around its vertical center of gravity (turning left or right). If the yaw sensor detects more/less yaw than the steering wheel angle should create, the car is understeering or oversteering and ESC activates one of the front or rear brakes to rotate the car back onto its intended course. For example, if a car is making a left turn and begins to understeer (the car plows forward to the outside of the turn) ESC activates the left rear brake, which will help turn the car left. The sensors are so sensitive, and the actuation is so quick that the system may correct direction before the driver reacts. ABS helps prevent wheel lock-up and EBD helps apply appropriate brake force to make ESC work effectively.

Fig. EBD WORKING

Blind Spot Information System: BLIS, an acronym for Blind Spot Information System, is a system of protection

against collisions in the vehicle blind spot developed by Volvo. Volvo's previous parent Ford Motor Company has since adapted the system to its Ford, Lincoln (automobile), and Mercury (automobile) brands. This system was first introduced in the Volvo S80 sedan. This system gives the driver a visible alert when switching lanes and a vehicle in the rear has entered your blind spot. The car uses two door mounted lenses to check the blind spot area for an impending

collision. On Ford products, the system was first introduced in the spring of 2009 on the 2010 Ford Fusion and Fusion Hybrid, 2010 Mercury Milan and Milan Hybrid and 2010 Lincoln MKZ and Mazda 6. This technology was also introduced on the 2010 Mazda CX-9 Grand Touring model.

Blind spot (vehicle): A blind spot in a vehicle is an area around the vehicle that cannot be directly observed by the driver while at the controls, under existing circumstances. Blind spots exist in a wide range of vehicles: cars, trucks, motorboats and aircraft.

Fig. vehicle using BLIND SPOT Motor vehicles:The blue car's driver sees the green car through his mirrors but cannot see the red car without turning to check his blind spot. As one is driving an automobile, blind spots are the areas of the road that cannot be seen while looking forward or through either the rear-view or side mirrors. The most common are the rear quarter blind spots, areas towards the rear of the vehicle on both sides. Vehicles in the adjacent lanes of the road that fall into these blind spots may not be visible using only the car's mirrors. Rear quarter blind spots can be: Checked by turning one's head briefly (risking rear-end collisions), Eliminated by reducing overlap between side and rear-view mirrors, or

Reduced by installing mirrors with larger fields-of-view.

Other areas that are sometimes called blind spots are those that are too low to see behind, in front, or to the sides of a vehicle, especially those with a high seating position, such as vans, trucks, and SUVs. Detection of vehicles or other objects in such blind spots are aided by systems such as video cameras or distance sensors, though these remain uncommon or expensive options in general-purpose automobiles.

Effect of vehicle type: Generally speaking, larger vehicles have larger rear, front, and side blind spots. For example, the blind spot behind a typical sedan could hide a small vehicle, while various blind spots of an SUV can hide small children or vehicles, resulting in as many as 50 children being killed by reversing SUVs in the United States each year, which has prompted calls for mandatory rear-view cameras. Furthermore, blind spots behind a tractor trailer can conceal large or multiple vehicles, which is one reason many trucks carry warnings not to follow too close ("If you can't see my mirrors, I can't see you"). Partly due to higher driver position, tractor-trailers have not only large rear quarter blind spots, but also large blind spots to the left, right and front. Equipment: Reducing overlap between a car's rear-view mirror and its side mirrors by adjusting the latter outward results in near-elimination of the rear quarter blind spot.

Additional equipment that can help eliminate blind spots are "fisheye mirrors" or "bubble mirrors" which are part of or adhered to the side-view mirror. These mirrors can bring blind spots into view, but their optical properties impart a great deal of distortion so

as to make it difficult to judge distances. "Aspheric" mirrors allow blind spots to be eliminated while minimizing distortion by enlarging the field of view by 1.4 to 1.7 times. Panoramic rear-view mirrors widen the rear view field as well to allow coverage of rearquarter blind spots. Rear bumpers of large vehicles can be fitted with rear-view cameras, allowing the view from behind without having to look back. These are most useful in tractor trailers, which cannot see from behind at all without these cameras. Volvo deals with the problem with a system called Blind Spot Information System. Another newer development is a blind spot eliminator that uses radar or other technologies to detect objects in the blind spot.

NIGHT VISION:
About 42% of fatal car accidents happen at night, according to the European Commission for the Automobile Industry. This figure is extremely worrying bearing in mind that there is about 60% less traffic during the night. This is largely due to the reduced visual acuity and field of vision at night as a consequence of the illumination from the headlights -- these factors are currently being studied by a group of researchers from the Department of Computer Architecture and Technology at the University of Granada. The project DRIVASCO, whose participants are the University of Granada, the German company Hella & Hueck and other European research centres, aims to design intelligent cars which make driving easier and safer. This study managed to translate images into useful information which can make driving easier thanks to a system of night vision cameras with vision which extends further than the distance covered by car headlights. This group created an electronic system that significantly improves driving ability at night by using information extracted automatically from night visors. Researchers are working within a European project called DRIVSCO, whose participants include

researchers from different countries who work on real-time vision and its application to the car industry. The study conducted at UGR developed a microchip which, when installed in a car, makes it easier to extract the information from cameras to elements involved in driving (bends, pedestrians, cars, etc.) which may be present on the road. In other words, this system will inform drivers by means of visual, acoustic or other signs about the obstacles appearing in their way, making intelligent cars even more sophisticated than is currently the case.

Improving visibility: The researcher who carried out this study is Eduardo Ros Vidal, who explained that the aim of this chip is to support the illumination of the car, which is insufficient for ideal vision. "Dipped headlights only illuminate about 56 meters when the breaking distance at 100 km/h is about 80 meters," says Professor Ros Vidal. The system created by his group uses two infrared cameras placed on the car which record the scene even further than the illumination of conventional headlights. Therefore, the chip extracts information about factors such as movement or depth in real time to improve the detection of specific elements and situations of interest. Current artificial vision systems use this basic information to detect objects, pedestrians, bends etc. For instance, the system generates information about the depth of the scene in real time codifying the distance of every object -- warm colours for close objects (reddish and more dangerous) and cold colours for distant objects (bluish and safer). The system also processes real-time movements, indicating the direction in which the object moves in the scene and how everything changes due to the movement of the car.

Other participants in DRIVSCO include the University of Mnster (Germany), which is currently studying where drivers look when driving by using eye-tracking systems. This project is the continuation of ECOVISION, which also focused on the development of Advanced Driving Assistant Systems (ADAS), which are currently applied to high range cars and which will undoubtedly be improved thanks to the progress of DRIVSCO.

CONCLUSION:
ISA technologies do work, are robust and reliable. They are technically simple, much simpler than other automatic devices such as collision avoidance systems. Delivering and maintaining the relevant map data for ISA is not a problem either, provided that legislation is there to ensure action is undertaken in a harmonized way. The differences between EU countries are no more of An impediment for ISA than they are in the other policy areas that see frequent European legislation. The substantial accident reductions to be gained from ISA outweigh its costs, particularly if ISA fitment was required by law. Doing nothing or achieving speed reduction by other means will turn out more expensive in the end than implementing ISA technology. Drivers not the authorities will remain in the driving seat even with ISA. Industry has already implemented other support systems (advanced cruise control, etc.) that intervene in vehicle control to assist the driver without being concerned about liability.

A majority of drivers are already in favor of ISA technologies and acceptance increases as they gain experience of using the technology. The decision whether to rely on legal, market based or An industry instrument to apply safety technologies is the domain of policy makers in general and legislators in particular. There is nothing inherent in ISA technologies to undermine this. ISA technologies should be viewed as an important element in a wider approach to improved driving rather than an option to choose instead of other activities .The application of ISA does not impede progress on the other actions needed, whereas blocking speed management and ISA impedes improved road safety. A comprehensive systemic approach to reducing emissions from the road sector should not impede improvements in any one area, rather it should facilitate greater efforts in all areas including the management of speed and the application of ISA .Having cleared the road of these obstacles we can now drive forward quickly the implementation process the only time increased speed will enhance road safety.

BIBLOGRAPHY & REFRENCES:

www.Wikipedia.com . .