ΣΗΜΕΙΩΣΕΙΣ

ysuyxywsuy exisrwsy etrxxD wrwe vrypysur
MA JHMA TIKA I
Shmeiseic Dialxewn, Askseic Frontisthrwn
Staroc Toumpc
OPA, 2010
Odhgec Qrshc
o prn hix eni didktik iloF ini oi shmeisei tou mjmto {wjhmtik s}D pw to didskw sto prto exmhno tou mmto lhroforik tou yikonomiko nepisthmou ejhnnF ti shmeisei qoun enswmtwje t klouj epiplon stoiqeX IF yrismne pl nnoie pou den uprqei lgo n nfronti sto mjhmD ll prtjenti ed gi lgou plhrtht @pFqF gnwst trigwnometrik idithteFA PF oll podexei jewrhmtwn pou den gnonti sto mjhmD ki prtjenti epsh gi lgou plhrtht @shmeinonti me AF QF upoie prgrfoi @shmeiwmne me A pou perilmnoun proqwrhmno ulikD pou den qei jsh sthn lhD ll den mpres n ntistj n grywD kj potelon {prjuro} se difor kommti {sorn} mjhmtiknF yrismnoi foitht sw roun ut ti prgrfou ti pio endifrouseF to mjhm klptonti perilhptik ki kjlouD kt perptwshF RF oll lumne skseiD sto tlo tou keimnouD ekt twn prdeigmtwn ent tou keimnouF oll p ut lnonti st frontistriF yi pio dskole eni shmeiwmne me F SF upoi prrtmt me ohjhtik ulik @lexikD euretrioD pnk sumolismnD ki to tupoE lgio pou sunodeei t jmt exetsewnAF iutuqD gi to mjhm uprqoun dijsim poll exiretik il grmmn st illhnikD se kl metfrsei p t egglikF werik p ut nfronti sthn iliogrfF mfwn me ton nmoD stou foitht prosfreti dwren n iloD me dunttht epilog nmes se doF to sugkekrimno mjhm t il ut eni tou Spivak ki tou ThomasD ki t do dijsim se kl metfrsei p ti nepisthmik ikdsei urthF hen uprqei upoktstto th ei jo melth en klo ilou gi thn ktnhsh tou ntikeimnouF hen sunist stou foithtD eidik se uto pou den prkolojhsn ti dilxeiD n qrhsimopoisoun to prn w iloD kj den qei stqo n upoktstsei t il pou moirzontiF y skop utn twn shmeisewn eni IF n dieukolnoun thn prkolojhsh twn foithtnD pou den qreizeti n ntigrfoun Dti grE feti ston pnkD sunjw up dusmene sunjkeD PF n dieukolnoun thn melth th lh pou didqthke se sundusm me to iloD ki QF n ohjon tou foitht pou den prkoloujon n menoun se epf me to mjhmF
ii
ilpzw epsh sto n ohjsoun ste soi rskonti sto mfijtro n mhn eni pl gi n {proun ti shmeisei}F ipiplonD h suggrf twn shmeisewn me ojhse n ktlw @kt to duntnA pw prpei n didsketi o vogism se prwtoeteF o ntikemeno tou mjmto eni o yloklhrwtik vogism mi metlhtF r dimrfwsh th lh qei gnei lmnont up9 yin ti ufistmene gnseiD to gegon ti to mjhm gneti se tmm lhroforikD ki to ti den uprqei sto tmm llo mjhm vogismoD prn p kpoi stoiqe vogismo polln metlhtn w uposnolo tou mjmto {wjhmtik ss} tou deutrou exmnouF 9yDti uprqei ed pistew mpore n klufje se IQ edomde didsklF rospjhs n domsw tsi thn lh ste oi foitht pou prkoloujon to mjhm n mporon n dizoun tutqron opoiodpote p t do il pou tou prqonti @Spivak ki ThomasA qwr poll mpro E pswF ekolojhs epsh so mporos tou sumolismo tou @ki pou uprqe pklish metx touD tou sumolismo tou SpivakF yi {tktiko} stqoi tou mjmto eni doX IF yi foitht n emjnoun sthn lh pou dh xrounD dhld ti sik nnoie twn prggwn ki twn oloklhrwmtwnF ix9 ou ki dneti mfsh ston orism tou orouD sthn nnoi tou supremumD ton usthr orism @kt DarbouxA tou oloklhrmtoD kokF PF yi foitht n mjoun orismn n kommti jewr @pFqF sunqei LipschitzA ki ne efrE mog twn dh gnwstn tou ennoin @pFqF upologismo diforwn gkwnAF rn p tou {tktiko} didktiko stqou tou mjmtoD sthn dimrfwsh ki proussh th lh ki twn sksewn uprxn ki oi kloujoi {strthgiko}X IF r lh n eni sqetik meglhD ste oi foitht n {mjoun n mjnoun grgor}F PF r lh n prousizeti kt to duntn usthrD ste n enisquje h ikntht twn foithtn gi logik domhmne skyeiF QF yi sksei n mporon n lujon p sou qoun ktlei thn lh ki qi p sou qoun pomnhmonesei kpoie mhqnistik mejdouD ste n dneti mfsh sthn ktnhsh twn SET pln ennoin tou vogismoD ki qi sthn pomnhmneushF r entpwsh pou qw pokomsei p do qrni didskl se prwtoeteD eni ti h didskl twn mjhmtikn sto vkeioD ki eidik to ssthm exetsewnD qoun perpou ntjetou stqouF o prn kemeno eni up dirk exlixhF t ektimsw idiitrw opoidpote prtsh gi th eltws touD ki tuqn prthrsei sqetik me orjogrfikGtupogrfik sflmtD ljh sti skseiD ki kje fsew prlhmF t eni qr mou epsh n to qrhsimopoisoun utosio me tropopoisei ki lloi didskonteF
tro oump
Perieqmena
Prokatarktik
IFI IFP IFQ IFR IFS

2
eximt rgmtikn erijmn F F F F F unpeie tou eximto th lhrtht histmt F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F unrtsei F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F rigwnometrik unrtsei F F F F F F fsik sd yrou F F F F F F F F F F F yrism ki fsik sdithte F F F F tewrmt yrou F F F F F F F F F F F 9yri rigwnometrikn unrtsewn 9yri sto 9epeiroD 9epeir 9yri F F F F ekolouje F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F
I V IH II IQ
17
'Oria
PFI PFP PFQ PFR PFS PFT

3
IU PP PU QH QR QT
39
Sunqeia
QFI QFP QFQ QFR QFS QFT

4
yrism unqei F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F unpeie unqei se uleist prgmno histhm F wjodo hiqotmhsh F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F entstrofh uneqo unrthsh F F F F F F F F F F F unqei Lipschitz F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ymoimorfh unqei F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F yrism F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F fsik sdithte rggwn F F F F rgwgo entstrofh unrthsh terhm wsh im F F F F F F F F rgouse F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F
QW RQ RW SI SS SV
61
Pargwgoc
RFI RFP RFQ RFR RFS

5
TI TT UP UU VI
85
Efarmogc Paraggou
SFI SFP SFQ SFR
roseggsei ki hiforik F F F F F F r wjodo tou xetwn F F F F F F F F wonoton ki ekrtt unrtsewn uurt unrtsei F F F F F F F F F F F
VS VV WI WQ
iii
iv
PERIEQOMENA
SFS
6
unn tou LHpital F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F o yrism F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F uritri yloklhrwsimtht F F F F F F F F F sdithte yloklhrmto F F F F F F F F F F F yloklrwm Riemann F F F F F F F F F F F F o yloklrwm th unrthsh Dirichlet F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F
WU
99
Oloklrwma
TFI TFP TFQ TFR TFS

7
WW IHS III IPH IPP

125
Oloklrwsh
UFI UFP UFQ

8
temelidh tewrmt vogismo F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IPS utqrhstik yloklhrmt F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IQP vogrijmik ki ikjetik unrthsh F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IQR
145
Efarmogc Oloklhrwmtwn
VFI VFP VFQ VFR VFS VFT

9
pologism imdo se urtesin untetgmne pologism imdo se olik untetgmne F F F pologism 9ygkou me th wjodo twn hskwn F F F pologism 9ygkou me th wjodo twn uelfwn F F r erq tou ultuqou ulrh F F F F F F F F F F F pologism wkou umplh F F F F F F F F F F F F hiforik ixissei rth xew F F F F F F F F qrmmik hiforik ixissei rth xew F F hiqwrsime hiforik ixissei rth xew r wjodo tou Euler F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F uthgoropohsh hiforikn ixissewn F F F F F F F F F F F
IRS IRW IST ITH ITR ITU

173
Diaforikc Exisseic
WFI WFP WFQ WFR WFS
IUQ IUW IVP IVR IVV
10 Polunuma
Taylor 191 IHFI yrism ki fsik sdithte F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IWI IHFP ploipo F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IWT IHFQ o F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PHI
205
11 Seirc
IIFI IIFP IIFQ IIFR IIFS
gklish ekoloujin F F eir F F F F F F F F F F F qenik uritri gklish eir mh ernhtikn 9yrwn inllssouse eir F F
n
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
PHS PII PIR PIS PPI

223
12 Diansmata
IPFI R F IPFP R2 F IPFQ R3 F IPFR Rn
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
PPQ PQI PQT PRP
PERIEQOMENA
IPFS IQFI IQFP IQFQ IQFR IQFS IQFT IQFU
roi F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PRQ
247
13 Kwnikc Tomc
uwnik om F F F F F F F F F F rol F F F F F F F F F F F F F 9illeiyh F F F F F F F F F F F F F F perol F F F F F F F F F F F F F ellg untetgmnwn F F F F F F Ax2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 F Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F ueflou ueflou ueflou ueflou ueflou ueflou ueflou ueflou ueflou ueflou ueflou ueflou ueflou I P Q R S T U V W IH II IP IQ F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F =0 F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F
PRU PSI PSR PSU PTH PTQ PTS

269
A Lseic Asksewn
eFI esksei eFP esksei eFQ esksei eFR esksei eFS esksei eFT esksei eFU esksei eFV esksei eFW esksei eFIHesksei eFIIesksei eFIPesksei eFIQesksei
PUH PUR PVH PWH PWS QHH QHU QIT QPU QQT QRH QRS QSS
361
B Pali Jmata
Loip Parartmata
387
qFI qFP qFQ qFR
umolismo filiogrf vexik F F F upolgio F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F F F
QVV QVW QWH QWQ
vi
PERIEQOMENA
Keflaio 1
Prokatarktik
1.1
Aximata Pragmatikn Arijmn
Aximata PedouX
9istw R to snolo twn prgmtikn rijmn ki stw xD y D z opoioidpote prgmtiko rijmoF epitome n isqoun oi idithteX IF @entimetjetik sdithtA x + y = y + xD xy = yxF PF @rosetiristik sdithtA x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z D x(yz) = (xy)z F QF @ipimeristik sdithtA x(y + z) = xy + xz F RF @9prxh yudterwn toiqewnA prqoun do diforetiko metx tou prgmtiko rijmoD oi 0 ki 1D ttoioi ste n qoume 0 + x = x ki 1x = x gi kje x RF y 0 kleti to oudtero stoiqeo th prsjeshD ki o 1 to oudtero stoiqeo tou pollplsismoF SF @9prxh entjetwnA qi kje prgmtik rijm xD uprqei prgmtik rijm y ttoio ste x + y = 0F y y sumolzeti w x ki kleti ntjeto tou xF TF @9prxh entstrofwnA qi kje prgmtik rijm x = 0D uprqei prgE mtik rijm y ttoio ste xy = 1F y y sumolzeti w x1 ki kleti ntstrofo tou xF
Orismc 1.1
1. Gia kje
@ekrie hunmeiA
orzoume
a R, n N ,
an
a a . . . a.
n
KEFALAIO 1.
PROKATARKTIKA
2. Gia kje
a R, a = 0, n N
orzoume
an
(a1 )n .
Parathrseic
IF ypoiodpote snolo S D efodismno me do prxeiD iknopoie t nw ximt kleti pedoF prqoun poll pedX @A oi rhtoD @A oi prgmtikoD @gA oi migdikoD @dA to snolo {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . p 1} pou p prtoD ki me prxei ki pou orzonti w exX to a b eni to uploipo th diresh tou a + b me to pD ki to a b eni to uploipo th diresh tou a b me to pD @eA ki llD km pio perergF PF qedn le oi gnwst idithte twn prgmtikn rijmn pou emplkoun mno isthte mporon n podeiqjon sei twn nw xiwmtwnF hete to rdeigE m IFIF
Pardeigma 1.1
me ti gia kje Qrhsimopointac mno ta aximata pedou, mporome na apodexouisqoun ta aklouja:
a, b, c, d R
1. (Kannac thc Apaloifc) An arijmc me thn idithta
a + b = a + c, tte b = c. 0 + x = x gia la ta x.
'Ara to
0 enai o monadikc
2. (Orismc Afareshc) Uprqei akribc nac
x ttoioc ste a + x = b. O x isotai me x = b + (a), kai sumbolzetai me b a. Parathrste pwc 0 a = 0 + (a) = a. (a) = a. 0a = 0. (a)b = (ab), (a)(b) = ab. a(b c) = ab ac. ab = ac kai a = 0, tte b = c. idithta 1 x = x gia la ta x.
'Ara to
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. An
enai o monadikc arijmc me thn
1.1.
AXIWMATA PR AGMATIKWN ARIJMWN
8. (Orismc Diareshc) An
a = 0,
uprqei akribc nac
ttoioc ste
ax = b.
arijmc autc kaletai to phlko twn
b/a = b a1 .
9. An
Parathrste pwc
b, a, sumbolzetai 1/a = 1 a1 = a1 .
ete kai ta do.
me
b/a
b a,
kai isotai me
ab = 0,
tte ete
a=0
ete
b = 0,
10.
(ab)1 = a1 b1 ,
efson
a, b = 0.
efson
11.
(a/b)(c/d) = (ac)/(bd),
b, d = 0. b, d = 0.
12.
a/b + c/d = (ad + bc)/(bd), (a + b) = a b. (a b) + (b c) = a c. an = (an )1 .
efson
13.
14.
15.
Gia na apodexoume ton kanna thc apaloifc, stw To
to antjeto tou
a: y + a = 0.
uprqei lgw tou Aximatoc Pedou
4.
'Eqoume:
a+b y + (a + b) (y + a) + b 0+b b b, c
= = = = =
a+c y + (a + c) (y + a) + c 0+c c.
(Axwma Pedou (Upjesh) (Axwma Pedou
2) 4) b, c
'Estw tra pwc uprqoun nw tou enc oudtera stoiqea. ta
'Estw gia pardeigma pwc
enai oudtera stoiqea. Tte, me efarmog tou kanna thc apaloifc gia ta
kai na opoiodpote
a,
prokptei pwc
b = c.
kje
pedo, afo prokptoun apoklei-
Oi apodexeic twn uploipwn idiottwn paralepontai. Parathrste ti oi nw idithtec isqoun gia stik me qrsh twn Axiwmtwn Pedou.
@posnolA 'Estw snola A, B pragmatikn arijmn. Grfoume A B kai lme pwc to A enai uposnolo tou B an x A ja qoume kai x B . Grfoume A B kai lme pwc to A enai gnsio uposnolo tou B an enai uposnolo tou B kai epiplon x B : x A.
Orismc 1.2
KEFALAIO 1.
PROKATARKTIKA
Aximata DitaxhcX
prqei uposnolo R+ RD pou kleti to snolo twn jetikn prgmtikn rijmnD me ti klouje idithteX IF en x, y R+ D tte x + y, xy R+ F PF en x = 0D tte ete x R+ D ete x R+ D ll qi ki t doF QF 0 R+ F
Orismc 1.3
@enisthte ki epluth imA
Orzoume ta aklouja:
1.
x<y x>y xy yx
shmanei ti o
yx
enai jetikc.
2.
shmanei ti
y < x. x<y x y.
enc pragmatiko
3.
shmanei ti
x = y.
4.
shmanei ti
5. H apluth tim
|a|
orzetai wc
|a|
Parathrseic
a, a 0, a, a 0.
IF qedn le oi gnwst idithte twn prgmtikn rijmn pou emplkoun niE sthte prokptoun p t eximt edou ki hitxhF @hete to prktw prdeigmFA PF eximt edou ki hitxh den rkon gi n prosdiorzoun plrw tou prgmtikoF @rthrste ti iknopoionti ki p tou rhtoFA QF qi n prosdiorzoume plrw ti idithte twn prgmtiknD ki n tou diqwE rzoume p tou rhtoD qreizmste to exwm th lhrthtD pou j dome se lgoF
Pardeigma 1.2
Gia kje
a, b, c, d R
kai
n N,
isqoun ta aklouja:
1.1.
1. (Kannac thc Triqotmhshc) Isqei akribc na ap ta aklouja:
(i) a < b, (ii)
a > b, (iii) a = b.
2. An 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
a 0 ac < bc. a = 0 a2 > 0. a < b, c < d a + c d a c bc. a > 1 a2 > a. 0 < a < 1 a2 < a. 0 a < b, 0 c < d ac < bd. 0 a < b a2 < b2 . a, b 0, a2 < b2 a < b. 0 a < b an < bn . a < b, n = 2k + 1 an < bn . ||a| |b|| |a + b| |a| + |b|.
Diakrnoume do periptseic,
Gia pardeigma, gia na apodexoume ton kanna thc triqotmhshc, stw o arijmc
x = a b.
x=0
kai
x = 0.
1. 'Estw pwc qoume thn prth perptwsh: epiplon
a > b.
Ex orismo thc
x = a b = 0 a = b. 'Estw pwc anisthtac, qoume ti o x = a b enai jetikc,
x = 0 den ankei stouc jetikoc, ap to trto axwma thc ditaxhc. 'Estw pwc a < b. Tte o b a enai jetikc, kai qw pli topo, giat ekola prokptei ti a b = 0 b a = 0 ap ta aximata tou pedou.
pou enai topo giat o 2. 'Estw tra h deterh perptwsh:
a = b, giat ftnw se + topo. Epiplon, ap to detero axwma thc ditaxhc, ete ja qw x R , dhlad a > b, ete x R+ , dhlad (a b) > 0 b a > 0 b > a, all qi kai ta
Tte apokleetai do.
x = 0.
KEFALAIO 1.
PROKATARKTIKA
Oi apodexeic twn upolopwn paralepontai.
@prgmt ki ekrttA 'Estw S R. An uprqei b ttoio ste x b gia kje x S , tte to b kaletai nw frgma tou S kai to S kaletai nw fragmno. An, epiplon, b S , to b kaletai to mgisto stoiqeo tou S , kai grfoume b = max S . Antstoiqa orzoume tic nnoiec ktw frgma, ktw fragmno, kai elqisto stoiqeo min S . Ta nw kai ktw frgmaOrismc 1.4
ta kalontai ap koino akrtata. fragmno, kaletai fragmno. An na snolo enai kai nw fragmno, kai ktw
hen qoun l t snol mgisto Gki elqisto stoiqeoF qi prE deigmD ti isqei gi t N = {1, 2, . . .}D S = (0, 1)c
Paratrhsh: Orismc 1.5
'Enac arijmc
@Supremum, InmumA
kaletai elqisto nw frgma
supremum
enc mh keno sunlou
S,
kai sumbolzetai 1. To
b = sup S
an:
enai nw frgma tou
S,
kai
2. Kannac arijmc mikrteroc tou
den enai nw frgma tou
S.
Antstoiqa orzetai h nnoia tou mgistou ktw frgmatoc,
inmum, B = inf S .
Lmma 1.1
'Ena snolo
@wondiktht Supremum/InmumA den mpore na qei do diaforetik supremum rofnF @fsik sdithte Supremum/InmumA
tte gia kje
inmum.
Apdeixh: Lmma 1.2

1. An to
S qei supremum, sup S h. S qei inmum, inf S + h.
h > 0,
uprqei
x S x S
ttoio ste
x > x <
2. An to
tte gia kje
h > 0,
uprqei
ttoio ste
Apdeixh:
IF 9istw h > 0D ki stw pw xD x sup S hF te to sup S h eni nw frgm tou S D ki mlist mikrtero tou sup S D kti pou eni dntoF
1.1.
PF enlogF
Axwma PlhrthtacX
uje mh kenD frgmno nw snolo S qei supre-
mumF
Lmma 1.3
@9prxh InmumA
Kje mh ken, fragmno ktw snolo
qei
inmum.
Apdeixh:
9eskhshF
Paradegmata:
IF sup(0, 1) =; PF sup(0, +) =;
1 1 QF inf{1, 2 , 3 , 1 , . . .} =; 4
RF 9istw oi didoqik dekdik proseggsei tou D dhld to snolo twn rhtn {3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141 , 3.1415, . . .}F 9iqei to snolo ut supremum stouc rhtocc tou prgmtikoc
Lmma 1.4
'Estw mh
@9ejroism unlwnA ken snola A, B R. 'Estw
to jroisma
C = {a + b : a A, b B}.
1. An ta 2. An ta
A, B A, B
qoun qoun
supremum, inmum,
qei kai to
kai mlista
sup C = sup A + sup B .
qei kai to
kai mlista
inf C = inf A + inf B .
Apdeixh: Lmma 1.5
9eskhshF
@gkrish unlwnA 'Estw mh ken snola A, B R. An gia kje a A, kai gia kje b B , a b, tte to A qei supremum, to B qei inmum, kai sup A inf B .
Apdeixh:
qoume
9eskhshF
KEFALAIO 1.
PROKATARKTIKA
1.2
Sunpeiec tou Aximatoc thc Plhrthtac
oll p ti idithte twn prgmtikn pou prnoume gi dedomne den mporon n podeiqjon mno me t eximt edou ki hitxhD ll prpei sthn pdeix tou n gnei qrsh ki tou eximto lhrthtF qi prdeigm qoume t klouj jewrmtD pou dnonti qwr pdeixhX
Jerhma 1.1
@erqimdei sdithtA
1. Oi fusiko arijmo den enai fragmnoi nw. 2. Gia kje pragmatik 3. An
uprqei fusikc
me
n > x. n
ttoioc ste
x, y
enai pragmatiko me
x > 0,
tte uprqei fusikc
nx > y .
Jerhma 1.2
@ukn nolA
1. 'Estw do pragmatiko
x, y , x, y ,
me
x < y. x < y.
Uprqei anmes touc toulqiston nac
rhtc. (Dhlad oi rhto enai pukno stouc pragmatikoc.) 2. 'Estw do pragmatiko me Uprqei anmes touc toulqiston nac
rrhtoc. (Dhlad oi rrhtoi enai pukno stouc pragmatikoc.) 3. 'Estw
pragmatikc.
Uprqoun aujareta kont tou, kai ap arister kai ap
dexi, nac rhtc kai nac rrhtoc. Dhlad:
x R, > 0, y Q : x < y < x, x R, > 0, y Q : x < y < x + , x R, > 0, y R Q : x < y < x, x R, > 0, y R Q : x < y < x + .
Jerhma 1.3
1. 'Estw
@9prxh iznA
Uprqei monadikc
n perittc jetikc akraioc kai x = 0. y n = x.
me thn idithta
@IFIA
sumbolzetai wc
xn . x n
1
Epshc, orzoume
(x1 ) n .
1.2.
SUNEPEIES TOU AXIWMATOS THS PLHROTHTAS
2. 'Estw
rtioc jetikc akraioc kai
x > 0.
Uprqei monadikc jetikc
ikanopoie thn exswsh (1.1). O
sumbolzetai wc
arijmc pou ikanopoie thn exswsh (1.1) enai o Epshc, orzoume
x O monadikc n arnhtikc x.
pou na lloc
1 n.
x n
3. Gia kje enai o
(x1 ) n .
tte o monadikc
jetik akraio, an
0,
kai grfoume
x=0 0 = 0.
'Estw
pou ikanopoie thn (1.1)
Orismc 1.6
@ht hunmeiA
r =
p q,
pou oi akraioi
p, q
enai jetiko kai
prtoi metax touc (dhlad o mgistoc koinc diairthc touc enai h monda), kai stw pwc isqei na ap ta aklouja: 1. 2.
q rtio
kai
x 0, x R. xr (x q )p , xr
1
q peritt
kai
Orzw
(x1 )r = ((x1 ) q )p .
9ytn x 0D isqoun le oi sunjei idithte twn ekjetnD gi prdeigm r1 , r2 QD

Paratrhsh:
xr1 xr2 = xr1 +r2 , (xr1 )r2 = xr1 r2 , xr1 y r1 = (xy)r1 .

9ytn x < 0D uprqoun exirseiF qi prdeigmX
5 = ((5) 3 ) 2 = (5) 3 2 = (5)1 = 5.
IH
KEFALAIO 1.
PROKATARKTIKA
1.3
Diastmata
Orismc 1.7
(Diastmata)
1. Ta snola thc akloujhc morfc kalontai diastmata:
(a, b) {x : a < x < b}, [a, b] {x : a x b}, (, b) {x : x < b},

pou 2. Ta 3. Ta 4. An
(a, b] {x : a < x b}, (a, +) {x : a < x}, (, b] {x : x b},
[a, b) {x : a x < b}, [a, +) {x : a x}, (, +) R,
a, b R
me
a < b.
kalontai anoikt.
(a, b), (a, +), (, b), (, +) [a, b], [a, ), (, b], (, +) I

disthma kai
kalontai kleist.
c I,
to
kaletai geitoni tou
c.
5. To eswterik tou diastmatoc stoiqa,
int(a, b] (a, b)
[a, b], int[a, b] orzetai wc int[a, b] (a, b). Ant(a, b), int[a, b) (a, b), int(, b] (a, b), kok. Ta shmea a
(arister kro) kai
pou ankoun sto eswterik kalontai eswterik. 6. Ta kra tou orzontai wc ta
(dexi kro). Parmoioi
orismo isqoun kai gia ta lla diastmata.
Orismc 1.8
(Snola) Geniktera:
1. To eswterik enc sunlou uprqei anoiqt geitoni
enai to snolo twn shmewn
tou
gia ta opoa
ttoia ste
x I S.
Ta shmea tou eswteriko enc
sunlou kalontai eswterik.
2. Orzoume to sumplrwma enc sunlou 3. Kalome na snolo
wc to snolo
Sc
{x R : x S}. R enai kai anoikt

pou
anoikt tan la ta shmea tou enai eswterik, kai kleist
tan to sumplrwma tou kai kleist.)
Sc
enai anoikt. (Aut exhge giat to
4. Ta kra enc opoioudpote uposunlou
tou
qoun aujareta kont touc shmea ektc tou
R enai la ta shmea tou R S , ki shmea entc tou S .
1.4.
SUNARTHSEIS
II
1.4
Sunartseic
Orismc 1.9
@unrthshA Orzoume wc sunrthsh f : A R mia apeiknish ap to pedo

To snolo
orismo
domf
sto
R.
f (A)
{y : f (x) = y
gia kpoio
x A}
kaletai pedo timn thc
A f.
Orismc 1.10
@iidik eriptsei unrtsewnA
1. Mia sunrthsh kaletai periodik me perodo jetikc arijmc gia ton opoo
p > 0
an o
enai o mikrteroc
(i) to pedo orismo thc perilambnei to x + p pote perilambnei to x, kai epiplon (ii) f (x + p) = f (x) gia la ta x sto pedo orismo thc f .
2. Mia sunrthsh perilambnei to
f kaletai rtia an to pedo orismo thc perilambnei to x pote x, kai epiplon f (x) = f (x) gia la ta x sto pedo orismo thc
f.
3. Mia sunrthsh
f kaletai peritt an to pedo orismo thc perilambnei to x pote perilambnei to x, kai epiplon f (x) = f (x) gia la ta x sto pedo orismo thc f. f f
kaletai gnhswc axousa an
4. Mia sunrthsh
x1 < x2 f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).
5. Mia sunrthsh
kaletai axousa an
x1 < x2 f (x1 ) f (x2 ).
6. Antstoiqa orzontai oi gnhswc fjnousec kai fjnousec sunartseic.
7. Oi (gnhswc) axousec kai (gnhswc) fjnousec sunartseic kalontai ap koino (gnhswc) montonec.
8. Mia sunrthsh gia la ta
f f
kaletai nw fragmnh an uprqei
U R ttoio ste f (x) U L R ttoio ste f (x) L
x x
sto pedo orismo thc
f. f.
9. Mia sunrthsh gia la ta
kaletai ktw fragmnh an uprqei
sto pedo orismo thc
10. Mia sunrthsh kaletai fragmnh an enai nw kai ktw fragmnh.
11. Mia sunrthsh
f :AR
kaletai na proc na (1-1) an
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) x1 = x2 .
IP
KEFALAIO 1.
PROKATARKTIKA
@ylik ekrtt unrthshA 'Estw sunrthsh f : A R. Orzw ta supremum, inmum, maximum minimum ( elqisto) thc f se na snolo B A wc
Orismc 1.11
( mgisto),
supf
xB
sup{f (x) : x B},
xB xB
inf f
inf{f (x) : x B}, min{f (x) : x B},
maxf
xB
max{f (x) : x B}, minf
efson ta antstoiqa dexi mlh uprqoun. Ta nw kalontai ap koino olik akrtata, aplc akrtata sto
B.
'Otan den dieukrinzetai to
B,
ennoetai ti
B = A.
Orismc 1.12
qei topik ttoio ste
@opik ekrtt unrthshA 'Estw sunrthsh f : A R. H f mgisto (topik elqisto) to c A an uprqei anoikt disthma I me c I
f (x) f (c) (f (x) f (c)) x I A.

Ta topik mgista kai elqista kalontai ap koino topik akrtata.
Parathrseic
IF 9ytn den dieukrinzeti to edo tou megstou elqstouD ennoeti olikF PF wpore mi sunrthsh n qei peir topik mgistGelqistc QF wpore mi sunrthsh n qei peir topik mgistGelqistD n qei orisje se n frgmno disthm Ac
1.5.
TRIGWNOMETRIKES SUNARTHSEIS
IQ
1.5
Trigwnometrikc Sunartseic
(0,sinx)
B=(cosx, sinx) |x|
x O=(0,0) (cosx,0) A=(1,0)
@rigwnometrik unrtseiA 'Estw monadiaoc kkloc me kntro to shmeo O = (0, 0). 'Estw txo AB mkouc |x| me arq to shmeo A = (1, 0), pou diagrfetai antjeta ap th for tou rologio an x > 0 kai smfwna me th for tou rologio an x < 0. To sunhmtono cos x kai to hmtono sin x orzontai wc h tetmhmnh kai h tetagmnh tou shmeou B . Epshc, orzoume thn sin x cos x efaptomnh tan x = cos x kai thn sunefaptomnh cot x = sin x , efson oi paronomastc
Orismc 1.13
enai diforoi tou mhdenc.
Prisma 1.1
@fsik sdithte rigwnometrikn unrtsewnA
Oi akloujec idithtec prokptoun mesa ap ton orism: 1.
sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1,
sin = 1, 2 cos = 0, 2
sin = 0, cos = 1,
sin 3 = 1, 2 cos 3 = 0. 2
IR
KEFALAIO 1.
PROKATARKTIKA
2. Oi sunartseic
sin x, tan x, cot x
enai perittc, en h
cos x
enai rtia:
sin(x) = sin x, cos(x) = cos x, tan(x) = tan x, cot(x) = cot x.

3.
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1.
me
4. Oi
sin x, cos x perodo :
enai periodikc me perodo
2 ,
en oi
tan x, cot x
enai periodikc
sin(x+2) = sin x, cos(x+2) = cos x, tan(x+) = tan x, cot(x+) = cot x.

5.
sin(x + ) = sin x,
6.
cos(x + ) = cos x.
sin( x) = cos x, cos( x) = sin x, tan( x) = cot x, cot( x) = tan x. 2 2 2 2

7.
| sin x| < |x|,

Apdeixh:
x = 0.
rofnF
Prisma 1.2
Gia kje
@unhmtono hiforA x, y R isqei:
cos(y x) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y.

Apdeixh:
t dexoume nlutik thn pdeixh mno gi thn perptwsh 0 x < y F @r genik perptwsh mpore n podeiqje me qrsh th eidik ut perptwsh ki idiottwn tou tewrmto IFID ll h pdeixh prlepetiFA ep to orjognio trgwno AQP tou qmto IFI qoumeX
(cos x cos y)2 + (sin y sin x)2 = d2 .

ymowD p to trgwno BQP qoumeX
sin2 (y x) + (1 cos(y x))2 = d2 .

qi n ktlete thn teleut isthtD upologste ti suntetgmne twn shmewn P D Q se n ssthm suntetgmnwn peristrmmno kt gwn xF ixisnont t do sklhD ki nptssont to tetrgwnoD prokptei to zhtomenoF
1.5.
TRIGWNOMETRIKES SUNARTHSEIS
IS
(0,1)
Q=(cosy,siny)
d A B x O=(0,0) y P=(cosx,sinx)
(1,0)
qm IFIX r pdeixh tou orsmto IFPF

Prisma 1.3
@rigwnometrik sdithteA
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x,
cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x = 2 cos2 x 1 = 1 2 sin2 x, 1 cos x x , cos = 2 2 x+y 2 x+y 2 x+y 2 x+y 2 cos cos sin sin 1 + cos x , 2 , , , ,
sin
x = 2
sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos x + cos y = 2 cos sin x sin y = 2 cos cos x cos y = 2 sin
xy 2 xy 2 xy 2 xy 2
IT
KEFALAIO 1.
PROKATARKTIKA
sin x sin y = cos x cos y = sin x cos y =

Apdeixh:
1 [cos(x y) cos(x + y)] , 2 1 [cos(x + y) + cos(x y)] , 2 1 [sin(x + y) + sin(x y)] . 2
yi exissei prokptoun me pl efrmog twn sikn idiottwn twn orismtwn IFID IFPF
Keflaio 2
'Oria
2.1
Basik Ida Orou
{yrism}X wi sunrthsh f qei rio to LD tenei sto LD kj to x tenei sto cD nD tn to x eni {kont} sto cD all diaforetik ap to cD tte h f (x) eni {kont} sto LF qrfoume
xc
lim f (x) = L enllktik f (x) L kj x c.
Giat mac endiafrei to rio san nnoia?
IF r prgwgo eni n rioF ugkekrimnD sto kloujo sqmD kj t xi tenoun sto aD h klsh tou eujgrmmou tmmto tenei sthn prgwgo sto aF
y y1
tan=f(a)
f(x)
y2 y3 y0 x a x3 x2 x1
IU
IV
KEFALAIO 2.
ORIA
PF r epifnei pou perikleeti p mi kmplh @pl oloklrwmA eni n rioF to sqmD h epifnei th klimkwt sunrthsh tenei sthn epifnei tou hmiE tnouD kj to plto twn hmtwn tenei sto 0X
sin(x) 1 1
sin(x)
0.5
y 1 2 3
0.5
0 0
x sin(x)
0 0
0.5
0 0
QF o mko mi kmplh @epikmplio oloklrwmA eni n rioF ugkekrimnD sto kloujo sqmD to mko th tmhmtik grmmik kmplh tenei sto mko th suneqo kmplh kj to mko twn grmmikn tmhmtwn tenei sto 0F (Erthsh: Poiec enai oi parametrikc exisseic x = x(t), y = y(t) pou perigrfoun thn kamplh?)
2.1.
BASIKH IDEA ORIOU
IW
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
PH
KEFALAIO 2.
ORIA
RF y gko pou perikleeti p mi epifnei @dipl oloklrwmA eni n rioF ugkekrimnD sto kloujo sqm o gko th klimkwt sunrthsh tenei ston gko th sunrthsh do metlhtn f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 kj h epifnei th sh kje klmk tenei sto 0F
SF ktlF ktlF
{O Majhmatikc Logismc enai h melth orwn}
2.1.
BASIKH IDEA ORIOU
PI
Merik Paradegmata:
IF lim (4x 5) =;
x3 x6 PF lim x x3 =; x3
2
QF lim sin x =; x
x0
RF lim x =;
x2
SF lim sin
x0
1 x
=;
TF 9istw h sunrthsh Dirichlet
f (x) =
e poi x qei rio h f (x)c UF 9istw h sunrthsh
0, x Q, 1, x R Q,
f (x) =
e poi x qei rio h f (x)c
0,
x Q,
|x|, x R Q,
VF 9istw h sunrthsh Riemann f (x) gi thn opo f (x) = 0 tn to x eni rrhtoD ki f (x) = 1 tn x = p D pou q > 0 ki oi p, q eni oi mikrteroi dunto krioiD q q dhld o mgisto koin diirth tou eni h mond @pw lne oi mjhmtikoD eni prtoi metx touAF 9iqei poujen rio h f (x)c
Hjik Ddagma: Qwrc austhroc orismoc den mporome na antimetwpsoume dskolec periptseic.
PP
KEFALAIO 2.
ORIA
2.2
Orismc kai Basikc Idithtec
y f(x)
L+ L L-
BHMA 1
BHMA 2 c- c c+
Orismc 2.1
@9yrio unrthshA 'Estw sunrthsh f : A R, orismnh panto se mia anoikt geitoni ektc swc ap to c. H f qei rio to L, tenei sto L, kajc to x tenei kai grfoume lim f (x) = L, an
xc
tou sto
c, c,
> 0 > 0 : 0 < |x c| < |f (x) L| < .
Parathrseic
IF y yrism PFI shmnei qondrik ti mporome n plhsisoume so kont jloume to f (x) sto LD rke n epilxoume kpoio x rket kont sto cF PF r tim th f gi x = c den m endifrei3 @wpore to f (c) n mhn orzeti knFA
2.2.
ORISMOS KAI BASIKES IDIOTHTES
PQ
QF en h f eni orismnh pnto se mi noikt geitoni tou cD ekt sw p to cD tte uprqoun aD bD ttoi ste (a, c) (c, b) AF RF r pthsh ut eni ngkD lli h sunepgwg 0 < |x c| < |f (x) L| < den qei nhmD nexrtht tou D fo h f (x) den j orzeti gi kpoi xF SF e orismn il h nw pthsh uponoeti qwr n nfreti rhtF TF y nw orism eni to mno pou xzei n pomnhmonesete se ut to mjhm3 UF y orism den eni kjlou profnF y Gauss @IUUUEIVSSA den ton skfthke knD o Cauchy @IUVWEIVSUA ftixe mi lnjsmnh morfD ki o prto pou ton rke tn o Weierstrass @IVISEIVWUAF
Pardeigma 2.1 Lsh:
Na deiqje ti
x4
lim (3x 7) = 5.
9istw
> 0F rthr pwX |(3x 7) 5| < |3x 12| < |x 4| < . 3

@PFIA
9er gi to sugkekrimno jtw = 3 F 9istw tr 0 < |x 4| < F te ki |x 4| < ki p thn @PFIA qoume |(3x 7) 5| < D r prokptei to zhtomenoF
Pardeigma 2.2 Lsh:
Na deiqje ti
xc
lim(mx + b) = mc + b.
9istw
> 0F rthr pwX |m| .

@PFPA
|(mx + b) (mc + b)| < |m(x c)| < |x c| <
9er gi to sugkekrimno > 0 jtw = |m| > 0F 9istw tr 0 < |x c| < F te p thn @PFPA qoume |(mx + b) (mc + b)| < D r prokptei to zhtomenoF
Pardeigma 2.3 Lsh:
Na deiqje ti
xc
lim
1 x
1 c,
an
c = 0.
utrqn prthrome pwX
1 1 cx 1 1 | |=| |= |c x|. x c cx |c| |x|
PR
KEFALAIO 2.
ORIA
ttw = min{ 2 ,
|c|
c2 2 }D
ki stw pw 0 < |x c| < F 9iqoumeX
|x c| < ||x| |c|| <
|c| |c| |c| 1 2 |c| |x| < |x| > < , 2 2 2 |x| |c| c2 |x c| < |c x| < < . 2
unduzont t nwD qoumeD tn |x c| < X
1 1 1 2 c2 1 1 |c x| < = , | |= x c |c| |x| |c| |c| 2

ki h pdeixh oloklhrjhkeF
Pardeigma 2.4 Lsh:
Na deiqje ti
xc
lim x = c,
an
c > 0.
9istw opoiodpote > 0 ki stw = min{c, c}F te n 0 < |x c| < j qoume x 0D ki epiplon ( x c)( x + c) xc | x c| = = x+ c x+ c |x c| |x c| < , = x+ c c c
Pardeigma 2.5 Lsh:
Na deiqje ti an
f (x) 0
kai
xc
limf (x) = 0,
tte
xc
lim
f (x) = 0.
9istw
> 0F ipeid
> 0D uprqei > 0 ttoio ste

2
0 < |x c| < |f (x) 0| <

Pardeigma 2.6 Lsh:
An
0 f (x) <
| f (x) 0| < ,
xc
limf (x) > 0,
tte
xc
lim
f (x) =
xc
limf (x).
t doje rgterD w efrmog tou tewrmto QFQF
Hjik Ddagma: Me touc orismoc den pme makru! Qreiazmaste pollc prxeic kai skyh, akma kai gia profan apotelsmata.
2.2.
PS
Lmma 2.1
An
xc
@wondiktht yrouA limf (x) = L kai limf (x) = M , tte L = M .

xc
Apdeixh: Lmma 2.2
9eskhshF
@9yri 9sswn se histhm unrtsewnA 'Estw pwc c (a, b) kai f (x) = g(x) gia kje x (a, b), ektc swc tou c. Tte an uprqei to rio lim f (x), ja uprqei kai to lim g(x) kai mlista lim g(x) = lim f (x).
xc xc xc xc
Apdeixh:
rokptei ekol p ton orism tou orouF

'Estw mia opoiadpote sunrthsh
Pardeigma 2.7
pwc allzoume thn tim thc me aujareto trpo se mpore na perilambnoun thn tim sunrthsh
f , me rio limf (c) = L kai stw xc na ekatommrio timc thc x, pou
g(x).
Uprqei to rio
xc
c, all limg(x)?
qi aparathta, gia na dhmiourgsoume mia
Lsh:
9eskhshF @ellg wetlhtA

ann
b h a
Lmma 2.3
1.
h0
lim f (h) = A
lim f (ah b) = A, lim f (h2 ) = A.
pou
a = 0.
2. An
h0
lim f (h) = A,
tte
h0
Apdeixh:
9eskhshF irthshX to ntstrofo tou sklou P isqeic
Orismc 2.2
'Estw
@leurik 9yriA sunrthsh f : A R, kai
stw shmeo
c.
1. 'Estw pwc to
(c, b) A gia kpoio b > c. H f qei (pleurik) rio to L kajc x tenei sto c ap dexi, kai grfoume lim f (x) = L an +
xc
> 0 > 0 : c < x < c + |f (x) L| < .

2. 'Estw pwc kajc to
(a, c) A gia kpoio a < c. H f qei (pleurik) rio x tenei sto c ap arister, kai grfoume lim f (x) = L an
xc
to
> 0 > 0 : c < x < c |f (x) L| < .
PT
KEFALAIO 2.
ORIA
Pardeigma 2.8 Lsh:
Na deiqje ti
x2+
lim x = 2,
en
x2
lim x = 1.
9istw
> 0F ttw =
1 2
> 0F teX
2 < x < 2 + x = 2 | x 2| = 0 < .

9erD gi kje > 0 uprqei n > 0F wlistD se ut thn perptwsh uprqei n pou knei gi kje F 9er podexme thn prxh tou dexi orouF o rister rio upologzeti entel nlogF
Pardeigma 2.9 Lsh:
Na deiqje ti
x0 2
lim+ x = 0.
9istw
> 0F ttw =
> 0F 9iqoumeX 0 < x < 0 + 0 < x < | x 0| < ,
Lmma 2.4
xc
kai
@prqei 9yrio prqoun leurik 9yriA

xc
limf (x) = L ann uprqoun kai ta do pleurik ria kai enai sa, dhlad lim f (x) = L +
xc
lim f (x) = L.
9eskhshF
Apdeixh:
2.3.
JEWRHMATA ORIOU
PU
2.3
Jewrmata Orou
Jerhma 2.1
'Estw
@fsik sdithte yrouA sunartseic f , g me ria L = limf (x)
akraioc, kai 1.
kR
xc
kai
M = limg(x) sto c.
xc
'Estw
n jetikc
stajer. Isqoun oi akloujec isthtec:
xc xc xc xc xc
limk = k. limx = c. limkf (x) = klimf (x).

xc xc xc
2.
3.
4.
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = limf (x) + limg(x). lim [f (x) g(x)] = limf (x) limg(x).
xc xc
5.
6.
xc
lim [f (x)g(x)] = limf (x)limg(x).

xc xc
7.
xc
lim f (x) = g(x)
xc
lim f (x) lim g(x) .

Ennoetai ti
xc
xc
limg(x) = 0,
kai ti se mia anoikt geitoni tou
c,
me exaresh swc to
c,
qoume
g(x) = 0.
8.
xc
lim [f (x)] = limf (x)

xc
n
.
Oi Idithtec 3-8 shmanoun ti an uprqoun la ta ria sta dexi, uprqei kai to antstoiqo rio sta arister.
yi podexei twn sdiottwn IDP prokptoun p to rdeigm PFPF r pdeixh th sditht Q eni pl ki prlepetiF r pdeixh th sditht R qei w exX 9istw > 0F te ki 2 > 0D ki ex upojsew j uprqei 1 > 0 ttoio ste
Apdeixh:
|x c| < 1 |f (x) L| < . 2 ymowD j uprqei 2 > 0 ttoio ste |x c| < 2 |g(x) M | < . 2
ipilgw = min{1 , 2 }D ki prthr pwX
|f (x) + g(x) L M | |f (x) L| + |g(x) M | <
= .
PV
KEFALAIO 2.
ORIA
r prth nistht prokptei p thn trigwnik nisthtF r deterh isqei tn |x c| < 1 , 2 F 9er gi to sugkekrimno > 0 rk to > 0 pou qreizmounD ki h pdeixh oloklhrjhkeF yi podexei twn uploipwn prlepontiF
Pardeigma 2.10 Lsh:
Na breje to
x4
+5 lim x x .
lim (x3 + 5) x3 + 5 1 x4 lim lim (x3 ) + lim 5 = = x4 x4 x lim x 4 x4

x4
1 4
3 x4
lim x
+5
69 . 4
r prth istht prorqeti p thn sditht U tou tewrmtoD h deterh p ti sdithte R ki PD h trth p ti sdithte V ki PD ki h ttrth p thn sditht PF
Prisma 2.1
An h
@9yri oluwnumikn ki htn unrtsewnA
enai poluwnumik rht sunrthsh, tte
xc
efson o paranomastc thc
limf (x) = f (c), f

enai rht).
f (c)
den mhdenzetai (tan h
Apdeixh:
rokptei mes me efrmog tou tewrmto PFIF

Na upologisje to rio
Pardeigma 2.11 Lsh:
x2
lim 7x
10x4 13x+6 . 3x2 6x8
7x5 10x4 13x + 6 7 25 10 24 13 2 + 6 11 lim = = . x2 3x2 6x 8 3 22 6 2 8 2
Pardeigma 2.12 Lsh:
Na upologisje to rio
x2
lim xx+3x10 . 2 +x6
x2 + 3x 10 (x 2)(x + 5) x+5 7 lim 2 = lim = lim = . x2 (x 2)(x + 3) x2 x + 3 x2 x + x 6 5 th deterh isthtD qrhsimopoisme to vmm PFPF
2.3.
JEWRHMATA ORIOU
PW
Jerhma 2.2
'Estw
(Jerhma Parembolc)
f , g, h
sunartseic oi opoec ikanopoion th sqsh
f (x) g(x) h(x)

kont kai grw ap kpoio ttoio ste an
c, all qi 0 < |x c| < 1 , tte

xc
aparathta sto
c.
Dhlad, uprqei kpoio An
isqei h nw dipl anisthta.
xc
1 limf (x) =
xc
limh(x) = L,
tte kai
limg(x) = L.
Apdeixh:
9istw
> 0F ix upojsewD uprqei kpoio 2 > 0 ttoio ste
0 < |x c| < 2 |h(x) L| < h(x) < L + .

romowD uprqei 3 > 0 ttoio ste
0 < |x c| < 3 |f (x) L| < f (x) > L .

9istw = min{1 , 2 , 3 } > 0F unduzont t nw me thn upjeshD qoumeX
0 < |x c| < L < f (x) g(x) h(x) < L + |g(x) L| < .

9erD p ton orism tou orou prokptei to zhtomenoF
Jerhma 2.3
@fsik sdithte leurikn yrwnA
Ta Lmmata 2.1 kai 2.2, ta Jewrmata 2.1 kai 2.2 kai to Prisma 2.1 isqoun, me katllhlec tropopoiseic, kai gia ria ap ta arister kai ria ap ta dexi.
Apdeixh:
intel nlogh twn podexewn twn ntstoiqwn protsewnF
QH
KEFALAIO 2.
ORIA
2.4
'Oria Trigwnometrikn Sunartsewn
Jerhma 2.4
Gia kje qoume
@epl 9yri rigwnometrikn unrtsewnA pragmatik arijm c msa sto pedo orismo thc antstoiqhc
sunrthshc,
xc
lim sin x = sin c, lim cos x = cos c, lim tan x = tan c, lim cot x = cot c.
xc xc xc
Apdeixh:
(0,1) P=(cosx,sinx) Q=(0,sinx)
x O=(0,0) R=(cosx,0) A=(1,0)
rt j dexoume ti lim sin x = sin cF t xekinsoume deqnont ti lim sin x = 0F 9istw x > 0F ep to sqm qoume ti
xc x0
0 < |P R| < |arc(P A)| 0 < sin x < x.

@we arc(P A) sumolzoume to txo P AD ki me |arc(P A)| to mko tou txou P AFA ymowD gi x < 0D x < sin x < 0,
2.4.
ORIA TRIGWNOMETRIKWN SUNARTHSEWN
QI
r p to terhm th remolD qoume lim sin x = 0F

x0
sunartseic pou paremblloun thn
(Erthsh: poiec enai oi
sin x?) ipiplonD isqei lim cos x = 1F rgmtiX

x0
x0
lim cos x = lim
x0
1 sin2 x =
1 lim sin2 x =
x0
1 02 = 1.
r prth exswsh isqei gi x kont sto 0 @ste n mhn isqei cos x = 1 sin2 xAD en h deterh p to rdeigm PFTF rhsimopoint t do ut ri ki mi pl llg metlht qoumeX
xc
lim sin x = lim sin(c + h)

h0 h0
= lim (sin c cos h + cos c sin h) = (sin c)lim cos h + (cos c)lim sin h
h0 h0
= (sin c) 1 + (cos c) 0 = sin c.

ekolojwD deqnoume ti lim cos x = cos cD diqwrzont periptseiX
xc
IF 9istw ti cos c > 0F te gi x kont sto cD qoume cos x =
1 sin2 xD r
xc
lim cos x = lim
xc
1 sin2 x =
1 lim sin x
xc
1 sin2 c = cos c.
PF r pdeixh gi cos c < 0 eni prmoiF QF en cos c = 0D tte prthrome pw
1 sin2 x cos x
1 sin2 x,
ki p to terhm th remol prokptei to zhtomenoF yi podexei twn exissewn gi thn efptmenh ki sunefptomnh prokptoun mes me efrmog sikn idiottwnF
Jerhma 2.5
@wh etrimmn rigwnometrik 9yriA
sin x = 1, x0 x lim
1 cos x = 0. x0 x lim
QP
KEFALAIO 2.
ORIA
Apdeixh:
(0,1) P=(cosx,sinx) Q=(0,sinx)
x O=(0,0) R=(cosx,0) A=(1,0)
IF utrqnD prthrome ti h epifnei kukliko tom ktn r ki gwn 1 isoti me 2 r2 F @rgmtiD h epifnei prpei n eni nlogh th gwnD nlogh tou tetrgnou th ktnD ki gi ton sugkekrimno suntelest 1 prnoume to 2 swst potlesm gi = 2 FA 9istw x (0, )F to sqmD prthrome ti h epifnei tou kukliko tom 2 ORS D pou isoti me 1 (cos2 x)xD eni mikrterh th epifnei tou trignou ORP D 2 pou eni 1 cos x sin xD pou me th seir th eni mikrterh p thn epifnei tou 2 1 kukliko tom OAP D pou eni 2 12 xF 9erX
1 1 1 sin x 1 (cos2 x)x < cos x sin x < 12 x cos x < < . 2 2 2 x cos x
we prmoio trpo mporome n dexoume ti h teleut sqsh isqei ki gi x ( , 0)F rthrome ti to rister ki to dex sklo qoun rio th mondF 2 9erD qrhsimopoint to terhm th remolD prokptei to zhtomenoF
2.4.
ORIA TRIGWNOMETRIKWN SUNARTHSEWN
QQ
PF
1 cos x 1 cos x 1 + cos x = lim x0 x0 x x 1 + cos x 2 1 cos x = lim x0 x(1 + cos x) sin2 x = lim x0 x(1 + cos x) lim sin x sin x 0 x0 = lim = 1 = 0. x0 x lim (1 + cos x) 2 lim
x0
QR
KEFALAIO 2.
ORIA
2.5
'Oria sto ' Apeiro, ' Apeira 'Oria
Orismc 2.3
1. 'Estw
@9yri sto 9epeiroA
orismnh sto
L,
kai grfoume
x+
[c, ) gia kpoio c R. Lme ti h f qei rio sto + to lim f (x) = L an gia kje > 0 uprqei kpoio X ttoio ste x > X |f (x) L| < .
2. 'Estw
sunrthsh orismnh sto
qei rio sto qei kpoio
to
L,
kai
(, c] gia kpoio c R. Lme ti h f grfoume lim f (x) = L an gia kje > 0 uprx
ttoio ste
x < X |f (x) L| < .

Jerhma 2.6
Ta Lmmata 2.1, 2.2, to Prisma 2.1 kai ta Jewrmata 2.1, 2.2, isq-
oun kai gia ria sto
me tic katllhlec tropopoiseic.
Orismc 2.4
@9epeir 9yriA
1. H sunrthsh
qei rio sto
M R
mporome na brome
c to +, kai grfoume limf (x) = +, an gia kje xc > 0 ttoio ste
0 < |x c| < f (x) > M.

2. H sunrthsh kje
qei rio sto
+ to +, kai grfoume lim f (x) = +, an gia

x+
M R
mporome na brome
XR
ttoio ste
x > X f (x) > M.

3. Parmoia mporome na orsoume ta aklouja ria:
xc+ xc+
lim f (x) = +, lim f (x) = +,

xc xc
xc
limf (x) = , lim f (x) = +, ....
lim f (x) = , lim f (x) = , ... ...
(Psec periptseic uprqoun sunolik?)
2.5.
ORIA STO APEIRO, APEIR A ORIA
QS
Pardeigma 2.13
Isqei
1
M > 0.
Jtw
X = M n X = M,
x+ n
lim xn = +
tan
n N, n > 0.
Prgmati, stw
kai qoume:
x > X xn > X n xn > M.

Lmma 2.5
1. An
@9yrio th 1/f (x)A

tte
x+
lim f (x) = +
kai
1 f (x) x+
lim
= 0.
1 f (x) x+
2. An
x+
lim f (x) = 0
f (x) > 0,
tte
lim
= +.
Apdeixh:
IF 9istw
> 0F ttw M =
> 0F prqei X R ttoio ste 1 1 1 < = | 0| < . f (x) M f (x)
x > X f (x) > M > 0 0 <

PF 9istw M > 0F 9istw to = uprqei X R ttoio ste
1 M
> 0F ep to rio pou m dnetiD qoume ti 1 1 > = M. f (x)
x > X |f (x) 0| < 0 < f (x) <
thn deterh sunepgwg qrhsimopohs ki thn upjesh f (x) > 0F 9er telik 1 gi to M pou epilxmeD uprqei X R ttoio ste x > X f (x) > M F 9er podexme to zhtomenoF t sque to zhtomeno n den sque h upjesh f (x) > 0c
Pardeigma 2.14
Me efarmog tou nw lmmatoc kai tou prohgomenou paradeg-
matoc mesa qoume ti
lim xn = 0,
tan
n N, n > 0.
QT
KEFALAIO 2.
ORIA
2.6
Akoloujec
@ekoloujA + Mia sunrthsh a : N R me pedo orismo akolouja. Sumbolzetai wc a(n), {an } kai an .
Orismc 2.5
touc jetikoc fusikoc kaletai
a(n)
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Paradegmata
IF y mso @ elqistoD mgistoA qrno a(n) pou j qreiste gi n lsoume n prlhm me prmetro nD gi prdeigm n ntistryoume n pnk megjou nD n rome thn didrom elqistou kstou se n grfo me n kmouD kokF PF y jm en foitht sthn nEost telik extsh pou j dsei st wjhmtik sF QF o ro tou nEosto grnzio pou prgei mi mhqnF RF r tim kleismto tou rhmtisthrou thn nEost mrF SF r x tou sunlou twn metoqn en qrtofulkou thn nEost mrF TF kokF
Orismc 2.6
Mia
@9yrio ekoloujA akolouja an qei rio to L,
tenei sto
L,
sugklnei sto
kai grfoume
2.6.
AKOLOUJIES
QU
n+
lim an = L,
an gia kje
>0
uprqei fusikc
ttoioc ste
n > N |an L| < .

Mia akolouja pou qei rio kaletai sugklnousa, allic kaletai apoklnousa kai lme pwc apoklnei.
Jerhma 2.7
@fsik sdithte yrou ekoloujA
Ta Lmmata 2.1, 2.2, to Prisma 2.1 kai ta Jewrmata 2.1, 2.2, isqoun me katllhlec tropopoiseic gia to rio akoloujac.
e kje perptwshD h pdeixh eni entel nlogh th pdeixh gi thn perptwsh tou orou sunrthshF
Apdeixh: Jerhma 2.8
An
x+
@9yrio unrthsh 9yrio ekoloujA lim f (x) = L, tte lim f (n) = L.

n+
f(x), f(n) L
x,n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Apdeixh:
rokptei mes msw tou orismoF ssqei to ntstrofoc

Dexte ti oi paraktw akoloujec enai sugklnousec, ete apeu-
Paratrhsh:
Pardeigma 2.15
jeac ap ton orism, ete me gnwstc idithtec:
1 1 an = , an = , n n! Lsh: 9eskhshF
n an = , n+1
2n an = 2 , n +1
(1)n+1 an = . n
QV
KEFALAIO 2.
ORIA
Keflaio 3
Sunqeia
3.1
Orismc Sunqeiac
Orismc 3.1
@unqei se hmeoA
1. H sunrthsh
enai suneqc sto
an
xc
limf (x) = f (c).
(Dhlad orzetai to
f (c),
to rio uprqei, kai ta do isontai.)
2. An h sunrthsh den enai suneqc sto uprqei asunqeia.
c,
kaletai asuneqc, kai lme ti sto
QW
RH
KEFALAIO 3.
SUNEQEIA
3. H sunrthsh
f f
enai dexi suneqc sto
an
xc+
an
lim f (x) = f (c).

xc
4. H sunrthsh
enai arister suneqc sto
lim f (x) = f (c). f (x)

o-
5. An h
f (x)
enai asuneqc sto
rzontac thn
f (c)
tsi ste h
c, all f (x) na
mporome na tropopoisoume thn gnei suneqc sto
c,
h asunqeia kaletai
epousidhc. Allic, kaletai ousidhc.
Lmma 3.1
H
enai
@leurik unqei unqeiA suneqc sto c ann enai arister suneqc rofnF
sto
kai dexi suneqc sto
c.
Apdeixh: Lmma 3.2

'Estw
@yrism CauchyA f : A R, kai stw c R.
1. H
enai suneqc sto
ann
> 0, > 0 : |x c| < |f (x) f (c)| < .

2. H
@QFIA
enai dexi suneqc sto
ann
> 0, > 0 : c x < c + |f (x) f (c)| < .

3. H
@QFPA
enai arister suneqc sto
ann
> 0, > 0 : c < x c |f (x) f (c)| < .

Apdeixh:
@QFQA
rokptei mes p ton orismF
Parathrseic
IF ep thn @QFIA uponoeti ti to c eni eswterik sto AD dhld uprqei geitoni (a, b) ttoi ste c (a, b) AF rgmtiD se diforetik perptwsh h @QFIA den j eqe nhmF PF ep thn @QFPA uponoeti ti uprqei kpoio b ttoi ste [c, b) AF rgmtiD se diforetik perptwsh h @QFPA den j eqe nhmF QF ep thn @QFQA uponoeti ti uprqei kpoio a ttoi ste (a, c] AF rgmtiD se diforetik perptwsh h @QFQA den j eqe nhmF
3.1.
ORISMOS SUNEQEIAS
RI
Jerhma 3.1
@unqei gnwstn sunrtsewnA
1. Oi poluwnumikc sunartseic enai panto suneqec. 2. Oi rhtc sunartseic enai suneqec, pou orzontai. 3. Oi trigwnometrikc sunartseic enai suneqec, pou orzontai. 4. H sunrthsh
f (x) = |x|
enai panto suneqc.
Apdeixh:
ri pou qreizmste qoun dh upologisjeD sto ueflio P ekt th perptwsh f (x) = |x| pou eni skhshF @rxei metx suneqn sunrtsewnA 'Estw oi sunartseic f (x) kai g(x), kai stw pwc enai suneqec ( arister suneqec dexi suneqec) sto c. 'Estw k R. Tte enai suneqec ( arister suneqec dexi suneqec) sto c kai oi kf (x), f (x) + g(x), f (x) g(x), f (x)g(x), f (x)/g(x) (efson g(c) = 0), kai h (f (x))n .
Jerhma 3.2 Apdeixh:
e le ti periptseiD h pdeixh eni pl efrmog sikn idiottwn
tou orouF
Jerhma 3.3
An
xc
@njesh uneqn unrtsewnA limg(x) = L kai f (t) enai suneqc sto L, tte
xc
limf (g(x)) = f (limg(x)) = f (L).

xc
Epiplon, an h sto
g(x) enai suneqc sto c, dhlad g(c) = L, tte h f (g(x)) enai suneqc
xc
c: limf (g(x)) = f (g(c)).

9istw
Apdeixh:
> 0F efo h f (t) eni suneq sto LD mpor n rw 1 > 0 |t L| < 1 |f (t) f (L)| < .
ttoio ste eut j isqei ki n t = g(x) gi kpoio xX
|g(x) L| < 1 |f (g(x)) f (L)| < .

9ymw h g(x) qei rio to LD rD gi to sugkekrimno 1 uprqei 2 ttoio ste
0 < |x c| < 2 |g(x) L| < 1 .
RP
KEFALAIO 3.
SUNEQEIA
9erD gi to
pou eplexD rk kpoio 2 ttoio ste
0 < |x c| < 2 |f (g(x)) f (L)| < ,

r telik limf (g(x)) = f (L)F en tr eni ki h g(x) suneqD mes prokpteiD p ton orism th sunqei ki th snjeth sunrthshD ti h f (g(x)) eni suneq sto cF
Pardeigma 3.1
tte Me efarmog tou nw jewrmatoc prokptei ti an
xc
xc
limf (x) > 0,
xc
lim
f (x) =
xc
limf (x).
Pardeigma 3.2
Na deiqje ti h
enai suneqc panto, ektc
x4 3x + 1 h(x) = sin 2 x x6 ap ta 3 kai 2.
Lsh:
utrqn prthrome ti x2 x 6 = (x 3)(x + 2)F 9er h rht sunrthsh
x4 3x + 1 x2 x 6 eni pnto suneq ekt p ti periptsei x = 3, 2F ipiplonD h sin(x) eni suneq pntoF 9er telik h snjeth sunrthsh f (g(x)) eni suneq pnto ekt p t 3, 2F g(x) =
Pardeigma 3.3
kai Mpore na efarmoste to nw jerhma gia
g(x) = x2 , c = L = 0,
f (x)
orismnh wc exc?
f (x) =
Orismc 3.2
1, x > 0, 0, x 0. (a, b) [a, b]

ktl.
@unqei se disthmA
wc suneqc sto anoiqt disthma an enai suneqc
1. H sunrthsh se kje
f orzetai x (a, b).
2. H sunrthsh se kje
f orzetai x (a, b), dexi
wc suneqc sto kleist disthma suneqc sto
an enai suneqc
kai arister suneqc sto
b.
3. Antstoiqa oi periptseic gia ta diastmata
[a, b), [a, ),
Pardeigma 3.4
suneqc sto
Ap prohgomena paradegmata, prokptei ti h
f (x) =
enai
[0, +).
3.2.
SUNEPEIES SUNEQEIAS SE KLEISTO FR AGMENO DIASTHMA
RQ
3.2
Sunpeiec Sunqeiac se Kleist Fragmno Disthma
Lmma 3.3
1. 'Estw
@hitrhsh rosmouA
ste gia kje
f (x) suneqc sto c kai f (c) = 0. Uprqei > 0 ttoio x (c , c + ), to f (x) na qei to dio prshmo me to f (c).
2. 'Estw
f (x) dexi suneqc sto c kai f (c) = 0. Uprqei > 0 ttoio ste gia kje x [c, c + ), to f (x) na qei to dio prshmo me to f (c). f (x) arister suneqc sto c kai f (c) = 0. Uprqei > 0 x (c , c], to f (x) na qei to dio prshmo me to f (c).
ttoio ste gia
3. 'Estw kje
y 3f(c)/2 f(c) f(c)/2 f(x) c- c c+ x
Apdeixh:
utrqn prthrste ti diisjhtik to jerhm eni profnX en h sunrthsh eni suneq se kpoio cD ut shmnei ti rkontw kont sto cD oi tim j eni rkontw kont sto f (c)D r moir j moirzonti ki to prshm touF t podexoume mno thn prth perptwshD kj oi lle prokptoun nlogF qi n podexoume to zhtomenoD stw ti f (c) > 0F @r perptwsh f (c) < 0 prokptei
RR
KEFALAIO 3.
SUNEQEIA
nlogFA 9istw
f (c) 2 F
vgw th sunqei th f (x)D uprqei ttoio ste
x ( + c, c + ) |f (x) f (c)| < =
f (c) 2 f (c) f (c) f (x) > > 0. 2 2
f (x) f (c) >
Jerhma 3.4
@BolzanoA 'Estw f (x) suneqc sto [a, b] ste f (c) = 0.
kai stw
f (a)f (b) < 0.
Tte uprqei
c (a, b)
ttoio
y f(x)
(b,f(b)) x (c,f(c)=0)
(a,f(a))
Apdeixh:
wr lh th genikthtD stw f (a) < 0D r f (b) > 0F 9istw
S = {x [a, b] : f (x) 0}.

o snolo eni mh kenD fo periqei to aD en eni frgmno nwD p to bF ep to exwm th lhrthtD qei supremumD stw cF hiqwrzoume periptseiX IF 9istw pw f (c) < 0F rofn c < bF en c = aD p to vmm QFQD prokptei ti uprqei kpoio > 0 ttoio ste f (x) < 0 gi kje x [c, c + )F en c = aD tte p to vmm QFQD prokptei ti uprqei kpoio > 0 ttoio ste f (x) < 0
3.2.
RS
gi kje x ( + c, c + )F eut shmnei tiD se kje perptwshD to c den eni supremum tou S D fo uprqei n rijmD pome to c + 2 pou eni megltero tou c ki nkei sto S F 9erD ftnoume se topoD ki h perptwsh f (c) < 0 prpei n pokleisteF PF 9istw pw f (c) > 0F rofn c > aF en c = bD p to vmm QFQD prokptei ti uprqei kpoio > 0 ttoio ste f (x) > 0 gi kje x ( + c, c]F en c = bD tte p to vmm QFQD prokptei ti uprqei kpoio > ttoio ste f (x) > 0 gi kje x (c , c + )F eut shmnei tiD se kje perptwshD to c den eni supremumD gitD ex orismo tou supremumD j prepe n uprqe rijm x ent tou (c , c] me f (x) 0F 9erD ftnoume pli se topoD ki h perptwsh f (c) > 0 epsh prpei n pokleisteF QF 9er telikD prpei n qoume f (c) = 0F
Paradegmata
IF f (x) = cos x, a = 0, f (a) = 1, b = , f (b) = 1F

1 PF f (x) = x , a = 1, f (a) = 1, b = 1, f (b) = 1F
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0
10 5 0 5 10 1
0.5
0.5
Jerhma 3.5
@indimesh imA 'Estw f (x) suneqc sto [a, b]. 'Estw x1 , x2 [a, b] me x1 < x2 kai f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). f (x) parnei lec tic timc metax twn f (x1 ) kai f (x2 ) sto (x1 , x2 ).
RT
KEFALAIO 3.
SUNEQEIA
Apdeixh:
9istw f (x1 ) < f (x2 )F @r perptwsh f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) ntimetwpzeti nE logFA 9istw opoidpote tim k ttoi ste f (x1 ) < k < f (x2 )F 9istw h sunrthsh g(x) = f (x) k F 9yle oi sunjke tou tewrmto Bolzano iknopoionti sto [x1 , x2 ]D r uprqei c (x1 , x2 ) ttoio ste g(c) = f (c) k = 0 f (c) = k F
f(x2)
a f(x1)
x1 x2 b
Pardeigma:
f (x) = sin x, a = 0, b = 2, x1 = , x2 = 2
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0
3 2 .
@prgm uneqn unrtsewnA 'Estw f (x) suneqc sto [a, b]. H f (x) enai fragmnh, |f (x)| < M gia kje x [a, b].
Jerhma 3.6
dhlad, uprqei
ttoio ste
3.2.
RU
t qrhsimopoisoume pgwg sto topoF 9istw pw h f (x) den eni frgmnh sto [a, b]D dhld gi kje M uprqei x ttoio ste |f (x)| > M F 9er h f (x) den eni frgmnh ete sto [a, a+b ] ete sto [ a+b , b]F yrzw w [a1 , b1 ] to ntstoiqo 2 2 disthmF uneqzontD mpor n orzw distmt [an , bn ]D fjnonto megjou
Apdeixh:
ba 2n st opo h f (x) den eni frgmnhF en se kpoio m h f (x) den eni frgmnh kai st do upodistmtD epilgw to risterF 9istw x0 = sup{an }D pou uprqei git to snolo {an } eni mh ken ki frgmno nw @p to bAF prqoun trei periptseiD a < x0 < bD x0 = a ki x0 = bX |bn an | =
IF 9istw pw a < x0 < bF 9istw
= 1F vgw sunqei sto x0 D
> 0 : x0 < x < x0 + |f (x) f (x0 )| < 1 |f (x)| < 1 + |f (x0 )|.
9ymwD gi n rkontw meglo nD qoume ti [an , bn ] (x0 , x0 + )D r qoume topoF PF en x0 = aD tte stw pli
= 1F vgw dexi sunqei sto x0 D qoumeX
> 0 : x0 < x < x0 + |f (x) f (x0 )| < 1 |f (x)| < 1 + |f (x0 )|.
9ymwD gi n rkontw meglo nD qoume ti [an , bn ] (x0 , x0 + )D r ki pli qoume topoF QF en x0 = bD tte stw pli
= 1F vgw rister sunqei sto x0 D qoumeX
> 0 : x0 < x < x0 |f (x) f (x0 )| < 1 |f (x)| < 1 + |f (x0 )|.
9ymwD gi n rkontw meglo nD qoume ti [an , bn ] (x0 , x0 + )D r ki pli qoume topoF 9er se kje perptwsh qoume topoD r h f (x) eni frgmnhF rthrste ti n mi sunrthsh eni suneq sto [a, b]D p to terhm QFT j eni ki frgmnhD r to kloujo jerhm qei nhmX
Jerhma 3.7
'Estw isqei
@ekrttwnA f suneqc sto [a, b]. Tte
uprqoun shmea
c, d
axb
entc tou
[a, b]
gia ta opoa
f (c) = sup f,
axb
f (d) = inf f.
RV
KEFALAIO 3.
SUNEQEIA
hhld to supremum eni ki maximumD ki to inmum eni ki minimumF 9ypw fneti ki p t prktw ntiprdegmtD ut den isqei genikF Apdeixh: t podexoume to sklo gi to supremumF o sklo gi to inmum prokptei tte plD exetzont thn sunrthsh f ki efrmzont to sklo gi to supremumF t qrhsimopoisw ki pli pgwg se topoF 9istw ti sup f = M D ki pw f (x) < M gi kje x [a, b]D r h suneq sunrthsh g(x) = M f (x) > 0 gi 1 kje x [a, b]F r g(x) eni epsh suneq sto [a, b]D r ki frgmnh sto [a, b]D r 1 1 1 g(x) < C M f (x) > C f (x) < M C gi l t x [a, b]F eut ntinei ton orism tou supremum w to mikrtero nw frgmD r ftsme se topoF
Antiparadegmata:
x = 0, 0, IF a = 1, b = 1, f (x) = x + 1, 1 < x < 0, 1 x, 0 < x < 1.

1 PF a = 1, b = +, f (x) = x F
1 0.8
0.5
0.6 0.4 0.2
0.5 1
0.5
0.5
0 0
10
3.3.
MEJODOS DIQOTOMHSHS
RW
3.3
Mjodoc Diqotmhshc
Orismc 3.3
'Estw thc
@zA
f (x)
aujareth sunrthsh, kai
x0
ttoio ste
f (x0 ) = 0.
To
x0
kaletai rza
f.
o terhm Bolzano m epitrpei n entopzoume rijmhtik ti rze suneqn sunrtsewn tn den uprqoun se kleist morf @ den rskoume kleist morfD den jloume n yxoume gi kleist morfAF ugkekrimnD IF 9istw f (x) sunrthsh suneq sto [a0 , b0 F PF 9istw f (a0 )f (b0 ) < 0D r p to jerhm tou Bolzano uprqei toulqiston mi rz sto (a0 , b0 )F QF 9istw E > 0 to sflm me to opoo jloume n entopsoume thn jsh mi rzD dhld jloume n rome kpoion rijm x pou n pqei p kpoi rz x0 ligtero p E X |x0 x | < E. wporome n ektelsoume ton kloujo lgrijmoX
n=0; m=(a(0)+b(0))/2; DO IF f(m)=0, x=m; EXIT; ELSEIF f(m)f(b(n))<0, n=n+1; a(n)=m; b(n)=b(n-1); ELSEIF f(m)f(b(a))<0, n=n+1; a(n)=a(n-1); b(n)=m; END; IF b(n)-a(n) < E, EXIT; END; END
SH
KEFALAIO 3.
SUNEQEIA
Pardeigma 3.5
disthma
'Estw ti yqnoume mia rza thc sunrthshc
x 2 + 2 cos x
sto
[3, 5].
4 3 2 y 1 0 1 3 2 0 3 3.5 4 x 4.5 5 4 5 0
Parathrseic
IF r mjodo eni rgD se sqsh me lle @kkAF PF hen qreizeti o upologism prggwnD pw me mejdou pou j dome rgE ter @klAF QF wet p IH epnlyeiD h rqik m eitht qei meiwje perpou kt IHHH for @gitcAF RF r mjodo sugklnei pnt se kpoi rz @klAF SF erisster st mjmt th erijmhtik enlushF
3.4.
ANTISTROFH SUNEQOUS SUNARTHSHS
SI
3.4
Antstrofh Suneqoc Sunrthshc
@entstrofh unrthshA 'Estw sunrthsh f : A R, pou enai 1-1. Orzw thn f (A) R wc exc: f 1 (y) = x f (x) = y.
Orismc 3.4 Parathrseic
antstrofh sunrthsh
f 1 :
IF r pthsh n eni h f IEI eni prthth prokeimnou n mpore n oriste h ntstrofh thF PF 9iqei h sunrthsh tou sqmtoD orismnh sto [a, c]D ntstrofh sunrthshc en niD mporete n th sqedisetec
y f(b)
f(a)
f(c) x a b c
Jerhma 3.8
'Estw
@entstrofh uneqo qnhsw exous unrthshA sunrthsh f , me pedo orismo to [a, b], suneqc kai gnhswc axousa.
Tte
1. H
enai 1-1 me pedo timn to
qei antstrofh sunrthsh
f ([a, b]) = [c, d], pou c = f (a), d = f (b). f 1 : [c, d] R me f 1 ([c, d]) = [a, b].
Sunepc
2. H
f 1 f 1
enai gnhswc axousa.
3. H
enai suneqc.
SP
KEFALAIO 3.
SUNEQEIA
y f(b)=d
y=f(x), x=f-1(y) f(a)=c x a b
Apdeixh:
IF r f qei sto pedo timn th t c = f (a) ki d = f (b)F ipeid eni gnhsw xousD prpei c < dF ipshD lmnei le ti endimese timD me efrmog tou tewrmto indimesh imF rofn den qei kpoio llo rijm ekt tou [c, d] ms sto pedo timnD lli den j tn gnhsw xousF ipiplonD eni ki IEIF rgmtiD n f (x1 ) = f (x2 )D tte sgour x1 = x2 lli den j tn gnhsw xousF 9erD j uprqei ntstrofh sunrthsh f 1 : [c, d] [a, b]F PF 9istw y1 , y2 [c, d] me y1 < y2 F 9istw f (x1 ) = y1 x1 = f 1 (y1 ) ki f (x2 ) = y2 x2 = f 1 (y2 )F ipeid f (x1 ) < f (x2 )D prpei ki x1 < x2 D lli prokptei topoF 9er f 1 (y1 ) < f 1 (y2 )D ki h f 1 eni gnhsw xousF QF 9istw kpoio y0 (c, d)F @yi periptsei y0 = c, y0 = dD ntimetwpzonti me prmoio trpoFA 9istw epsh > 0F rpei n dexoume ti uprqei > 0 ttoio ste
|y y0 | < |f 1 (y) f 1 (y0 )| < .

wr lh th genikthtD mpor n epilxw n > 0 rket mikr ste ki to x0 ki to x0 + n eni ent tou [a, b]F 9istw
= min{f (x0 ) f (x0 ), f (x0 + ) f (x0 )}.
3.4.
ANTISTROFH SUNEQOUS SUNARTHSHS
SQ
rthrome tte pwX
|y y0 | < y < y0 + y0 + f (x0 + ) f (x0 ) = f (x0 + ) f 1 (y) < x0 + = f 1 (y0 ) + .

we prmoio trpoD
|y y0 | < y > y0 y0 f (x0 ) + f (x0 ) = f (x0 ) f 1 (y) > x0 = f 1 (y0 ) .

we sundusm twn nwD prokptei telik ti
|f 1 (y) f 1 (y0 )| < ,

r h f 1 eni ex orismo suneqF
x
f-1(d)=b
y=f(x), x=f-1(y)
f-1(y0)+ x0=f-1(y0) f-1(y0)- f-1(c)=a
y a y0- y0 y0+ b
Prisma 3.1
To Jerhma tropopoiseic.
@entstrofh uneqo qnhsw pjnous unrthshA 3.8 isqei kai gia tan h f enai gnhswc fjnousa, me tic
antstoiqec
SR
KEFALAIO 3.
SUNEQEIA
Apdeixh:
intel nloghF @zeA
Pardeigma 3.6
1. 'Estw
n rtioc. Epeid h sunrthsh f (x) = xn enai suneqc kai gnhswc axou1 1 sa sto [0, b], h sunrthsh f (y) = y n enai suneqc kai gnhswc axousa sto n 1 disthma [0, b ]. Epeid aut isqei gia kje b > 0, h f ja enai suneqc kai gnhswc axousa kai sto [0, +). f (x) = x n enai suneqc kai gnhswc axousa se 1 1 kje disthma [a, b] pou a, b R. 'Ara h sunrthsh f (y) = y n enai suneqc n n kai gnhswc axousa sto disthma [a , b ]. Epeid aut isqei gia aujareta a, b, 1 h f ja enai suneqc kai gnhswc axousa kai sto (, +).
perittc. H sunrthsh H sunrthsh
2. 'Estw
Pardeigma 3.7
sto
xr , r Q, r > 0, enai gnhswc axousa kai suneqc
[0, ).
9istw r = p D me p, q prt metx tou ki p, q > 0F r xr eni suneq sto q
1
Lsh:
[0, ) git eni dnmh th x q pou eni suneq sto [0, )F ini epsh ki gnhsw xous gitX 0 x1 < x2 0 x1 < x2
1 1 q 1 q
x1
1 q
<
x2
1 q
r prth sunepgwg prokptei p to ti h x q eni xousD en h deterh p gnwst iditht twn prgmtikn rijmnF
3.5.
SUNEQEIA
LIPSCHITZ
SS
3.5
Sunqeia
Lipschitz
y f(x)
x x b
@unqei LipschitzA Mia sunrthsh f : A R kaletai Lipschitz (suneqc) sto shmeo x0 an uprqei kpoia stajer C ttoia ste gia kje x se na anoikt disthma entc tou A kai grw ap to x0 na isqei ti |f (x) f (x0 )| C|x x0 |.
Orismc 3.5
Mia sunrthsh kje
f :AR
kaletai
Lipschitz
(suneqc) sto disthma
I A,
an gia
x, y I , |f (y) f (x)| C|y x|.
Parathrseic
IF qi n ktlete thn nnoi th sunqei Lipschitz se na shmeo x0 D pE rthrste pw oi sunrtsei @tou xA f1 (x) = f (x0 ) + C(x x0 )D f2 (x) = f (x0 ) C(x x0 )D pou tmnonti sto (x0 , f (x0 ))D orik iknopoion thn sunE jkhF 9erD opoidpote sunrthsh metlleti ligtero tqter p ut kont sto xD eni Lipschitz suneq sto xF ssodnmD h sunrthshD rkontw kont sto xD rsketi ms ston nw grmmoskismno knoF PF qi n ktlete thn nnoi th sunqei Lipschitz se disthma I D prthrste pw le oi grmmik sunrtsei th morf f (x) = Cx + k orik iknopoion
ST
KEFALAIO 3.
SUNEQEIA
thn sunjkhF 9erD opoidpote sunrthsh metlleti ligtero tqter p utD eni Lipschitz suneq sto I F ssodnmD h sunrthsh rsketi ms ston nw grmmoskismno knoD se poio shmeo (x, f (x)) ki n jsoume thn koruf touF qi ti klouje sunrtseiD rete se poi shme ki se poi distmt eni Lipschitz suneqeX
'Askhsh:
IF f (x) = cos xF PF f (x) = x2 F QF f (x) =
|x|F
4
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0 2 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2 4 0 6 2 1 0 1 2 3 2 1
3.5.
SUNEQEIA
LIPSCHITZ
SU
Jerhma 3.9
An
x0 .
@unqei Lipschitz unqeiA h f : A R enai Lipschitz suneqc se na shmeo x0 , tte enai kai suneqc sto Epshc, an enai Lipschitz suneqc se na disthma I , tte enai kai suneqc sto I .
9istw pw h f (x) eni Lipschitz suneq sto x0 F te uprqei kpoio disthm (c, d) A me x0 (c, d)D ki kpoi stjer C D ttoi ste
Apdeixh:
x (c, d) |f (x) f (x0 )| C|x x0 |.

9istw ujreto
> 0F 9istw = min{ 2C , d x0 , x0 c}F 9iqoumeX 2C = 2 < .
|x x0 | < x (c, d) |f (x) f (x0 )| C|x x0 | C
ep ton orism th sunqeiD prokptei ti h f eni suneq sto x0 F 9istw tr pw h f (x) eni Lipschitz suneq sto disthm I F 9istw n opoioE dpote x0 eswterik tou I F qi opoiodpote x I D r ki gi x ent en noikto sunlou me kntro to x0 D isqei ti
|f (x) f (x0 )| C|x x0 |.

9erD h f (x) eni Lipschitz suneq sto x0 D r ki suneq sto x0 F wnei n dexoume th sunqei st ri tou distmtoD n nkoun sto disthmF 9istw gi prdeigm I = [a, b]F ifrmzont th sunqei Lipschitz gi to I D qoume ti uprqei C ttoio steD gi kje x [a, b]D
|f (x) f (a)| C|x a|.

9istw
> 0F ttw = min{ 2C , b a}F te a x < a + x [a, b] |f (x) f (a)| C|x a| 2C = 2 < .
9erD h f (x) eni dexi suneq sto aF r pdeixh gi th rister sunqei sto dex rioD n ut nkei sto disthmD eni prmoiF 9erD ex orismo th sunqei se disthmD h f (x) eni suneq ki sto I F
Paratrhsh:
ntstrof tou jewrmto isqounc
SV
KEFALAIO 3.
SUNEQEIA
3.6
Omoimorfh Sunqeia
y f(x) () I
Orismc 3.6
H sunrthsh kpoio
@ymoimorfh unqeiA
kaletai omoimorfa suneqc sto disthma
an gia kje
> 0, uprqei
>0
ttoio ste, gia opoiadpote
x, y I ,
isqei:
|y x| < |f (y) f (x)| < .

Lmma 3.4
An h
enai
@ymoimorfh unqei unqeiA omoimorfa suneqc sto I , tte enai kai rofnF
suneqc sto
I.
Apdeixh:
Paratrhsh:
r sunrthsh f (x) = x2 D orismnh sto I = (, +) deqnei ti to ntstrofo den isqei gi opoiadpote distmt I F
Lmma 3.5
@ymoimorfh unqei sthn 9inwsh histhmtwnA An h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, b] kai omoimorfa suneqc omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, c].
Apdeixh:
sto
[b, c]
enai kai
9istw > 0F efo h f eni omoimorf suneq sto [a, b]D j uprqei 1 > 0 ttoio ste
x, y [a, b], |x y| < 1 |f (x) f (y)| < .
@QFRA
3.6.
OMOIOMORFH SUNEQEIA
SW
efo epsh h f eni omoimorf suneq sto [b, c]D j uprqei 2 > 0 ttoio ste
x, y [b, c], |x y| < 2 |f (x) f (y)| < .
@QFSA
rthrome km pw h f (x) eni suneq sto bD fo eni rister ki dexi suneqF qi to dosmno D uprqei 3 > 0 ttoio ste
|x b| < 3 |f (x) f (b)| < . 2 9erD n x, y (b 3 , b + 3 )D tte
@QFTA
|x b| < 3 , |y b| < 3 |f (x) f (b)| < , |f (y) f (b)| < |f (x) f (y)| < . 2 2 @QFUA 9istw loipn = min{1 , 2 , 3 }F 9istw do x, y [a, c]D me |x y| < F en x, y [a, b]D tte p thn @QFRA prokptei ti |f (x) f (y)| < F en x, y [b, c]D tte p thn @QFSA prokptei ti |f (x) f (y)| < F r mnh llh perptwshD eni n qoume to x sto [a, b] ki to y sto [b, c]D ntistrfwF e ut thn perptwshD p thn @QFUA lmnoume ki pli |f (x) f (y)| < F 9erD h f eni omoimorf suneq sto [a, c]F
Jerhma 3.10
An h
@terhm HeineA
enai suneqc se na disthma thc morfc
[a, b],
tte enai kai omoimorfa
suneqc sto
[a, b].
t qrhsimopoisw pgwg se topoF 9istw pw h f den eni omoiE morf suneqF yrzw to disthm [a0 , b0 ] = [a, b]F r f den mpore n eni omoimorf suneq ki sto [a0 , a0 +b0 ] ki sto [ a0 +b0 , b0 ]D git prokptei topo p to prohgomeno 2 2 lmmF yrzw w [a1 , b1 ] to disthm pou h f den eni omoimorf suneqF wpor n suneqsw tsi ep9 peironD dhmiourgnt mi kolouj disthmtwn [an , bn ]F yrzw A = inf{bi }D pou uprqei git to snolo {bi } eni mh ken ki frgmno ktw p to a0 F 9istw > 0F efo h f (x) eni suneq sto AD uprqei > 0 ttoio ste
Apdeixh:
x (A , A + ) [a, b] |f (x) f (A)| . 2 9istw tr x, y (A , A + ) [a, b]F t qoumeX x (A , A + ) [a, b], x (A , A + ) [a, b] |f (x) f (A)| , |f (y) f (A)| |f (x) f (y)| . 2 2
TH
KEFALAIO 3.
SUNEQEIA
9erD podexme ti h f eni omoimorf suneq sto (A, A+)[a, b]D ki profn se opoiodpote uposnol touF 9er fts se topoD git p thn ktskeu tou AD uprqei n ujret mikrD kleist snolo th morf [an , bn ] ujret kont touD pou p thn ktskeu tou den eni omoimorf suneqF
Paratrhsh:
t sque to jerhm gi noikt (a, b)c
Jerhma 3.11
An h
f (x)
enai
@unqei Lipschitz ymoimorfh unqeiA Lipschitz sto disthma I , enai kai omoimorfa suneqc
sto
I.
Apdeixh:
ut9 okon ergsF
Paratrhsh:
wporete n rete mi sunrthsh pou n eni omoimorf suneq se kpoio I D ll qi Lipschitz suneqc
Keflaio 4
Pargwgoc
4.1
Orismc
Orismc 4.1
@rgwgo ki rgwgisimthtA
1. H pargwgoc
f (a)
orzetai wc to rio
f (a) = lim
efson to rio uprqei. Se aut 2. H dexi pargwgoc
f (a + h) f (a) , h0 h thn perptwsh, h f kaletai
paragwgsimh sto
a.
f+ (a)
orzetai wc to rio
f (a) = lim+
efson to rio uprqei. Se aut sto
f (a + h) f (a) , h0 h thn perptwsh, h f kaletai
dexi paragwgsimh
a. f (a)
orzetai anloga.
3. H arister pargwgoc
4. H arister kai h dexi pargwgoc kalontai ap koino pleurikc pargwgoi. 5. An h
enai paragwgsimh gia kje
se na disthma
(arister/dexi paragw-
gsimh sto antstoiqo kro, an aut periqetai sto sto
I ),
tte kaletai paragwgsimh
I,
kai msw tou nw orismo dhmiourgetai mia kainorgia sunrthsh, h
orismnh panto sto
I.
Giat mac endiafrei h pargwgoc wc nnoia?
IF th pusik ki llo pntti suqn h nnoi tou rujmo metol @tqthtD epitqunshD rujm nptuxhD kokFA pou ekfrzeti w prgwgoF
TI
TP
KEFALAIO 4.
PARAGWGOS
PF r prgwgo sundeti sten me to oloklrwm @pou eni qrsimo p mno tou gi pollo lgouFA QF r prgwgo eni sh llwn mjhmtikn montlwnD gi prdeigm twn merikn prggwn @h kumtik exswshD h exswsh didosh th jermthtD oi nmoi tou Maxwell ki pollo lloi fusiko nmoi ekfrzonti msw sqsewn metx merikn prggwn fusikn posottwnFA
Parathrseic
IF ikt ki n nfreti rhtD h prgwgo eni pepersmnhF PF r prgwgo eni o rujm metol th f sto aX
y y1
tan=f(a)
f(x)
y2 y3 y0 x a x3 x2 x1
y 1 y0 y2 y0 y3 y 0 , , , . . . f (a) kj xi a. x1 a x2 a x3 a
Pardeigma 4.1
orism:
An
f (x) = cx + b,
tte
f (x) = c.
Prgmati, efarmzontac ton
f (x) = lim
f (x + h) f (x) c(x + h) + b cx b = lim = c. h0 h0 h h
4.1.
ORISMOS
TQ
Pardeigma 4.2
An
f (x) = xn , me n jetik akraioi, tte f (x) = nxn1 .
Prgma-
ti, efarmzontac ton orism:
f (x + h) f (x) (x + h)n xn f (x) = lim = lim h0 h0 h h n1 n2 h (x + h) + (x + h) x + . . . + (x + h)xn2 + xn1 = lim = nxn1 . h0 h

Sthn nw, qrhsimopoisame th gnwst tautthta:
an bn = (a b)(an1 + an2 b + . . . + abn2 + bn1 ),

pou apodeiknetai ekola an anaptxoume to ginmeno tou dexio mlouc.
Pardeigma 4.3
tte
An
f (x) = sin x,
tte
f (x) = cos x.
Epshc, an
f (x) = cos x,
f (x) = sin x.
Prgmati, efarmzontac ton orism gia to
sin x,
qoume:
sin h sin(x + h) sin x h f (x) = lim = lim h 2 cos(x + ) = 1 cos x = cos x. h0 h0 h 2 2

Sthn nw, qrhsimopoisame th gnwst idithta
sin x sin y = 2 cos
x+y xy sin . 2 2
|x| x
H pargwgoc tou sunhmitnou upologzetai me parmoio trpo.
Pardeigma 4.4
An
x = 0.
Prgmati, stw
f (x) = |x|, x > 0. Tte
tte h
f (x) =
gia
x = 0,
en den orzetai gia
f (x) = lim
f (x + h) f (x) x+hx |x| = lim =1= . h0 h0 h h x h

enai arket mikr ste to
H deterh isthta isqei tan to
Parmoia upologzetai kai h pargwgoc gia
x < 0.
Antjeta, an
x + h na enai x = 0, qoume:
jetik.
f (x + h) f (x) h = lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1, h0 h0 h h0 h h f (x + h) f (x) lim = lim = lim 1 = 1. h0 h0 h h0 h lim+

'Ara uprqoun mno pleurikc pargwgoi, pou diafroun, ra to rio den uprqei. apotlesma enai diaisjhtik anamenmeno. To
TR
KEFALAIO 4.
PARAGWGOS
Sumbolismo
IF uqn grfoume thn f (x) w (f (x)) F 9erD mporome n gryoumeX
(cx + b) = c, (xn ) = nxn1 , (sin x) = cos x, (cos x) = sin x, kokF

PF en grfoume y = f (x)D tte mporome n sumolsoume thn prgwgo w y F QF y xetwn sumlize thn prgwgo th f w fF RF unhjzeti epsh n sumolzoume thn f w Dx f F SF ipsh grfoume
f (x) =
df (x) df (x) df (x) , f (a) = (a) = dx dx dx
.
x=a dy dx F
TF en grfoume y = f (x)D tte mporome n sumolsoume thn prgwgo w

Parathrseic
dy IF y sumolism dx prorqeti p to gegon tiD n qoume mi sunrthsh y = f (x)D tte mporome n orsoume ti diforX
x = h, y = f (x + h) f (x),
ki tte
f (x) = lim
f (x + h) f (x) y = lim x0 x h0 h
df (x)
dy . dx
rmoi ermhneeti o sumolism dx F yi sumolismo uto @ki soi lloi d szonti prmoi sto dx A klonti sumolismo tou LeibnizF PF dxD dy klonti diforikD ki mporome n t fntzmste sn peirost metolD tso mikr ste to phlko tou n isoti kri me thn prgwgo @ki qi perpouD pou j sque n pl tn pol mikrAF ergter j dome pw mporome n knoume prxei me t diforikF
Pardeigma 4.5
1. Na deiqje ti
( x) =
1 2 x
gia
x > 0,
gia
en gia
x=0
h dexi pargwgoc enai
+.
2.
( |x|) =
|x| 1 x 2 |x|
x = 0,
en gia
x=0
to antstoiqo rio den uprqei.
4.1.
ORISMOS
TS
3.
1 x
1 = x2
gia
x = 0.
Lsh:
9eskhshF
Poia ap ta aklouja ria mporon na qrhsimopoihjon wc enal-
Pardeigma 4.6
laktikc orismc thc paraggou? 1.
ha
lim f (h)f (a) . ha
2.
h0
lim f (a)f (ah) . h
3.
h0
lim f (a+2h)f (a) . 2h lim f (a+2h)f (a) . h lim f (a+6h)f (a+5h) . h

2
4.
h0
5.
h0
6.
h0
)f lim f (a+hh2 (a) .
7.
h0
lim f (a+hh)f (a) . lim f (a+h)f (a) . h2

9eskhshF
8.
h0
Lsh:
Orismc 4.2
@rgwgoi enterwn xewnA An mia sunrthsh f qei pargwgo f panto se na disthma, mporome na exetsoume thn parxh thc paraggou thc f . H (f ) kaletai deterh pargwgoc, kai sumbolzetai wc f . Parmoia mporome na orzoume thn trth pargwgo, thn ttarth pargwgo, kai genikc thn pargwgo n txhc.
Sumbolismo
rgwgo umF f rth f (x) heterh f (x) rth f (x) nEost f (n) (x)
umF xetwn umF y y y y y FFF y y y (n) y (n)
umF D umF Leibniz dy Dx f (x) dx d2 y 2 Dx f (x) dx2 d3 y 3 Dx f (x) dx3 d4 y n Dx f (x) dx4
TT
KEFALAIO 4.
PARAGWGOS
4.2
Basikc Idithtec Paraggwn
Jerhma 4.1
@rgwgisimtht unqeiA An h f (a) uprqei, tte h f enai suneqc sto a. (Epshc, arister pargwgoc sto a, h sunrthsh enai antstoiqa dexi
Apdeixh:
an uprqei h dexi h arister suneqc.)
rthrste ti
f (x) = f (a) +
9er
f (x) f (a) (x a), x = a. xa
xa
lim f (x) = lim f (a) +
f (x) f (a) (x a) xa xa f (x) f (a) lim (x a) = lim f (a) + lim xa xa xa xa = f (a) + f (a) 0 = f (a).
r pdeixh gi ti periptsei th dexi rister sunqei prlepetiF

Jerhma 4.2
'Estw 1. 2. 3. 4.
@rgwgoi elgerikn undusmn unrtsewnA k, c1 , c2 , . . . , cn stajerc kai f, g, h1 , h2 , . . . , hn sunartseic.
(f + g) = f + g . (kf ) = kf (
n i=1 ci hi )
.
n i=1 ci hi .
(f g) = f g + f g .
1 g f g g = g2 ,
efson
5.
g(x) = 0. g(x) = 0.
6.
f gf g g2
, efson
(Me ta nw, ennoome ti an uprqoun ta dexi mlh, se na shmeo se na disthma, uprqoun kai ta arister mlh, sto antstoiqo shmeo disthma.)
t dexoume mno thn istht se shmeF r genkeush gi distmt prokptei utmtF

Apdeixh:
4.2.
BASIKES IDIOTHTES PAR AGWGWN
TU
IF 9istw pw uprqoun oi f (x)D g (x) se kpoio shmeo xF 9iqoumeX
(f (x + h) + g(x + h)) (f (x) + g(x)) f (x + h) f (x) g(x + h) g(x) = + . h h h

uj h 0D to prto klsm sugklnei sto f (x) ki to detero klsm sugE klnei sto g (x)F 9er to rister sklo sugklnei sto f (x) + g (x)F PF rmoiF QF rhsimopoint t prt do sklhD ekol mporome n dexoume ti h istht isqei gi n = 2X
(c1 h1 + c2 h2 ) = (c1 h1 ) + (c2 h2 ) = c1 h1 + c2 h2 .

@qi thn prth istht qrhsimopoisme to prto skloD ki gi thn deterh to deteroFA r genik perptwsh prokptei me pl qrsh epgwgF RF 9eskhshF SF rthrome pwX
h0
lim
1 g(x+h)
1 g(x)
= lim
1 g(x + h) g(x) 1 h0 h g(x) g(x + h) g(x + h) g(x) 1 1 = lim lim lim h0 h0 g(x) h0 g(x + h) h 1 1 g (x) = g (x) = 2 . g(x) g(x) g (x)
TF rokptei me efrmog twn prohgomenwn do skelnF
Paratrhsh:
o terhm RFP isqei ki sthn perptwsh pou uprqoun mno oi risterD mno oi dexi prgwgoiF
Pardeigma 4.7
(xn ) = nxn1 (xn ) =
kai gia
n < 0,
kai efson
x = 0.
Prgmati,
1 x|n|
|n|x|n|1 = nxn1 . 2|n| x
TV
KEFALAIO 4.
PARAGWGOS
Jerhma 4.3
@unn th elusdA
'Estw h snjeth sunrthsh
h(x) = f (g(x)) = f g(x).

'Estw ti uprqoun oi pargwgoi
f (g(x0 ))
kai
g (x0 ).
Tte uprqei kai h pargwgoc
h (x0 ),
kai mlista isotai me
h (x0 ) = f (g(x0 ))g (x0 ).

Paratrhsh:
we sumolism LeibnizD h exswsh prnei th morf
df dx
D pio plD
=
x0
df dg
g(x0 )
dg dx
,
x0
df df dg = . dx dg dx pou ekol mporome n jummsteD ki epiplon m dnei ki th swst fusik diE sjhsh @dete ki to prdeigm pou koloujeFA
Pardeigma 4.8
Aut th stigm fousknw na mpalni me rujm
st an deuterlepto. Aut th stigm h aktna tou mpalonio
50 kubik ekatodieurnetai me rujm 10
qiliost an kubik ekatost. Erthsh: me poio rujm, se qiliost an deuterlepto, auxnetai h aktna tou mpalonio? Apnthsh: kubik ekatost deuterlepto qiliost kubik ekatost qiliost deuterlepto
50
10
= 500
@RFIA
An katalbate ton nw sullogism, qete katalbei ton kanna thc alusdac. Prgmati: An 1. 2. 3. tte 1.
enai o qrnoc, kai
x0
enai o qrnoc tra,
g(x) f (g)
enai o gkoc sunartsei tou qrnou enai aktna sunartsei tou gkou
x,
g,
h(x) = f (g(x))
enai h aktna sunartsei tou qrnou
x.
4.2.
TW
2.
g (x)
enai o rujmc axhshc tou gkou sunartsei tou qrnou.
3.
f (g(x))
kai gko
enai o rujmc axhshc thc aktnac sunartsei tou gkou
sto qrno
g(x).
4.
h (x)
enai o rujmc axhshc thc aktnac sunartsei tou qrnou.
H ekfnhsh mac dnei ti: kubik ekatost deuterlepto
1. Aut th stigm,
x0 , g (x0 ) = 50
2. Gia autn ton gko,
g(x0 ), f (g(x0 )) = 10
qiliost kubik ekatost
kai mac zht ton rujm axhshc thc aktnac stigm
h(g(x))
sunartsei tou qrnou
aut th
x0 ,
dhlad to
h (x0 ). h (x0 ) = f (g(x0 ))g (x0 ),
H exswsh (4.1), pou bgzoume me koin logik, shmanei:
dhlad tautzetai me aut pou lei o Kannac thc Alusdac.
t dsoume do podexeiD mi ljo ki mi swstF r ljo qei th dik th qrhsimthtF Ljoc apdeixh: ekinme me th ljo pdeixhD prthrnt pwX
Apdeixh:
f (g(x0 + h)) f (g(x0 )) f (g(x0 + h)) f (g(x0 )) g(x0 + h) g(x0 ) = . h g(x0 + h) g(x0 ) h
9ymw
@RFPA
g(x0 + h) g(x0 ) = g (x), h0 h en gi to prto phlko prthrome ti h g(x) eni suneqD w prgwgsimhD r kj h 0 qoume g(x0 + h) g(x0 ) r to phlko tenei sto f (g(x0 ))F 9er prnont rio w pro hD prokptei to zhtomenoF o ljo m eni ti mpore g(x0 + h) = g(x0 ) gi tim tou h = 0 ujret kont sto 0F e ut thn perptwshD h sqsh @RFPA den isqei gi kpoio disthm grw p to h = 0D exiroumnou tou h = 0D pw piteti p ton orism tou orouF 9in pl trpo n ktlete ti phgnei str eni n prospjsete efrmsete thn nw mjodo sthn eidik perptwsh pou g(x) = cF lim
UH
KEFALAIO 4.
PARAGWGOS
Swst Apdeixh:
yrzoume thn sunrthsh

f (g(x0 )+t)f (g(x0 )) t
s(t) =
gi thn opo qoumeX
0,
f (g(x0 )), t = 0, t = 0,
lims(t) = lim
t0
f (g(x0 ) + t) f (g(x0 )) f (g(x0 )) = 0 = s(0). t0 t
9erD h s(t) eni suneq sto 0F rthrste epsh ti gi kje t @ki gi t = 0A
f (g(x0 ) + t) f (g(x0 )) = t [s(t) + f (g(x0 ))] ,

ki jtont t = g(x0 + h) g(x0 ) qoumeX
f (g(x0 + h)) f (g(x0 )) = (g(x0 + h) g(x0 )) [s(g(x0 + h) g(x0 )) + f (g(x0 ))] .

hiirnt me hD qoumeX
f (g(x0 + h)) f (g(x0 )) g(x0 + h) g(x0 ) = [s(g(x0 + h) g(x0 )) + f (g(x0 ))] . h h @RFQA 9ymwD g(x0 + h) g(x0 ) lim = g (x0 ), h0 h en
h0
lim [s(g(x0 + h) g(x0 )) + f (g(x0 ))] = lim [s(g(x0 + h) g(x0 ))] + f (g(x0 ))
h0
= s(lim g(x0 + h) g(x0 )) + f (g(x0 ))

h0
= s(0) + f (g(x0 )) = 0 + f (g(x0 )) = f (g(x0 )).

thn deterh grmm qrhsimopoisme th sunqei th s sto 0D en sthn trth grmm th sunqei th g sto x0 D pou prokptei p to ti h g(x) eni diforsimh sto x0 F ifrmzont t nw ri sthn @RFQAD prokptei to zhtomenoF
Paradegmata:
IF en f (x) = sin(x2 ) tte f (x) = 2x cos(x2 )F
4.2.
UI
PF en f (x) = (sin x) tte f (x) = 2 sin x cos xF QF 9istw ti uprqei sunrthsh y(x) orismnh se kpoio disthm a < x < bD ki prgwgsimh se utD gi thn opo x2 + y 2 = r2 F teD prnont prggou w pro xD qoumeX
x 2x + 2yy = 0 y = , y = 0. y
to teleuto prdeigmD den gnwrzoume thn morf th y D ll pr9 l ut mporome n pome kti gi thn prgwg thF o potlesm qei nhm mno n h prgwgisimtht th y m qei exsflisje ek twn protrwnF
UP
KEFALAIO 4.
PARAGWGOS
4.3
Pargwgoc Antstrofhc Sunrthshc
Jerhma 4.4
@rgwgo entstrofh unrthshA 'Estw f : [a, b] R gnhswc montonh kai suneqc. Gia kje x0 (a, b) gia to opoo uprqei h pargwgoc f (x0 ) kai f (x0 ) = 0, uprqei kai h pargwgoc thc antstrofhc f 1 (y) g(y) sto shmeo y0 = f (x0 ), kai isqei
g (y0 ) =
Parathrseic
1 . f (x0 )
IF we sumolism LeibnizD to nw jerhm qei thn kloujh morfX
dx 1 = dy , dy dx
pou moizei me tetrimmnh lgerik idithtD ll den eniF r omoitht i den eni tuqF PF hiisjhtikD to potlesm eni nmenmenoF 9istw ti t x ki y sqetzonti msw mi sunrthsh y = f (x) x = f 1 (y)F enD metllont to x kt x to y metlleti ktD pomeD y = 2xD tte n metlloume to y kt 1 y D eni nmenmeno to x n llxei perpou kt 2 y F to rio x, y 0D prokptei to jerhmF QF wpore mi gnhsw montonh sunrthsh n qei kpou mhdenik prgwgoc RF o jerhm mpore n genikeute ki tn to x0 = a x0 = bD me ton profn trpoF t podexoume thn sqsh gi thn perptwsh pou h f @r ki h ntE strof thA eni gnhsw xousF r perptwsh gnhsw fjnous f ntimetwpzeti nlogF ulomste n upologsoume to rio
Apdeixh:
f 1 (y0 + h) f 1 (y0 ) lim . h0 h

qi kje y0 + hD pou h rkontw mikrD mporome n gryoume
y0 + h = f (x0 + k(h)) k(h) = f 1 (y0 + h) f 1 (y0 ),
4.3.
PARAGWGOS ANTISTROFHS SUNARTHSHS
UQ
pou k(h) eni mi suneq sunrthsh @fo h f 1 eni suneqA me k(0) = 0F ipiE plonD k(h) = 0 mno gi h = 0D lli ftnw se topo qrhsimopoint thn gnsi monotoniktht th f F 9er to rio mpore n grfe
f 1 (y0 + h) f 1 (y0 ) f 1 (f (x0 + k(h))) x0 = lim h0 h0 h f (x0 + k(h)) y0 k(h) 1 = lim = lim f (x +k(h))f (x ) . 0 0 h0 f (x0 + k(h)) f (x0 ) h0 lim
k(h)
rthrste ti kj h 0D qoume k(h) 0D r to teleuto rio isoti me (f (x0 ))1 F eut eni diisjhtik profnF en jloume n to dexoume ki poltw usthrD mporome n orsoume th sunrthsh 1 f (x +k)f (x ) , k = 0, 0 0 k l(k) = 1 , k = 0. f (x0 ) r l(k) eni suneqD rD p gnwst jerhm gi th snjesh sunrtsewnD j qoumeX
h0
lim l(k(h)) = l(lim k(h)) = l(0) =

h0
1 . f (x0 )
Pardeigma 4.9
An
q N
1 q
kai perittc, tte

1 q 1 gia kje
(x q ) = 1 x q 1 q
gia kje
x = 0.
An
qN
kai rtioc, tte
(x ) = 1 x q
x > 0.
9istw q peritt @h perptwsh rtiou q eni nloghAF r sunrthsh f (x) = xq eni suneq ki gnhsw xous sto RD ki qei w ntstrofh thn suneq ki gnhsw 1 xous f 1 (y) = y q F qi kje x = 0 h prgwgo f (x) = qxq1 = 0F 9erD p to nw jerhmD h ntstrofh sunrthsh f 1 (y) j qei prgwgoD gi y = 0D
Lsh:
(y q ) = (f 1 ) (y) =
1 1 1 1 = q1 = y q 1 . qxq1 q qy q
Pardeigma 4.10
An
An
p, q N
p q
kai
perittc, tte
p q 1 gia kje
(x q ) = p x q 1 q
gia kje
x = 0.
p, q N
kai
rtioc, tte
(x ) = p x q
x > 0.
UR
KEFALAIO 4.
PARAGWGOS
9istw q peritt @h perptwsh rtiou q eni nloghAF we qrsh tou knn lusd qoumeX
Lsh:
f (x) =
xq
= p xq
p1
1 1 1 p [ p 1 + 1 1] p p 1 xq = x q q q = xq . q q q
Orismc 4.3
@entstrofe rigwnometrik unrtseiA
1. H sunrthsh
f (x) = sin x,
x , 2 2
enai gnhswc axousa kai suneqc, ra, h antstrofh sunrthsh
f 1 (y) = arcsin y, 1 y 1,
enai gnhswc axousa kai suneqc.
2. H sunrthsh
f (x) = cos x, 0 x ,
enai gnhswc fjnousa kai suneqc, ra, h antstrofh sunrthsh
f 1 (y) = arccos y, 1 y 1,
enai gnhswc fjnousa kai suneqc.
3. H sunrthsh
f (x) = tan x,
<x< , 2 2
enai gnhswc axousa kai suneqc, ra, h antstrofh sunrthsh
f 1 (y) = arctan y, y R,
enai gnhswc axousa kai suneqc.
4.3.
PARAGWGOS ANTISTROFHS SUNARTHSHS
US
sin(x) 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 0 x cos(x) 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0 1 x tan(x) 5 1 0 1 1 0 x 1 5 2 3 1 0 1 3 2 1 1 0.5 1 0 1
arcsin(y)
0 y arccos(y)
0.5
0.5
0 y arctan(y)
0.5
0 y
UT
KEFALAIO 4.
PARAGWGOS
'Askhsh:
(Pargwgoi twn Antstrofwn Trigwnometrikn Sunartsewn)
x deiqje ti isqoun t kloujX
(arcsin y) = (arccos y) =
1 1 y2 1
, 1 < y < 1,
, 1 < y < 1, 1 y2 1 , y R. (arctan y) = 1 + y2
4.4.
JEWRHMA MESHS TIMHS
UU
4.4
Jerhma Mshc Timc
@engk unjkh se rgwgsimo ekrttoA 'Estw f orismnh kai paragwgsimh se disthma (a, b). An h f qei sto c (a, b) prpei f (c) = 0.
Jerhma 4.5 Paratrhsh:
topik akrtato
feiwjete ti qete ktlei ti lei to jerhm3 o epmeno sqm mpore n s dieukolnei sthn ktnhshF rthrste ti sumnei st shme A w F F
y B D
C E F
Apdeixh:
9istw h sunrthsh
Q(x) =
f (x)f (c) xc ,
f (c),
x = c, x = c,
pou eni suneq sto c lgw prxh th prggou th f sto cF hikrnw periptE seiX IF 9istw pw f (c) = Q(c) > 0F te p to vmm QFQ prokptei pw uprqei ttoio ste |x c| < Q(x) > 0. 9er n x (c, c + ) p ton orism th Q(x) prokptei ti f (x) f (c) > 0D en n x (c , c) ki pli p ton orism th Q(x) prokptei ti f (x) < f (c)F 9er to c den eni krttoD ki prokptei topoF
UV
KEFALAIO 4.
PARAGWGOS
PF 9istw pw f (c) = Q(c) < 0F we prmoio trpoD ki pli mporome n dexoume topoF QF 9er ngkstik f (c) = Q(c) = 0F
Jerhma 4.6
@RolleA 'Estw f suneqc sto [a, b] kai me pargwgo uprqei c (a, b) ttoio ste f (c) = 0.
panto sto
(a, b).
An
f (a) = f (b),
tte
f(c1)=0
f(a)=f(b) f(c2)=0 a c1 c2 b
9istw pw den isqei to jerhmD ki pw f (x) = 0 gi kje x (a, b)F ep to prohgomeno jerhmD den mpor n qw topik krtto ent tou (a, b)F 9ymwD epsh p prohgomeno jerhmD to terhm twn ekrottwnD uprqoun @olikA mgist ki elqist ent tou [a, b]F 9er qoume mgisto ki elqisto st aD bD ki epeid f (a) = f (b)D j qoumeX
Apdeixh:
min f (x) = f (a) = f (b) = max f (x) f (x) = f (a) x (a, b),
x[a,b] x[a,b]
r j prpei f (x) = 0 pnto sto x (a, b) pou eni topoF

Jerhma 4.7
'Estw ste
@wsh imA f suneqc sto [a, b] kai me
pargwgo sto
(a, b).
Tte uprqei
c (a, b)
ttoio
f (b) f (a) = f (c)(b a).
4.4.
JEWRHMA MESHS TIMHS
UW
Apdeixh:
9istw h sunrthsh
h(x) = (b a)f (x) x [f (b) f (a)] .

rthrome pw h h(x) eni suneq sto [a, b] ki prgwgsimh sto (a, b)F ipiplonD
h(a) = bf (a) af (a) af (b) + af (a) = bf (a) af (b), h(b) = bf (b) af (b) bf (b) + bf (a) = bf (a) af (b) = h(a).
9erD iknopoionti oi pitsei tou tewrmto RolleD r uprqei kpoio c ttoio ste
h (c) = 0 f (c)(b a) [f (b) f (a)] = 0 f (c) =
f (b) f (a) . ba
f(b)
y f(c1)=[f(b)-f(a)]/[b-a]
f(a)
f(c2)=[f(b)-f(a)]/[b-a]
x a c1 c2 b
Prisma 4.1
@whdenik rggouA 'Estw f suneqc sto [a, b] kai me pargwgo f (x) = 0 enai stajer sto [a, b].
Apdeixh:
panto sto
(a, b).
Tte h
f (x)
9istw do opoidpote x1 < x2 [a, b]F ssqoun oi propojsei tou tewrmto wsh im gi thn sunrthsh orismnh sto disthm [x1 , x2 ]D r j uprqei kpoio c (x1 , x2 ) ttoio ste
f (x2 ) f (x1 ) = f (c)(x2 x1 ) = 0 f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
VH
KEFALAIO 4.
PARAGWGOS
@wsh im CauchyA An oi f (x), g(x) suneqec sto [a, b] kai paragwgsimec c (a, b) ttoioc ste
Jerhma 4.8
sto
(a, b),
tte uprqei arijmc
[f (b) f (a)]g (c) = [g(b) g(a)]f (c).

Apdeixh:
9istw h sunrthsh
h(x) = f (x)[g(b) g(a)] g(x)[f (b) f (a)].

r h(x) eni suneq sto [a, b]D prgwgsimh sto (a, b)D ki
h(a) = f (a)g(b) g(a)f (b) = h(b).

9erD mpor n efrmsw to terhm tou RolleD p to opoo prokptei ti uprqei c (a, b) ttoio ste
0 = f (x)[g(b) g(a)] g (x)[f (b) f (a)],

4.5.
PARAGOUSES
VI
4.5
Pargousec
@rgousA 'Estw sunrthsh f (x) orismnh se na disthma I . sto I isqei ti F (x) = f (x) gia kje x I , tte antipargwgoc arqik sunrthsh) thc f sto I .
Orismc 4.4 Parathrseic
An gia kpoia h
F (x)
orismnh
F (x)
kaletai pargousa (
IF en to I perilmnei kpoio kroD h prgwgo F (x) eke ennoeti ti eni h pleurikF PF hen qoun le oi sunrtsei prgous se kpoio disthm I F QF ell qoun le oi suneqeD pw j dome sntomF RF ekm ki tteD mpore n eni dnto n rome tpo gi thn prgousF SF en h F (x) eni prgous th f (x)D tte eni ki h F (x) + C gi kje C RF entistrfwD n oi F1 (x) ki F2 (x) eni prgouse th f (x)D ngkstik
((F1 (x) F2 (x)) = f (x) f (x) = 0,

r p to rism th whdenik rggouD
F1 (x) F2 (x) = C F1 (x) = F2 (x) + C.

@umolism LeibnizA An h f qei kpoia pargousa F sto I , to snolo twn paragousn F (x)+C
Orismc 4.5
me
sumbolzetai
f (x) dx
kai kaletai aristo oloklrwma ( genik antipargwgoc) . 'Ara:
f (x) dx = F (x) + C F (x) = f (x).

Pardeigma 4.11
cos x dx = sin x + C, x5 + C. x dx = 5
4
VP
KEFALAIO 4.
PARAGWGOS
Parathrseic
IF uqn se exissei pw ti nwD to disthm I prlepeti ll uponoetiF PF o risto oloklrwm eni suntomogrf gi oikognei sunrtsewnF 9itsiD gi prdeigmD h exswsh
af (x) dx = a
f (x) dx = aF (x) + C
shmnei ti n h f (x) qei prgous thn F (x) tte h oikognei prgousn th af (x) eni h aF (x) + C F
Jerhma 4.9
An oi
f, g
qoun
@qrmmiktht rgousA pargousec sto I , tte qei kai
af + bg
kai mlista
[af (x) + bg(x)] dx = a

Apdeixh:
f (x) dx + b
g(x) dx.
rlepetiF
Jerhma 4.10
@unn th elusdA 'Estw g(x) paragwgsimh sto I , kai f orismnh sto J me antipargwgo F . 'Estw pwc to pedo timn g(I) J . Tte h f (g(x))g (x) : I R qei pargousa sto I thn F (g(x)) kai aristo oloklrwma:
f (g(x))g (x) dx = F (g(x)) + C.

Apdeixh:
@RFRA
rokptei p ton knn th lusdD prgwgzont thn F (g(x))F r @RFRA suqn grfeti w
Paratrhsh:
f (u)du = F (u) + C,
pou u ennoeti ti eni poi sunrthsh g(x) jloume pou iknopoie ti sunjke tou jewrmto ki du g (x)dxF
Pardeigma 4.12
x sin x2 dx =
pou
1 1 sin(x2 )2x dx = 2 2
kai
1 1 sin u du = cos u+C = cos x2 +C, 2 2
u = g(x) = x2
du = g (x)dx = 2xdx.
4.5.
PARAGOUSES
VQ
Jerhma 4.11
kai oi
@yloklrwsh kt rgonteA f g , f g qoun pargousec sto I , tte
An oi
f, g
enai paragwgsimec sto
f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x)

Apdeixh:
f (x)g(x) dx.
o jerhm shmnei ti mporome n upologsoume mi prgous th f g firnt p thn f g mi prgous th f g F r pdeixh prokptei ekol prE thrnt ti (f g) = f g + f g .
Pardeigma 4.13
Na upologiston ta
I1 =
Lsh:
x sin x dx,
I2 =
x cos x dx,
I3 =
x2 sin x dx.
IF
I1 =
x sin x dx =
x ( cos x) dx =
x(cos x) dx cos x dx = x cos x + sin x + C.
= x cos x +
PF
cos x(x) dx = x cos x +
I2 =
x cos x dx =
x(sin x) dx = x sin x = x sin x
x sin x dx sin x dx = x sin x + cos x + C.
QF
I3 =
x2 sin dx =
x2 (cos x) dx = x2 cos x +
cos x(x2 ) dx
= x2 cos x+2
x cos x dx = x2 cos x+2I2 = x2 cos x+2x sin x+2 cos x+C.
VR
KEFALAIO 4.
PARAGWGOS
Keflaio 5
Efarmogc Paraggou
5.1
Proseggseic kai Diaforik
y f(x)
y=f(x0)+f(x0)(x-x0)
Paratrhsh:
efo
f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) = f (x0 ), h0 h lim

VS
VT
KEFALAIO 5.
EFARMOGES PAR AGWGOU
eni logik n qoumeD tn to h eni mikrX
f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) h
en jsw x
f (x0 ).
hD ki f
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )D prokptei f (x0 ) + f (x0 )x = f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 ).

@SFIA
f (x0 )x f (x)
qi prdeigmD
1 1 0.1 4.1 2 + 0.1 = 2.025, 2 4 2 4 en sthn prgmtiktht 4.1 = 2.0248F wi grfik exghsh fneti sto nw sqmX hhldD nt n qrhsimopoisoume thn di th sunrthsh gi ton upologism mi tim thD qrhsimopoiome mi grmmik prosggis thF to sqmD to sflm isoti me to mko th kjeth mrh grmmD ki eni mikr tn x x0 F 9erD n eni ekolo n upologsoume to f (x0 )D mporome n upologsoume proE seggistikD se tim jloumeD kont sto x0 D qrhsimopoint thn plD grmmik exswsh @SFIAF 1 Pardeigma 5.1 Gia thn perptwsh f (x) = x, f (x) = 2x , x0 = 2, lambnoume: 4.1 4 x f (x) = x f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 ) 3 1.7321 1.75 3.9 1.9748 1.975 3.99 1.9975 1.9975 4 2 2 4.01 2.0025 2.0025 4.1 2.0248 2.025 5 2.2361 2.25
Orismc 5.1
'Estw Sflma
0.0179 1.5823 104 1.5645 106 0 1.5605 106 1.5433 104 0.0139 f (x0 ).
@ifptmenh iujeA y = f (x) sunrthsh paragwgsimh
sto
x0 ,
me pargwgo
H eujea
f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 )

kaletai efaptmenh thc
f (x)
sto shmeo
(x0 , f (x0 )).
5.1.
PROSEGGISEIS KAI DIAFORIKA
VU
Orismc 5.2
'Estw
@hiforikA
paragwgsimh sunrthsh thc metablhtc
y = f (x)
metabol, se sqsh me kpoio 1. To diaforik
x0 ,
kai
x. 'Estw x mia aujareth f (x0 + x) f (x0 ). Orzw ta aklouja
dx dy
x. f (x0 )dx.
2. To diaforik
Paratrhsh:
o diforik mi sunrthsh isoti proseggistik me thn metol f th sunrthsh gi mikr metol x = dx th nexrthth metlht x grw p to x0 F
Jerhma 5.1
@vogism me diforikA 'Estw k stajer, n jetikc akraioc, kai u, v ta diaforik se kpoio shmeo x0 :
sunartseic tou
x.
Isqoun ta exc, gia
dk = 0, d(ku) = kdu, d(u + v) = du + dv, d

Lsh:
vdu udv u = , dun = nun1 du. 2 v v
9eskhshF
VV
KEFALAIO 5.
5.2
H Mjodoc tou Netwna
Prblhma:
erijmhtik eresh th rz x mi sunrthsh f (x) me prgwgo f (x)F Basik ida: en mporome n upologsoume thn prgwgoD mporome n th qrhsiE mopoisoume gi n proseggsoume th rzD pw fneti sto kloujo sqmX
y f(x)
y0
x*
x0 x1=x0-f(x0)/f(x0)
y=f(x0)+f(x0)(x-x0)
to sqm fneti pwD xekinnt p mi rqik ektmhsh x0 gi th rz x D mpoE rome n rome mi klterh ektmhshD x1 D qrhsimopoint thn efptmenh eujeF y upologism mpore n epnlhfje poll forD dnont kje for n shmeo klE tero tou prohgomenou @elpzoumeAF unepD mporome n ektelsoume ton kloujo lgrijmoX
n=1; DO x(n)=x(n-1)-f(x(n-1))/f(x(n-1)); IF (x(n)-x(n-1)) < E, EXIT; END; n=n+1; END
5.2.
H MEJODOS TOU NEUTWNA
VW
Parathrseic
IF o E rujmzei pse poll epnlyei j gnounD ki thn krei pou j epiE tqoumeF PF r mjodo eni pol pio grgorh p th mjodo th diqotmhsh @klAF QF en den epilxoume rqik shmeo rket kont sth rzD tte mpore n mhn sugE klnoume potD km ki n fneti rqik ti uprqei sgklish @pol kkAF RF i j knme n eqme sth dijes m ki thn deterh prgwgoc i j qrhsiE mopoiosme nt gi thn eujec SF erisster st mjmt th erijmhtik enlushF
Jerhma 5.2
An h
@gklish wejdou NewtonA
f qei f (x ) = 0, sto x tsi
suneq deterh pargwgo, kai uprqei rza tte, an to
x0
enai arkontwc kont sto
x ttoia ste f (x ) = 0 all x , o nw algrijmoc sugklnei
ste se kje bma to sflma na enai to tetrgwno tou sflmatoc sto
prohgomeno bma.
Pardeigma 5.2
'Estw h sunrthsh
anazthsh miac rzac ap do
f (x) = cos(x) x, gia thn opoa xekinme thn diaforetik shmea, to x0 = 0 kai to x0 = 3. Sthn
prth perptwsh qw sgklish, qi mwc kai sth deterh!
WH
KEFALAIO 5.
cos(x)x 1 0
0.5 3 24
0.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1 x cos(x)x 1 1.2
60 40 20 0 20 40 60 60
01 2 4 6
40
20
0 x
20
40
60
5.3.
MONOTONIA KAI AKROTATA SUNARTHSEWN
WI
5.3
Monotona kai Akrtata Sunartsewn
Jerhma 5.3
'Estw
@skn uritri wonotonA sunrthsh f suneqc sto [a, b] kai paragwgsimh
sto
(a, b). [a, b]. [a, b].

(Prisma
1. An
f (x) > 0 f (x) < 0
gia kje
x (a, b), x (a, b),
tte h
f f
enai gnhswc axousa sto
2. An
gia kje
tte h
enai gnhswc fjnousa sto
3. An
f (x) = 0
gia kje
x (a, b),
tte h
enai stajer sto
[a, b].
Stajero Prosmou.)
Apdeixh:
IF 9istw x, y D me a x < y bF ep to terhm wsh im c (a, b) ttoio f (y)f (x) ste f (c) = yx F ipeid f (c) > 0D ngkstik f (x) < f (y)D ki h f eni gnhsw xousF PF enlogF QF 9iqei dh podeiqjeF
Jerhma 5.4
'Estw sto
@engko uritrio ekrottwnA

se disthma
f orismnh kai paragwgsimh c (a, b) prpei f (c) = 0.

9iqei dh podeiqjeF
(a, b).
An h
qei topik akrtato
Apdeixh:
Jerhma 5.5
Tte
@skn uritrio ekrttwnA 'Estw f suneqc sto [a, b] kai paragwgsimh sto (a, b), ektc swc ap kpoio c (a, b).
1. An
f (x) > 0 gia kje x < c kai f (x) < 0 gia kje x > c, tte h f (x) qei topik mgisto sto x = c. f (x) < 0 gia kje x < c kai f (x) > 0 gia kje x > c, tte h f (x) qei topik elqisto sto x = c.
2. An
Apdeixh:
WP
KEFALAIO 5.
IF en f (x) > 0 gi kje x (a, c)D tte p to prohgomeno jerhmD h f (x) eni xous sto [a, c]D r a x < c f (x) < f (c). ipiplonD n f (x) < 0 gi kje x (c, b)D tte p to prohgomeno jerhmD h f (x) eni fjnous sto [c, b]D r
c < x b f (x) < f (c).

unduzont ki t doD prokptei telik pw h f (x) qei topik mgisto sto cD to opoo mlist eni ki olik mgisto sto [a, b]F PF enlogF
Jerhma 5.6
@skn uritri ekrttwn heterh xhA 'Estw sunrthsh f paragwgsimh sto (a, b), me thn pargwgo sto (a, b).
1. An 2. An
epshc paragwgsimh
f (c) = 0 f (c) = 0
kai kai
f (x) < 0 f (x) > 0
sto sto
(a, b), (a, b),
tte h tte h
f (x) f (x)
qei topik mgisto sto qei topik elqisto sto
c. c.
Apdeixh:
IF e opoiodpote kleist snolo th morf [l, u] me a < l < c 0 gi l < x < cF 9erD p to terhm SFSD qoume topik mgisto sto cF PF enlogF
5.4.
KURTES SUNARTHSEIS
WQ
5.4
Kurtc Sunartseic
Orismc 5.3
@uurt ki uole unrtseiA
1. Mia sunrthsh
kaletai kurt se kpoio disthma
an
x0 , x1 I, [0, 1], f (x0 + (1 )x1 ) f (x0 ) + (1 )f (x1 ).

2. Mia sunrthsh
orismnh sto
kaletai kolh an h
enai kurt sto
I.
y f(x0) f(x0)+(1-)f(x1) f(x1) f(x0+(1-)x1) f(x) x x0 x0+(1-)x1 x1 y={[f(x1)-f(x0)]/[x1-x0]}(x-x0)+f(x0)
Paratrhsh:
qi n dsoume mi ermhne ston orismD prthrome ti h exswsh th euje pou dirqeti p t shme (x0 , f (x0 )) ki (x1 , f (x1 )) eni h kloujhX
f (x1 ) f (x0 ) (x x0 ) + f (x0 ). x1 x0 qi n peisteteD prthrste ti prgmti dirqeti ki p t do shmeF inllktiE kD prthreste ti dirqeti p to (x0 , f (x0 )) @ut eni profnA ki qei ki th swst klshF en sthn nw euje jsoume x = x0 + (1 )x1 D lmnoume y= y = f (x1 ) f (x0 ) (x0 + (1 )x1 x0 ) + f (x0 ) x1 x0 (1 )(x1 x0 ) = (f (x1 ) f (x0 )) + f (x0 ) x1 x0 = f (x0 ) + (1 )f (x1 ).
WR
KEFALAIO 5.
9erD me lgiX wi sunrthsh eni kurt nD pote trxoume mi qord nmes se do shme tou grfmto thD to grfhm metx twn shmewn den rsketi pot pnw p th qordF romowD h sunrthsh eni kolh n to grfhm den rsketi pot ktw p th qordF @irthshX n [0, 1]D pou rsketi to x = x0 + (1 )x1 cA
Paradegmata
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0 3 2 1 0 1 1 0.5 0 x 0.5 1 y y 1 2 x 3 4 y y
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1 0.5 0 x 0.5 1 0.5 0 x 0.5 1
5.4.
KURTES SUNARTHSEIS
WS
Pardeigma 5.3
@rxei pou dithron thn kurtthtA
1. An oi sunartseic h
f1 , f2 , . . . , fm enai kurtc se na disthma, tte enai kurt kai f = a1 f1 + a2 f2 + . . . + am fm pou ai 0. f1 , f2

enai kurtc se na disthma, enai kai h
2. An oi
max(f1 , f2 )?
min(f1 , f2 )?
Lsh:
IF
f (x0 + (1 )x1 ) = a1 f1 (x0 + (1 )x1 ) + a2 f2 (x0 + (1 )x1 ) + . . . + am fm (x0 + (1 )x1 ) a1 f1 (x0 ) + a1 (1 )f1 (x1 ) +a2 f2 (x0 ) + a2 (1 )f2 (x1 ) + . . . + am fm (x0 ) + am (1 )fm (x1 ) = [a1 f1 (x0 ) + a2 f2 (x0 ) + am fm (x0 )] +(1 ) [a1 f1 (x1 ) + a2 f2 (x1 ) + am fm (x1 )] = f (x0 ) + (1 )f (x1 ).
PF 9eskhshF
Jerhma 5.7
'Estw
@uritri uurtthtA f suneqc sto [a, b].
1. An h 2. An h
f f
uprqei sto uprqei sto
(a, b) (a, b)
kai enai axousa, tte h
enai kurt sto
[a, b]. [a, b].
kai enai mh arnhtik, tte h
enai kurt sto
Apdeixh:
IF 9istw x0 , x1 [a, b]D ki stw opoiodpote x = x0 + (1 )x1 (x0 , x1 )D me (0, 1)F ep to terhm wsh imD uprqoun c, d ttoi ste
f (x) f (x0 ) , c (x0 , x), x x0 f (x1 ) f (x) f (d) = , d (x0 , x). x1 x f (c) =
WT
KEFALAIO 5.
9ymw h f eni xousD r
f (c) f (d)
ipshD
f (x) f (x0 ) f (x1 ) f (x) . x x0 x1 x
x x0 = x0 + (1 )x1 x0 = (1 )(x1 x0 ), x1 x = x1 x0 (1 )x1 = (x1 x0 ).

ki me ntiktstsh sthn nw nistht qoume
f (x) f (x0 ) f (x1 ) f (x) f (x) f (x0 ) (1 )f (x1 ) (1 )f (x) 1 f (x) (1 )f (x1 ) + f (x0 ).
r nw profn isqei ki gi = 0, 1F 9er telik h f eni kurtF PF en h f uprqei sto (a, b) ki eni mh rnhtikD tte me efrmog tou tewrmto wsh im gi t shme x0 , x1 (a, b) prokptei pw uprqei kpoio c ttoio ste f (x1 ) f (x0 ) f (x0 ) f (x1 ), 0 f (c) = x1 x0 dhld h f (x) eni xousD ki mporome n qrhsimopoisoume to prohgomeno skloF
5.5.
KANONAS TOU
LHOPITAL
WU
5.5
Kannac tou
LHpital o
tte
Jerhma 5.8
An
xA
@unn tou LHpitalA o lim f (x) = lim g(x) = B kai lim f (x)/g (x) = C ,
xA xA
xA
lim f (x)/g(x) = C ,
pou
1. to 2. to
A B
enai na ap ta enai na ap ta
a, a , a+ , +, , 0, +, , l R, +, .
3. kai to
enai na ap ta
ipeid uprqoun poll periptseiD j podexoume mno to kloujoX

xa
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0, lim f (x)/g (x) = l R lim f (x)/g(x) = l.

xa xa xa
@SFPA
t qreistome to kloujo lmmX

Lmma 5.1 Apdeixh:
An
xa
lim b(x) = B
me
b(x) = B
kai
xB
lim f (x) = L,
tte
xa
lim f (b(x)) = L.
9istw
> 0F te j uprqei > 0 ttoio ste 0 < |x B| < |f (x) L| < .

@SFQA
qi to > 0D j uprqei > 0 ttoio ste
0 < |x a| < |b(x) B| < 0 < |b(x) B| < .
@SFRA
r teleut sunepgwg isqei git qei doje ti b(x) = B F unduzont ti @SFQAD @SFRAD prokptei ti gi to > 0 rkme > 0 ttoio ste
0 < |x a| < |f (b(x)) L| < ,

ki h pdeixh oloklhrjhkeF Apdeixh thc (5.2): ipeid uprqei to rio lim f (x)/g (x) = lD ngkstik j uprqei n snolo (a , a) (a, a + ) ttoio ste oi f (x), g (x) n uprqounD ki h g (x) = 0F @elliD den j mporome n isquristome thn prxh orouAF 9er oi f (x), g(x) eni suneqe sto (a, a)(a, a+)D ki n jsw f (a) = g(a) = 0D efson den isqei dh utD tte gnonti suneqe se lo to (a , a + )F @rthrste ti ut h endeqmenh llg sto a den ephrezei to potlesmFA rthrste ti epiplon g(x) = 0 sto (a , a + )F rgmtiD n uprqei kpoio x0 (a , a + ) me g(x0 ) = 0D p to terhm Rolle prokptei ti g (x1 ) = 0 me x1 (a , a + )D pou eni topoF
xa
WV
KEFALAIO 5.
ep to terhm wsh im tou CauchyD gi kje x (a, a + )D uprqei b(x) (a, x) ttoio ste
[f (x) 0]g (b(x)) = [g(x) 0]f (b(x))
f (x) f (b(x)) = . g(x) g (b(x))
ep to terhm wsh im tou CauchyD prokptei ti ki gi kje x (a , a) uprqei b(x) (x, a) ttoio ste n isqei h nwF f (x) ipeid lim g (x) = l ki lim b(x) = a me b(x) = aD p to nw lmm prokptei pw
xa xa
f (b(x)) f (x) = l lim = l. xa g (b(x)) xa g(x) lim
Pardeigma 5.4
1.
Brete ta aklouja ria:
x0
x lim tan x .
2.
x0
lim cos xx1 . 2

9eskhshF
Lsh:
Keflaio 6
Oloklrwma
6.1
Orismc
Orismc 6.1
@himerseiA
mia peperasmnh sullog sh-
1. 'Estw kleist disthma mewn
[a, b]. Kalome diamrish P = {t0 , t1 , . . . , tn } gia ta opoa isqei:
a = t0 < t1 < . . . < tn = b.

2. An
P , Q diamerseic me P Q, to Q kaletai eklptunsh tou P periqei to P .

@9enw ki utw ejrosmt DarbouxA f fragmnh sto [a, b] kai P = {t0 , t1 , . . . , tn } mia
kai lme ti to
Orismc 6.2
'Estw
diamrish tou
[a, b].
'Estw
mi Mi
1. To ktw jroisma (
inf{f (x) : ti1 x ti }, i = 1, 2, . . . , n, sup{f (x) : ti1 x ti }, i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Darboux)

thc
gia th diamrish
orzetai wc
L(f, P )
i=1
2. To nw jroisma (
mi (ti ti1 ).
gia th diamrish
Darboux)
thc
orzetai wc
U (f, P )
i=1
Mi (ti ti1 ).
WW
IHH
KEFALAIO 6.
OLOKLHRWMA
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0
6.1.
ORISMOS
IHI
Parathrseic
IF P = {partition}D L = {lower}D U = {upper}F PF mi , Mi sw n mhn uprqn n h f den tn frgmnhD n orzontn w elqist ki mgistF QF 9ytn f 0D to ktw @nwA jroism eni h epifnei metx tou grfmto ki tou xon twn x mi mh rnhtik klimkwt sunrthsh pou eni ktw @nwA p thn sunrthsh f ki efpteti se utF RF L(f, P ) U (f, P ) fo genik inf S sup S gi kje snoloD r ki gi t snol th morf [tk1 , tk ]F
Lmma 6.1
An h
@ejrosmt ikleptnsewnA Q periqei thn P , tte
L(f, P ) L(f, Q),

Apdeixh:
U (f, P ) U (f, Q).
rlepetiF @utw ejrosmt 9enw ejrosmtA
Jerhma 6.1
'Estw
P1 , P 2
do opoiesdpote diamerseic tou diastmatoc
[a, b].
Ja isqei:
L(f, P1 ) U (f, P2 ).
Apdeixh:
9istw P = P1 P2 F t qoumeX
L(f, P1 ) L(f, P ) U (f, P ) U (f, P2 ).

r prth ki h trth nistht prokptoun p to prohgomeno jerhmF r deterh eni profnF
Jerhma 6.2
Orzoume to
@9enw ki utw yloklrwm DarbouxA ktw oloklrwma Darboux thc f sto [a, b]
wc to
supremum
lwn twn
ktw ajroismtwn:
sup{L(f, P )}.
P
Epshc, orzoume to nw oloklrwma nw ajroismtwn:
Darboux thc f
P
sto
[a, b] wc to inmum lwn twn
inf {U (f, P )}.
IHP
KEFALAIO 6.
OLOKLHRWMA
Isqoun oi akloujec anisthtec:
sup{L(f, P )} inf {U (f, P )},

P P P
@TFIA @TFPA @TFQA
L(f, P ) sup{L(f, P )} U (f, P ), P , L(f, P ) inf {U (f, P )} U (f, P ), P .

P
ep to prohgomeno jerhmD prokptei ti opoiodpote mlo tou suE nlou {L(f, P )} eni mikrtero so p opoiodpote mlo tou sunlou {U (f, P )}F 9erD to supremum tou prtou sunlou ki to inmum tou deterou sunlou uprE qoun ki epiplon to supremum tou prtou sunlou eni mikrtero so tou inmum tou deterou sunlou @gnwst potlesmD pou szeti se pgwg se topoAF 9erD podexme thn @TFIAF ipeid ex orismo inf P {U (f, P )} U (f, P ) gi kje P D prokptei ki h deterh nistht th (6.2)D en h prth prokptei ex9 orismo tou supremum w nw frgE mtoF yi nisthte th @TFQA prokptoun prmoiF
Apdeixh: Parathrseic
IF feiwjete ti qete ktlei ti ekfrzoun to ktw ki to nw oloklrwmF PF 9iqoume do dunt periptseiX @A supP {L(f, P )} = inf P {U (f, P )}F @A supP {L(f, P )} < inf P {U (f, P )}F thn prth perptwshD o koin rijm diisjhtik ekfrzei thn epifneiD efE son f (x) 0F r deterh perptwsh eni pjologikD ll uprktF
Orismc 6.3
Mia sunrthsh
@yloklrwm ki yloklhrwsimtht kt DarbouxA f fragmnh sto [a, b] kaletai oloklhrsimh (kat Darboux)
an
sup{L(f, P )} = inf {U (f, P )}

P P
Se aut thn perptwsh, to koin aut frgma kaletai oloklrwma ( sumbolzetai wc
Darboux)
kai
f,
a
Ta
f (x) dx.
a
a, b
kalontai to ktw rio oloklrwshc kai to nw rio oloklrwshc antstoiqa.
6.1.
ORISMOS
IHQ
@inllktik yrism tou yloklhrmtoA Mia sunrthsh f fragmnh sto [a, b] enai oloklhrsimh me oloklrwma I enai o mondik arijmc me thn idithta
Jerhma 6.3
ann to
L(f, P ) I U (f, P )
gia lec tic diamerseic
P.
Apdeixh:
ini pl ki prlepetiF @tjer unrthshA x [a, b]. Na deiqje ti

b
Pardeigma 6.1
'Estw
f (x) = c,
gia
f = c(b a).
a
Lsh:
9eskhshF @unrthsh DirichletA sunrthsh f , orismnh sto [0, 1]:
Pardeigma 6.2
'Estw h akloujh
f (x) =
1, x Q [0, 1], 0, x (R Q) [0, 1].
Ekola mporome na dome ti h sunrthsh den enai poujen suneqc. Enai h sunrthsh oloklhrsimh?
Lsh:
9istw
opoiadpote
dimrish
P = {0 = t0 , t1 , . . . , tn = 1}.
ipeid se kje upodisthm [ti1 , ti ] th dimrish uprqei kpoio rhtD to supremum se ekeno to upodisthm j eni 1F 9erD
n
P, U (f, P ) =
i=1
1 (ti ti1 ) = 1 inf {U (f, P )} = 1.

P
o jroism plopoieti git eni thleskopikD dhld th morf
a1 a0 + a2 a1 + a3 a2 + . . . + an an1 = an a0 .
IHR
KEFALAIO 6.
OLOKLHRWMA
rthrste ti ekfrzei to jroism twn mhkn lwn twn disthmtwn th dimriE shD pou eni mondF r sunepgwg prokptei git n eni l t nw jrosmt s me th mondD j eni ki to inmum touF rmoiD se kje upodisthm th dimrish [ti1 , ti ] th dimrish uprqei kpoio rrhtoD r to inmum se ekeno to upodisthm j eni 0F 9erD
n
P, L(f, P ) =
i=1
0 (ti ti1 ) = 0 sup{L(f, P )} = 0.

P
9er h sunrthsh den eni oloklhrsimhD ki mlist qei nw ki ktw oloklhrmt Darboux inf {U (f, P )} = 1, sup{L(f, P )} = 0.
P P
6.2.
KRITHRIA OLOKLHRWSIMOTHTAS
IHS
6.2
Kritria Oloklhrwsimthtac
Jerhma 6.4
@skn ki engko uritrio DarbouxA 'Estw f fragmnh sto [a, b]. H f enai oloklhrsimh ann gia kje P tou [a, b] ttoia ste U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < . @A e upojsoume kt9 rqn ti gi kje ste n isqei h @TFRAF ipeid gi opoidpote P isqei
Apdeixh:
P P
uprqei diamrish
@TFRA
uprqei dimrish ttoi
inf {U (f, P )} U (f, P ), sup{L(f, P )} L(f, P ),

ki epiplon U (f, P ) > L(f, P )D j prpei n qoume ki
sup{L(f, P )} inf {U (f, P )} < .

P P
ipeid to nw isqei gi opoiodpote

P
> 0D j prpei n qoume

P
sup{L(f, P )} = inf {U (f, P )},
@TFSA
lli prokptei ekol ntfshF 9erD h f eni oloklhrsimhF @A 9istw tr ti h f eni oloklhrsimhD r isqei h @TFSAF 9istw > 0F ix9 orismo twn inmum ki supremumD j uprqoun dimersei P1 D P2 ttoie steX
U (f, P1 ) < inf {U (f, P )} + , L(f, P2 ) > sup{L(f, P )} , P 2 2 P

r
U (f, P2 ) L(f, P1 ) < .

yrzw thn dimrish P = P1 P2 D gi thn opo isqeiD p prohgomeno jerhmD ti
U (f, P ) U (f, P2 ), L(f, P ) L(f, P1 ),

r j isqei ki h @TFRAF
Pardeigma 6.3
'Estw
orismnh sto
[0, 2]
me
f (x) =
0, x = 1, 1, x = 1.
Na deiqje ti enai oloklhrsimh, kai na upologsete to oloklrwma thc.
IHT
KEFALAIO 6.
OLOKLHRWMA
Lsh:
utskeuzw thn ex dimrishX
P = {t0 = 0, t1 = 1 , t2 = 1 + , t3 = 2}. 3 3 qi th sugkekrimnh dimrishD profn L(f, P ) = 0 ki U (f, P ) = U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .
2 3
D r
ipeid to tn ujretoD p to terhm TFR prokptei ti h sunrthsh eni oloE klhrsimhF ipiplonD prthrste ti gi kje dimrish P D j qoume L(f, P ) = 0D r ki supP {L(f, P )} = 0D r
2
f = 0.
0
Pardeigma 6.4
dexete ti h
'Estw
orismnh sto
peperasmno arijm ap shmea,
[0, 2] me f (x) = 0 panto, x1 , x2 , . . . , xK , pou h f parnei timc
ektc ap na aujareta. Na
enai oloklhrsimh, kai na prosdiorsete to oloklrwma.
Lsh:
9eskhshF
oloklrwma
@skn ki engko uritrioA 'Estw f fragmnh sto [a, b]. H f enai oloklhrsimh me akoloujec ap diamerseic {Pn } kai {Qn } ttoiec ste
Lmma 6.2
ann uprqoun
L(f, Pn ) I, U (f, Qn ) I.
Apdeixh:
9eskhshF
'Estw
Pardeigma 6.5
orismnh sto
[0, b]
me
f (x) = x.
Na dexete ti h
enai
oloklhrsimh, kai na prosdiorsete to oloklrwma.
Lsh:
9istw h dimrish
b 2b ib nb , t2 = , . . . , ti = , . . . , tn = = b}. n n n n rofnD sto disthm [ti1 , ti ]D to inmum j isoti me ti1 F 9erD to ktw jroism isoti meX Pn = {t0 = 0, t1 =
n n
L(f, Pn ) =
i=1 n
ti1 (ti ti1 ) =

i=1
(i 1)b b n n
b2 (n 1)n b2 n 1 b2 (i 1) 2 = 2= . n 2 n n 2 i=1
6.2.
IHU
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5 1
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5 1
qm TFIX ktw ki nw jrosmt tou rdegmto TFS w epifneie klimkwtn sunrtE sewnF
IHV
KEFALAIO 6.
OLOKLHRWMA
thn ttrth isthtD qrhsimopohs thn gnwst sqsh

n
=
i=1
n(n + 1) . 2
we nlogo trpoD qoumeX

n n
U (f, Pn ) =
i=1 n
ti (ti ti1 ) =
i=1
ib b n n
=
i=1
b2 (n + 1)n b2 n + 1 b2 i 2= 2= . n 2 n n 2
b2 b2 U (f, Pn ) , L(f, Pn ) , 2 2 r p to kritrio tou vmmto TFP prokptei ti

b a
rthrome pw
b2 f= . 2
rthrste ti t ktw ki nw jrosmt isonti me t oloklhrmt klimE kwtn sunrtsewnD me dirk uxnmeno rijm epipdwnD oi opoe proseggsoun olon ki me meglterh krei thn f (x) p ktw ki p nw ntstoiqF
Pardeigma 6.6
'Estw
orismnh sto
[0, b]
me
f (x) = x2 .
Na dexete ti h
enai
oloklhrsimh, kai na prosdiorsete to oloklrwma.
Lsh:
9eskhshF
enai
Jerhma 6.5
An h
@unqei yloklhrwsimthtA suneqc sto [a, b], tte enai oloklhrsimh
sto
[a, b].
ep gnwst jerhmD w suneq se kleist ki frgmno disthmD h f eni ki frgmnhF ipiplonD fo h f (x) eni suneq sto kleist ki frgmno [a, b]D j eni ki omoimorf suneq sto [a, b]D dhld gi kje > 0 uprqei > 0 ttoio ste |x y| < |f (x) f (y)| < .
Apdeixh:
9istw tr
>0
(ba)
> 0F t uprqei > 0 ttoio ste ba .
|x y| < |f (x) f (y)| <
6.2.
IHW
ipilgoume dimrish P = {t0 , t1 , . . . , tn } ttoi ste |ti ti1 | < F 9erD
x, y [ti1 , ti ], |f (x) f (y)| <

r ki
ba
, (b a) pou Mi = sup{f (x) : ti1 x ti } = f (ui ) gi kpoio ui [ti1 , ti ]D lgw sunqeiD ki mi = inf{f (x) : ti1 x ti } = f (li ) gi kpoio li [ti1 , ti ]D epsh lgw sunqeiF 9erD gi to nw ki ktw jroism j qoumeX
n n
Mi mi 0 tn ujretoD p to uritrio tou Darboux prokptei ti h sunrthsh eni oloklhrsimhF @wonoton yloklhrwsimthtA 'Estw f fragmnh sto [a, b]. An h f enai montonh sto [a, b], simh sto [a, b].
Jerhma 6.6
tte enai kai oloklhr-
y f(b)
f(x)
f(a) a ti=a+i(b-a)/n b
qm TFPX epdeixh tou tewrmto TFTF
IIH
KEFALAIO 6.
OLOKLHRWMA
e upojsoume ti h f eni xousF @r pdeixh gi thn perptwsh pou eni fjnous eni entel nloghAF r sik id rskete sto qm TFPF 9istw dimrish
Apdeixh:
P = {t0 = a, t1 = a +
9iqoumeX
i(b a) n(b a) ba , . . . , ti = a + , . . . , tn = a + = b}. n n n

n n
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) =
i=1 m
Mi (ti ti1 )
i=1
mi (ti ti1 )
=
i=1
(Mi mi )(ti ti1 )

n
ba = n
(Mi mi )
i=1
ba = [f (x1 ) f (x0 ) + f (x2 ) f (x1 ) n + . . . + f (xn ) f (xn1 )] (b a) [f (b) f (a)] = . n

thn ttrth istht qrhsimopoisme to gegon ti h f eni xousD r se kE je disthm th dimrishD to supremum lmneti sto dex kroD ki to inmum sto risterF thn pmpth istht qrhsimopoisme to gegon ti to jroism eni thleskopikF fsei th nwD prokptei ti gi opoiodpote > 0D mpor n epilxw opoiodpote
(b a) [f (b) f (a)]
ki gi thn ntstoiqh dimrish j isqei
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .

ep to uritrio tou Darboux prokptei ti h sunrthsh eni oloklhrsimhF @rE trhshX h id th pdeixhD ki to sqmD nkoun ston xetwnFA
6.3.
IDIOTHTES OLOKLHRWMATOS
III
6.3
Idithtec Oloklhrmatoc
@yloklrwm sthn 9inwsh histhmtwnA 'Estw a < c < b. An h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b], tte enai oloklhrsimh kai sta [a, c], [c, b]. Antistrfwc, an h f enai oloklhrsimh sta [a, c], [c, b], tte enai oloklhrsimh kai sto [a, b]. Epshc, an h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b], tte
Jerhma 6.7
b c b
f=
a a
f+
c
f.
@TFTA
ut9 rqnD upojsoume ti h f eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]F 9istw kpoio > 0F ep to uritrio Darboux prokptei ti uprqei kpoi dimrish P ttoi ste U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .
Apdeixh:
ep to terhm TFI prokptei ti h nw exswsh j isqei ki n sthn dimrish prosjsoume to shmeo cD n den uprqei dhD ki proume mi n dimrish P X
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .

9istw h dimrish S pou lmneti p thn P n krtsoume l t shme mqri ki to cF 9istw epsh h dimrish T pou lmneti p thn P n krtsoume to c ki l t shme met p utF rofnD p ton orism twn nw ki ktw jroismtwnD qoumeX
L(f, P ) = L(f, S) + L(f, T ), U (f, P ) = U (f, S) + U (f, T ).

rthrste ti
[U (f, S) L(f, S)] + [U (f, T ) L(f, T )] = U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .

ipeid ki oi do roi tou ristero sklou eni jetikoD ngkstik ki oi do j eni mikrteroi tou F 9erD p to uritrio DarbouxD prokptei ti eni ki oi do oloklhrsimeF 9istw tr pw h f eni oloklhrsimh ki sto [a, c] ki sto [c, b]F 9istw > 0F t uprqoun dimersei S @sto [a, c]A ki T @sto [c, b]A ttoie ste
U (f, S) L(f, S) < U (f, T ) L(f, T ) <
2 2
, .
IIP
KEFALAIO 6.
OLOKLHRWMA
ep ti nwD prokptei ti gi thn dimrish P = S T tou [a, b] isqei
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) = U (f, S) + U (f, T ) [L(f, S) + L(f, T )] < ,

ki epeid to eni ujretoD prokptei ti h f eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]F qi n podexoume thn istht @TFTAD stw opoidpote dimrish P tou [a, b]D ki stw oi dimersei S tou [a, c]D ki T tou [c, b]D pou orzonti w nwF t isqeiX
c
L(f, S)
a b
f U (f, S), f U (f, T ),

c
L(f, T )
ki me prsjesh twn nw prokptei ti
c
L(f, P ) = L(f, S) + L(f, T )

a
f+
c
f U (f, S) + U (f, T ) = U (f, P ).
9ymw prthrome pw to dimrish P D isqei
b a f
eni o mondik rijm gi ton opooD gi opoidpote

b
L(f, P )
a
f U (f, P ).
9er j prpei n isqei h @TFTAF

Orismc 6.4
@eujret 9yri yloklrwshA

a b a
f
a
0,
a
f,
an
a > b.
Lmma 6.3
Gia kje
@yloklrwm sthn {9inwsh} histhmtwnA a, b, c R, isqei

c b b
f+
a c
efson uprqoun la ta nw oloklhrmata.
f=
a
Lsh:
rnoume periptsei sqetik me th merik ditxh twn a, b, cD ki efrmzoume to prohgomeno jerhmF qi prdeigmD stw a < b < cF teX
b c c b c c c b
f+
a b
f=
a
f
a
f=
a
f
b
f=
a
f+
c
f
b c b
f=
a
f+
c
f.
6.3.
IIQ
f(x)+g(x) inf (f(x)+g(x)) inf f(x) a inf g(x) g(x)
f(x)
x b
qm TFQX ixghsh tou vmmto TFRF

Lmma 6.4
'Estw
@Inmum ki Supremum ejrosmto unrtsewnA sunartseic f, g orismnec sto [a, b]. Isqoun ta aklouja:
inf {f (x) + g(x)} inf f (x) + inf g(x),

x x x
sup{f (x) + g(x)} sup f (x) + sup g(x),

x x x
pou ta
inma
kai
suprema
enai gia
x [a, b].
utrqn prthrste ti to potlesm eni nmenmenoX st dexi mlhD qoume perissterou jmo eleujer p ti st risterF hete ki th grfik ermhne tou lmmto sto qm TFQF t podexoume mno thn prth nisthtD kj h deterh prokptei prmoiF t qrhsimopoisoume ei topon pgwgF 9istw pw
Apdeixh:
inf {f (x) + g(x)} = inf f (x) + inf g(x)

x x x
< inf f (x) + inf g(x).

x x
IIR
KEFALAIO 6.
OLOKLHRWMA
pou
> 0F ix orismo tou inmumD j uprqei x0 ttoio ste

x
f (x0 ) + g(x0 ) < inf {f (x) + g(x)} +
2 = inf f (x) + inf g(x)

x x
< inf f (x) + inf g(x).

x x
eut mw eni topoD fo
f (x0 ) inf f (x), g(x0 ) inf g(x) f (x0 ) + g(x0 ) inf f (x) + inf g(x).
x x x x
Jerhma 6.8
An oi
f, g
enai
@9ejroism unrtsewnA oloklhrsimec sto [a, b], tte

b
f +g
enai oloklhrsimh sto
[a, b] kai
(f + g) =
a a
f+
a
g.
Apdeixh:
ipeid
b b
f = inf {U (f, P },
a P a
g = inf {U (g, P )},

P
prokptei ki ti
b b
f+
a a
g = inf {U (f, P1 ) + U (g, P2 )}.

P1 ,P2
@TFUA
o nw isqei gitD smfwn me gnwst iditht tou inmumD to jroism do sunE lwn qei inmum to jroism twn inmumF 9ymwD isqoun t exX
U (f, P1 )+U (g, P2 ) U (f, P1 P2 )+U (g, P1 P2 ) U (f +g, P1 P2 ) inf U (f +g, P ).

P
r prth nistht isqei git oi ekleptnsei mikrnoun t nw jrosmtF r deterh prokptei p to nw lmmD n efrmoste se kje upodisthm th dimrish ki prosjsoume ti nisthte pou prokptounF r teleut prokptei p ton orism tou inmumF efo loipn to opoiodpote stoiqeo tou sunlou sto dex mlo th @TFUA eni megltero tou inf P U (f +g, P )D j eni ki to inmum tou sunlouD opte
b b
f+
a a
g inf U (f + g, P ).
P
6.3.
IIS
we nlogo trpoD deqnoume ti

b b
f+
a a
g sup L(f + g, P ).
P
unduzont ti do ut nisthteD prokptei telik to zhtomenoF

Jerhma 6.9
An h
enai
@yloklrwm th cf A oloklhrsimh sto [a, b],

b
tte gia kje arijm
h sunrthsh
cf
enai
oloklhrsimh, kai mlista
cf = c
a a
f.
Apdeixh:
9eskhsh
Tte
Jerhma 6.10
'Estw h
@prgm sth unrthsh prgm sto yloklrwmA f oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] kai m f (x) M gia kje x [a, b].
b
m(b a)
a
f M (b a).
Apdeixh:
9istw mi opoidpote dimrish P F t qoumeX

n n
L(f, P ) =
i=k
mk (tk tk1 )
i=1
m(tk tk1 ) = m(b a),
p to opoo prokptei ti
b
f = sup L(f, P ) m(b a).

a P
ymowD qoumeX
b
U (f, P ) M (b a)
a
f = inf U (f, P ) M (b a).

P
Prisma 6.1
An h
@terhm wsh im gi yloklhrmtA f (x) suneqc sto [a, b], tte

b
f (x) dx = (b a)f ()
a
gia kpoio
[a, b].
IIT
KEFALAIO 6.
OLOKLHRWMA
9istw m h elqisth tim th sunrthshD ki M h mgisth tim th sunrthsh sto disthm [a, b]F @ m, M uprqounD epeid h sunrthsh eni suneqFA ep to nw jerhmD to oloklrwm nkei sto [m(b a), M (b a)]D r j isoti me k(b a) gi kpoio k [m, M ]F ipeid h f eni suneqD j uprqei ttoio ste f () = k D ki prokptei to zhtomenoF
Apdeixh: Prisma 6.2
1. 'Estw
@enisthteA
oloklhrsimh sto
[a, b]
me
f (x) 0 x [a, b].

b
Isqei
f 0.
a
2. 'Estw
f, g
oloklhrsimec sto
[a, b]
me
f (x) g(x) x [a, b].

b
Isqei
f
a a
g.
rokptei mes p to nw jerhmD ll mpore n deiqje ki nexrE tht p ton orism tou oloklhrmto @skhshAF
Apdeixh: Prisma 6.3
An h
enai
@yloklrwm th |f |A oloklhrsimh sto [a, b], tte

b
enai kai h
|f |,
kai mlista
|
a
f|
a
|f |.
Apdeixh:
rlepetiF en h |f | eni oloklhrsimhD eni ki h f c
Paratrhsh:
Jerhma 6.11
An h
enai
@o yloklrwm eni uneqA oloklhrsimh sto [a, b], tte h

x
F (x) =
a
enai suneqc sto
f (t) dt
@TFVA
[a, b].
6.3.
IIU
Apdeixh:
t dexoume th sunqei gi kje shmeo c (a, b)F r sunqei st a, b mpore n deiqje me prmoiD plopoihmnh mejodologF utrqn prthrome ti w oloklhrsimh h f eni frgmnhD ki stw
|f (x)| M M f (x) M x [a, b].

9istw h ( min{c a, b c}, min{c a, b c})D tsi ste c + h (a, b)F t qoume
c+h c c+h
|F (c + h) F (c)| = |
a
f
a
f| = |
c
f |.
en epiplon h > 0D tte

c+h c+h
|
c
f|
c
|f | M |h|.
en pli h < 0D tte

c+h c c
|
c
f| = |
c|h|
f|
c|h|
|f | M |h|.
rofn h nistht isqei ki gi h = 0F 9erD uprqei perioq grw p to h = 0 ttoi ste |F (c + h) F (c)| M |h|, 9er h F eni Lipschitz sto cD r suneq sto cF
Pardeigma 6.7
Poioi sunduasmo twn sunartsewn twn Sqhmtwn 6.4, 6.5 ikano-
poion th sqsh (6.8) gia to disthma
[a, b] = [0, 1]?
@wettpish unrthshA 'Estw f (x) oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]. Tte h f (xc) enai oloklhrsimh sto [a+c, b+c],
Jerhma 6.12
kai mlista
b+c
f (x)dx =
a a+c
f (x c)dx.
Apdeixh:
9eskhshF @qinmeno unrtsewnA oloklhrsimec sto [a, b], tte
Jerhma 6.13
An oi
f, g
enai
kai h
fg
enai oloklhrsimh.
Apdeixh:
rlepetiF
IIV
KEFALAIO 6.
OLOKLHRWMA
Jerhma 6.14
'Estw
c R kai
@mkrunshGipimkunsh unrtsewnA cb f : [ca, cb] R. To ca f (t) dt uprqei ann

cb b
uprqei to
b a f (ct) dt,
kai
se aut thn perptwsh
f (t) dt = c
ca a
f (ct) dt.
Apdeixh:
rlepetiF
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.5 1 0.2 0 0 0.5 1 0.8 0.6 0.4
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.5 1
0.5
qm TFRX rdeigm TFUF
6.3.
IIW
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.5 1 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.5 1
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.5 1
0.5
qm TFSX rdeigm TFUF
IPH
KEFALAIO 6.
OLOKLHRWMA
6.4
Oloklrwma
Riemann
Orismc 6.5
@ejrosmt Riemann ki yloklrwm RiemannA
1. 'Estw sunrthsh
f : [a, b] R.
n
Kje jroisma thc morfc
f (xi )(ti ti1 )

i=1
pou
P = {t0 , . . . , tn } diamrish kaletai jroisma Riemann. P
tou
[a, b]
kai gia ta
{xi }
isqei ti
ti1 xi ti
2. Orzoume thn nrma
thc diamrishc
P = {t0 , t1 , . . . , tn }
wc:
P = max {|ti ti1 |}.

i=1,...,n
3. Lme ti h
enai oloklhrsimh kat
Riemann
kai qei oloklrwma
an gia kje
>0
uprqei
gia opoiodpote jroisma
> 0 ttoio ste gia opoiadpote P me Riemann pou prorqetai ap thn P isqei
n
Riemann I P < kai
|
i=1
f (xi )(ti ti1 ) I| < .
Perilhptik, h nw sunjkh grfetai:
n P 0
lim
f (xi )(ti ti1 ) = I.

i=1
Jerhma 6.15
@terhm DarbouxX yloklrwm Darboux = yloklrwm Rie-
mannA H f enai
oloklhrsimh kat
Darboux
ann enai oloklhrsimh kat
Riemann.
Apdeixh:
rlepetiF
Parathrseic
IF o rio pou emfnzeti ston lim eni pol diforetik p t sunjh riF
P 0
PF o terhm tou Darboux m lei ti tn h f eni oloklhrsimhD

n P 0 b
lim
f (xi )(ti ti1 ) =

i=1 a
f.
6.4.
OLOKLHRWMA
RIEMANN
IPI
9erD tn h dimrish eni puknD isodnm to P

n b
mikrD tte
f (xi )(ti ti1 )

i=1 a
f,
ki sto rio P 0 qoume isthtF eut eni sw h pio diisjhtik ermhne tou oloklhrmtoF
IPP
KEFALAIO 6.
OLOKLHRWMA
6.5
To Oloklrwma thc Sunrthshc
Dirichlet
idme ti h sunrthsh DirichletD pou orzeti w
f (x) =
1, x Q [0, 1], 0, x (R Q) [0, 1],
den qei oloklrwm Darboux @D isodnmD RiemannA sto [0, 1]F t dexoume n sullogism sei tou opoou qei nhm n pome ti h sunrthsh qei oloklrwm 0D efson emste ditejeimnoi n orsoume to oloklrwm me diE foretikD pio isqur trpoF y sullogism ut gine p diforou mjhmtiko pro to tlo tou IWou inD ki oloklhrjhke me ton orism tou oloklhrmto LebesgueD p ton Henri LebesgueD sti rq tou PHou inF y sullogism qei tr mrhX IF prqoun tsoi rhtoD soi ki fusikoD PF r uprqoun pollo perissteroi rrhtoi p rhtoD QF r qei nhm n pome ti to oloklrwm th sunrthsh eni 0D fo h sunrE thsh eni 1 mno stou rhtoF th sunqeiD j dome kje n p t nw mrh pio nlutikF Uprqoun tsoi rhto, soi kai fusiko: y pio pl trpo gi n peistome ti oi rhto eni soi ki oi fusikoD eni n tou loume se mi seirD w exF rt tou zoume se n pnkX
1 2 3 4 5 1 1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 2 2/1(= 2) 2/2(= 1) 2/3 2/4(= 1/2) 2/2 3 3/1(= 3) 3/2 3/3(= 1) 3/4 3/5 4 4/1(= 4) 4/2(= 2) 4/3 4/4(= 1) 4/5 5 5/(1 = 5) 5/2 5/3 5/4 5/5(= 1)
i hhldD sth grmm i ki stlh j tou pnk zoume ton rht j F rthrste ti kje rht emfnzeti poll for ston pnkF qi prdeigmD o 1 emfnzeti se le ti jsei ti kri digwnouF eut den m peirzeiF o shmntik eni ti loi oi rhto uprqoun kpou ston pnkF
6.5.
TO OLOKLHRWMA THS SUNARTHSHS
DIRICHLET
IPQ
ekolojwD zoume tou rhto sth seir w exX prt ton rht th prth digwnouD met tou rhto th deterhD met th trthD kokF ssqoun oi knne ti se kje dignio xekinme p pnw dexiD ki epsh n n rijm uprqei dh mi forD den ton xnzoumeF we uto tou knneD mporome n loume lou tou rhto se mi seirX
1,
1 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 4 5 , 2, , 3, , , , 4, , 5, , , , , , 6, . . . 2 3 4 3 2 5 6 5 4 3 2
9erD uprqei 1 1 ntistoqish nmes stou rhto ki tou fusikoD fo se kje rht ntistoiqzoume ton fusik pou ekfrzei th jsh tou ston nw ktlogoD ki ntistrfw se kje fusik ntistoiqzoume ton rht pou rsketi sthn ntstoiqh jshF Oi pragmatiko enai pol perissteroi ap touc rhtoc: 9istw opoiodpote > 0F ptiqnoume n disthm mkou me kntro ton prto rht th nw lstF ipsh ftiqnoume n disthm mkou 2 me kntro ton detero rhtD n disthm mkou 4 me kntro ton trtoD kokF r nwsh lwn utn ton disthmtwnD j qei mko mikrtero p
+ + + ... = 2 . 2 4 8 @ui qi soD git moir j qoume llhloklyeiFA rthrste ti to tn ujreto3 9er so mikr ki n eniD mporome n klyoume lou tou rhto me n snolo sunoliko mkou mikrtero p F o mko mw tou prgmtiko xon eni D r uprqoun perw perissteroi prgmtiko p rhtoF To oloklrwma thc sunrthshc enai 0: efo h sunrthsh Dirichlet eni 0 se perw perisster shme p t shme pou eni 1D ki mlist mporome n t klyoume l me n disthm mkou 2 so mikr jloumeD eni logik n jsoume
1
f = 0,
1
f = 0.
IPR
KEFALAIO 6.
OLOKLHRWMA
Keflaio 7
Oloklrwsh
7.1
Jemelidh Jewrmata Logismo
Jerhma 7.1
'Estw
(Prto Jemelidec Jerhma Logismo)
oloklhrsimh sto
[a, b]
kai stw h
F : [a, b] R
x
pou orzetai wc exc:
F (x) =
a
An h
f.
enai paragwgsimh sto
enai suneqc sto
c [a, b],
tte h
kai
F (c) = f (c).
Ennoetai ti an
c = a c = b, h nw sunqeia enai aplc pleurik, kai h nw pargwgoc
enai epshc aplc pleurik (antistoqwc dexi arister).
Apdeixh:
t epikentrwjome sthn perptwsh c (a, b)F yi periptsei c = a ki c = b ntimetwpzonti prmoiF ulomste n dexoume ti
F (c + h) F (c) F (c + h) F (c) = f (c) lim f (c) = 0 h0 h0 h h c+h 1 c+h 1 lim f f (c) = 0 lim [f (x) f (c)] dx = 0 h0 h c h0 h c 1 c+h > 0 > 0 : 0 < |h| < [f (x) f (c)] dx . h c lim
9istw > 0 ujretoF ipeid h f (x) eni suneq sto cD uprqei > 0 ttoio ste |f (x) f (c)| < gi kje x ttoio ste |x c| < F 9istw tr 0 < |h| < F
IPS
IPT
KEFALAIO 7.
OLOKLHRWSH
rthrome pw
1 x : |x c| < |h|, |f (x) f (c)| < h
c+h
[f (x) f (c)] dx
c
1 |h| = , |h|
ki h pdeixh oloklhrjhkeF @r teleut nistht prokuye me qrsh tou orsmE to TFQFA

Parathrseic
IF en h f eni pnto suneq sto [a, b]D tte F = f sto [a, b]D ki r h F eni prgous th f sto [a, b]F 9erD le oi suneqe sunrtsei qoun prgousD ki qoume ki trpo n thn upologsoumeF @rktik i to oloklrwm mpore n mhn mpore n upologiste se kleist morfFA PF feiwjete ti qete ktlei to jerhmX nD gi prdeigmD h f (x) qei megE lh timD eni logik to oloklrwm n uxneti grgor kj perilmnonti oi tim grw p to x sthn oloklrwshF QF o jerhm poklptei th sqsh nmes sthn prgwgo ki to oloklrwmX qondrik milntD {h prgwgo tou oloklhrmto mi sunrthsh eni h di h sunrthsh}F RF mfwn me to jerhmD n h f (x) eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] ki suneq sto x [a, b]D tte
x
f
a
= f (x).
o epmeno lmm genikeei to nwF

Lmma 7.1
An h
enai
@rto temelide terhm vogismo E rktik worfA oloklhrsimh sto [a, b], kai c, x [a, b], tte:
x
f
c c
= f (x), = f (x),
@UFIA @UFPA
f
x
pou oi pargwgoi enai wc proc
x.
7.1.
JEMELIWDH JEWRHMATA LOGISMOU
IPU
Apdeixh:
@rthrste ti to c mpore n eni megltero tou xFA r @UFIA isqei

a x a x
git
x
f
c
=
c
f+
a
=
c
+
a
= 0 + f (x) = f (x).
qetik me thn @UFPAD prthrome pl pw

c x
f
x
=
c
= f (x),
pou sthn teleut istht qrhsimopoisme thn @UFIAF

Pardeigma 7.1
1. Na upologsete tic paraggouc wc proc
twn akloujwn:
F (x) = F (x) = F (x) = F (x) = F (x) =
x 3 a sin t dt. x3 a
2.
sin3 t dt. dt. dt.

1 0 1+t2
1 x
3.
b 1 x 1+t2 +sin2 t b x a 1+t2 +sin2 t x 1 0 1+t2
4.
5.
dt +
dt.
Lsh:
9eskhshF
(Detero Jemelidec Jerhma Logismo)
Jerhma 7.2
An h
enai oloklhrsimh sto
[a, b]
b
kai
f =g
panto sto
[a, b]
gia kpoia
g,
tte:
f = g(b) g(a).
a
9istw P = {t0 , . . . , tn } opoidpote dimrish tou [a, b]F ep to terhm wsh imD j qoume gi thn g ti
Apdeixh:
g(ti ) g(ti1 ) = g (xi )(ti ti1 ) = f (xi )(ti ti1 ),

gi kpoio xi (ti1 , ti )F 9ymwD n orsoumeD kt t gnwstD
mi
inf{f (x) : ti1 x ti }, Mi
sup{f (x) : ti1 x ti },
IPV
KEFALAIO 7.
OLOKLHRWSH
j qoumeX
mi (ti ti1 ) g(ti ) g(ti1 ) Mi (ti ti1 ),

ki n prosjsoume kt mlh ti nw gi i = 1, 2, . . . , nD telikD epeid to meso jroism eni thleskopikD j qoumeX
n n
mi (ti ti1 ) g(b) g(a)

i=1 i=1
Mi (ti ti1 ),
dhld
L(f, P ) g(b) g(a) U (f, P ).

r nw isqei gi opoidpote dimrish P F ut t gnwst p th jewrD o mno rijm o opoo frsseti nw ki ktw me ut ton trpo gi ujrete dimersei eni to oloklrwm th f D dhld
b
f = g(b) g(a).
a
Parathrseic
IF o hetero temelidh terhm oloklhrnei th sqsh metx prggou ki oloklhrmto pou xeknhse to rtoF ondrikD m lei ti {to oloklrwm th prggou mi sunrthsh eni h di h sunrthsh}F PF en upojsoume ti h f eni suneq @ki qi pl oloklhrsimhAD to hetero temelide terhm prokptei mes p to rto @skhshAF QF o hetero temelidh terhm qei meglh prktik shms p mno touD git m epitrpei n upologzoume to oloklrwm mi sunrthshD rke n gnwrzoume mi ntiprgwgoF 9erD pote knoume mi prggishD mporome n qrhsimopoisoume to potlesm gi n knoume mi oloklrwshF
Pardeigma 7.2
Epeid, gia
n = 1, xn+1 n+1 = xn ,
prokptei pwc:
b a
bn+1 an+1 x = . n+1 n+1

n
7.1.
IPW
An
n 0,
tte
a, b R,
allic,an
n < 0,
prpei ta
a, b
na enai kai ta do arnhtik
kai ta do jetik, ste na mhn mhdenzetai o paronomastc sto oi propojseic tou jewrmatoc.
kai na ikanopoiontai
ipiplonD to hetero temelide terhm eni qrsimo ki mmesD git odhge mes se do teqnik me meglh prktik efrmog ston upologism oloklhrwmtwnX
Paratrhsh: Jerhma 7.3
'Estw
@yloklrwsh ut rgonteA sunartseic f, g : [a, b] R, me suneqec paraggouc f , g

b
sto
[a, b].
Tte
f (x)g (x) dx =
a
f (x)g(x)|b a
f (x)g(x) dx.
utrqn prthrste ti t nw oloklhrmt uprqounD git oi f g ki f g eni suneqeD r ki oloklhrsimeF qi ton dio lgo j uprqoun ki oiX
Apdeixh:
x x
F1 (x) =
a
f (t)g (t) dt,
F2 (x) =
a
f (t)g(t) dt,
gi ti opoe prthrome pw
x
F1 (x) + F2 (x) =
a x
[f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x)] dt [f (x)g(x)] dt = f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a).

a
=
9erX
b
f (x)g (x) dx = F1 (b) F1 (a)

a
= [f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a) F2 (b)] [f (a)g(a) f (a)g(a) F2 (a)] = f (x)g(x)|b [F2 (b) F2 (a)] a = f (x)g(x)|b a
b
f (x)g(x) dx.
@rtrhshX j rkose n upojsoume pw oi prgwgoi f , g uprqounD ki ti oi f g D f g eni oloklhrsimeF nw exsflzonti me thn upjesh m ti uprqoun oi f , g D ki eni suneqeFA
IQH
KEFALAIO 7.
OLOKLHRWSH
Pardeigma 7.3
1.
Na upologisjon ta aklouja orismna oloklhrmata:
e 2 1 x log x dx. e3 e
2.
(log x)2 dx.
Lsh'A:skhshF Jerhma 7.4
@yloklrwsh me entiktstshA 'Estw sunrthsh g : [a, b] R suneqc, paragwgsimh, kai stw f : J R suneqc, me g([a, b]) J . Tte:
g(b) b
kai me suneq pargwgo
g,
f (u) du =
g(a) a
f (g(x))g (x) dx.
ut9 rq prthrste ti ki t do oloklhrmt uprqounD sei twn upojsewn pou knmeF r f D w suneqD j qei prgousD stw F F hhld F = f sto J F 9erD p to hetero temelide terhmD
Apdeixh:
g(b) g(a)
f (u) du = F |g(a) = F (g(b)) F (g(a)).
g(b)
rthrste mw ti (F (g(x))) = F (g(x))g (x) = f (g(x))g (x)F 9erD h F (g(x)) eni prgous th f (g(x))g (x)D rD pli p to hetero temelide terhmD
b a
f (g(x))g (x) dx = F (g(x))|b = F (g(b)) F (g(a)). a
unduzont ti do exisseiD prokptei to potlesmF e le sqedn ti periptsei oloklrwsh me ntiktstshD proE spjome n mettryoume to rqik oloklrwm w pro x se n plosteroD w pro uF r didiks eni h exX
Paratrhsh:
IF ipilgoumeGmnteoume mi sunrthsh u = g(x) pou iknopoie ti propojsei tou jewrmtoF PF ellzoume t ri oloklrwshD a g(a)D ki b g(b)F QF entikjistome to g (x)dx me to du @ to dx me to du/g (x)D n to g (x) den emfnzeti utosioAF
7.1.
IQI
RF iisgoume to u sthn oloklhrwt sunrthsh @pou tr endeqomnw perilmE nei to g (x) pou eisgmeAD endeqomnw me ktllhlou lgeriko metsqhmE tismoF SF en l pne klD to oloklrwm m qei rjei sth morf j emste se jsh n oloklhrsoumeF
Pardeigma 7.4
g(b) g(a) f (u) du
thn opo
Se pollc periptseic, h allag metablhtc pou apaitetai enai
profanc. Gia pardeigma, stw to oloklrwma:
1 0
x+1 dx. (x2 + 2x + 6)2

'Ara
Parathrste ti o arijmhtc enai (sqedn) h pargwgoc thc posthtac pou qei uywje sto tetrgwno ston paronomast. Jtoume kai
x = 1 u = 9.
1 0
Epiplon,
du dx
g(x) = u = x2 +2x+6. = 2x + 2. 'Ara:

9 6
x=0u=6
x+1 dx = (x2 + 2x + 6)2
du 1 = 2u2 2u
=
9
1 1 1 = . 12 18 36
Gia pardeigma, stw to
Merikc forc h antikatstash den enai tso profanc. oloklrwma

3
tan x dx.
0
'Estw
u = cos x.
3
Tte
du dx
= sin x,
1 2
kai
x = 0 u = 1, x =
1 2
u=
1 2.
'Ara:
tan x dx =
0 1
du = u
(log u) du = log u|1 = log 2. 1

2
IQP
KEFALAIO 7.
OLOKLHRWSH
7.2
Kataqrhstik Oloklhrmata
Orismc 7.1
@utqrhstik yloklhrmt rtou pouA
Orzoume wc kataqrhstik oloklhrmata prtou tpou ta aklouja ria: 1.
f
a
lim
f,
a
kai to rio.
efson uprqoun to oloklrwma (gia kje 2.
x > a)
b
lim
f,
x
kai to rio.
efson uprqoun to oloklrwma (gia kje 3.
x < b)
gia kpoio
f+
c
f,
c R, efson uprqoun ta kataqrhstik oloklhrmata sto dex skloc. (H epilog tou c den qei shmasa: an uprqei to kataqrhstik oloklrwma gia kpoio c, ja uprqei gia la ta c, kai h tim tou ja enai h dia gia la ta c.)
Pardeigma 7.5
1. Do tupikc periptseic enai oi exc:
t
1
2.
dt = lim
t
1 x
dt = lim
1 x
1 t
1 dt = lim (1 ) = 1. x x
sin t dt = lim
0
sin t dt = lim
0
( cos t) dt = lim (1 cos x),

0 x
pou den uprqei. 'Ara to antstoiqo kataqrhstik oloklrwma den uprqei.
Orismc 7.2
@utqrhstik yloklhrmt heterou pouA

den enai oloklhrsimh sto
Orzoume wc kataqrhstik oloklhrmata deterou tpou ta aklouja ria: 1. Efson h
[a, b],
b
f
a+
xa
lim+
f,
x
efson uprqei to oloklrwma entc tou orou gia kje uprqei kai to rio.
x (a, b],
kai efson
7.2.
KATAQRHSTIKA OLOKLHRWMATA
IQQ
2. Efson h
den enai oloklhrsimh sto
[a, b],
x xb
f
a
lim
f,
a
efson uprqei to oloklrwma entc tou orou gia kje uprqei kai to rio.
x [a, b),
kai efson
Pardeigma 7.6
1.
Do tupikc periptseic enai oi exc:
1 0+
2.
1 dt = lim+ x0 t2 1 dt = lim+ x0 t
1 x2
kai h
1 x
1 dt = lim+ x0 t2 1 dt = lim+ x0 t
1 t
dt = lim+
x0
1 1 = +. x
1 0+
1 x 1 x
1 x
2 t
dt = lim+ 2 2 x = 2.
x0
'Ara, parti kai h xona twn
apeirzontai sto
0,
h epifneia anmesa sthn prth, ton sth
x,
kai tic eujeec
deterh, ton xona twn
x = 0, x = 1 enai peirh, en h epifneia anmesa x, kai tic eujeec x = 0, x = 1 enai peperasmnh.
Parathrseic
IF yi nw orismo mporon n sunduston metx touD me ton profn trpoF qi prdeigmD

+ c x a+
f = lim+
xa
f + lim
x
x+
f,
c
pou c > aD kokF PF r sik id eni sfX n to n kro eni {prolhmtik}D upologzw prt to oloklrwm gi rio oloklrwsh xD ki met prnw ktllhlo rio w pro xF @A t prtou tpou to prolhmtik kro eni to F @A t ktqrhstik oloklhrmt deterou tpou sto prolhmtik kro h oloklhrwt sunrthsh eni pjologikD ki sti perisstere periptsei pou j dome tenei sto F QF e orismne periptsei ktqrhstikn oloklhrwmtwn deterou tpou grfouE b b b me a f nt gi a+ a D me to n uponoeti p to gegon ti h f den eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]F
IQR
KEFALAIO 7.
OLOKLHRWSH
7.3
Logarijmik kai Ekjetik Sunrthsh
Orismc 7.3
An
@vogrijmik unrthshA
x > 0,
orzw ton (fusik neprio) logrijmo tou
wc
log x
1
1 dt. t
Jerhma 7.5
@fsik sdithte tou vogrjmouA
1. O logrijmoc enai suneqc sunrthsh sto gwgo
(0, +)
me prth kai deterh par-
log x =
1 1 , log x = 2 . x x (0, +).
2. O logrijmoc enai gnhswc axousa kai kolh sunrthsh sto
3. An
x < 1,
tte
log x < 0,
an
x > 1,
tte
log x > 0,
kai
log 1 = 0.
4. An
x, y > 0, log xy = log x + log y, x log = log x log y. y

@UFQA @UFRA
5. An
x > 0, n Z, log xn = n log x.

@UFSA @UFTA
6.
x0+
lim log x = ,
x+
lim log x = +.
Apdeixh:
IF y logrijmo eni suneq sunrthsh w oloklrwmF r prth prgwgo proE kptei p to rto temelide terhm tou vogismoD en h exswsh gi th deterh prgwgo eni profnF PF rofnD exetzont thn prth ki th deterh prgwgoF QF rofnD exetzont to oloklrwm tou orismoF
7.3.
LOG ARIJMIKH KAI EKJETIKH SUNARTHSH
IQS
RF rthrste pwX
xy
log xy =
1
1 dt = t
x 1
1 dt + t
xy x
1 dt = log x + t
xy x
1 dt, t
ki to teleuto oloklrwm ekol prokptei pw eni so me log y D me llg metlht u = t/xF r @UFRA prokptei prthrnt pwX
log x = log
x y y
= log
x + log y. y
SF rokptei mes me epgwg ki efrmog twn @UFQAD @UFRAF TF rthrste tiD me efrmog th @UFSAD qoumeX
log 2 = n log 2,
1 log 2
= n log
1 = n log 2. 2
ipeid log 2 > 0 eni ekolo n prokyoun t nw ri me efrmog twn orismn tou kje orouF
Parathrseic
IF yi nw idithte tou logrjmou ntiktoptrzonti le sthn grfik tou prE stshD pou emfnzeti sto qm UFIF PF efo o logrijmo eni gnhsw xousD suneq sunrthshD j qei ntstrofhD h opo j orzeti gi kje x RD fo o logrijmo prnei le ti tim sto RD ki j prnei jetik timD fo o logrijmo orzeti mno gi jetik timF
Orismc 7.4
@r ikjetik unrthshA
1. H ekjetik sunrthsh
exp x
orzetai wc h antstrofh thc
log x:
y = exp x x = log y.
2. Orzoume th stajer
wc
exp 1 1 = log e =
1
1 dt. t
IQT
KEFALAIO 7.
OLOKLHRWSH
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 0
log x
4 y
6 exp x
qm UFIX r logrijmik sunrthsh ki h ekjetik sunrthshF
7.3.
IQU
Jerhma 7.6
1.
@fsik sdithte th ikjetik unrthshA
x R, log exp(x) = x, x (0, +), exp(log x) = x.

2. H ekjetik sunrthsh enai jetik, suneqc, me pargwgo
exp x = exp x,
kai genikc lec tic paraggouc anterhc txhc sec me
exp x.
3. H ekjetik sunrthsh enai gnhswc axousa kai kurt.
4. An
x < 0,
tte
exp x < 1,
an
x > 0,
tte
exp x > 1,
kai
exp 0 = 1.
@UFUA
5. An
x, y R, exp(x + y) = exp(x) exp(y).
6.
exp(x) = (exp x)1 .

7.
@UFVA
x+
8. An to
lim exp x = +,
lim exp x = 0.
@UFWA
enai rhtc, tte
exp x = ex .
9. An
@UFIHA
y R, x Q ,
tte
exp(xy) = (exp y)x ,

en an
@UFIIA
a > 0, x Q , ax = exp(x log a).
Apdeixh:
IF rokptei p ton orism th ekjetik w ntstrofh th logrijmikF
IQV
KEFALAIO 7.
OLOKLHRWSH
PF r ekjetik sunrthsh eni jetik git to pedo orismo th ntstrof th eni to (0, +)F ipshD eni suneq w ntstrofh suneqoF ipiplonD kt t gnwst p th jewrD n mi sunrthsh y = f (x) me prgwgo f (x) qei ntstrofh sunrthsh x = f 1 (y)D me prgwgo (f 1 ) (y)D tte
(f 1 ) (y) =
1 f (f 1 (y))
en efrmsoume thn nw gi thn perptwsh
y = f (x) = log x x = f 1 (y) = exp y, 1 = exp y, f (f 1 (y)) 1/ exp y r qoume @llzont to x me to y AD (exp x) = exp xF (exp y) = 1 =
QF rokptei mes p th morf th prggouF RF rokptei mes p to ti h exp x eni gnhsw xousD ki to ti log 1 = 0 exp 0 = 1F SF 9istw x0 = exp x log x0 = xD ki y0 = exp y log y0 = y F 9erX qoume
x + y = log x0 + log y0 = log x0 y0 exp(x + y) = x0 y0 = (exp x)(exp y).

TF rokptei efrmzont to prohgomeno sklo gi y = xF UF qi n podexw to prto rioD prpei n dexw ti gi kje M > 0D uprqei kpoio x0 ttoio ste x > x0 exp x > M. 9istw n opoiodpote M RF en M 0D profn h nw isqei gi opoidpote epilog tou x0 F 9istw loipn M > 0F te uprqei to log M ki jtw x0 = log M F
x > x0 exp x > exp(log M ) exp x > M,

ki h pdeixh oloklhrjhkeF @thn prth sunepgwgD qrhsimopohs to gegoE n ti h exp eni xousFA qi n podexw to detero rioD prpei n dexw ti gi kje ttoio ste x < x0 | exp x| < .
> 0 uprqei x0
7.3.
IQW
9istw loipn
> 0D ki stw x0 = log F te x < x0 exp x < exp(log ) | exp x| < ,
ki h pdeixh oloklhrjhkeF thn prth sunepgwg qrhsimopoisme to geE gon ti h exp eni gnhsw xousD en sth deterh ti eni pnt jetikF VF utrqnD qrhsimopoint thn @UFUAD prokptei ti
exp(2) = exp(1 + 1) = exp(1) exp(1) = (exp(1))2 = e2 ,

ki genik me epgwg qoumeD gi n NX
exp(n) = en .
ipiplon p thn @UFVA prokptei pw
exp(n) = (exp(n))1 = (en )1 = en .

@thn teleut istht qrhsimopoisme gnwst iditht gi kriou ekjteFA 9erD mqri tr podexme thn @UFIHA gi x krioF ipiplon mwX
1 1 exp(1) = exp + ... + n n

n
1 = exp n
exp
1 1 1 = (exp(1)) n = e n . n
roi
@r sunepgwg prokptei p gnwst iditht twn riznFA th sunqeiD
exp(
m 1 1 ) = exp + ... + n n n
m
= exp
1 1 . . . exp n n 1 = exp n
m m
roi
= en
= en,
r podexme thn @UFIHA gi jetiko rhtoF @rthrste ti h teleut istht prokptei p gnwst iditht twn rhtn dunmewnFA loD qoumeX
exp(
m m ) = exp( ) n n
= en
= e n ,
ki tsi podexme thn @UFIHA gi lou tou rhtoF @rthrste ti h teleut istht prokptei p gnwst iditht twn rhtn dunmewnFA
IRH
KEFALAIO 7.
OLOKLHRWSH
WF r @UFIIA prokptei pol prmoi me to prohgomeno skloD en gi th deterh pl qoumeX ax = [exp(log a)]x = exp(x log a). r deterh istht prokptei lgw th @UFIIAF
Parathrseic
IF epodexme ti tn x QD
exp x = ex .
o dex sklo qei oriste w tr mno gi x QF o rister mwD orzeti gi x RF PF ymowD podexme ti tn x QD
exp(x log a) = ax ,
pou a > 0, a RF ymowD en to rister sklo orzeti gi x RD to dex qei oriste w tr gi x QF yi nw prthrsei odhgon stou kloujou orismoX
Orismc 7.5
@rgmtik hunmeiA
1. Orzoume, gia kje
x R, ex exp x. x R, ax exp(x log a).
2. An
a > 0,
orzoume, gia kje
ep dw ki prD to ex ki to exp x j shmnoun to dio prgmD ki j t qrhsimopoiome ki t doD nlog thn perstshF
Paratrhsh: Jerhma 7.7
1. H
@sdithte rgmtikn hunmewnA
ax
qei prth pargwgo
(ax ) = (log a)ax ,

kai genikc gia thn niost pargwgo isqei:
(ax )(n) = (log a)n ax .
7.3.
IRI
2. H
ax
enai jetik kai kurt. h
3. An
a > 1,
ax
enai gnhswc axousa,
x+
lim ax = +,
x+
kai
lim ax = 0.
x
4. An
0 < a < 1,
ax
enai gnhswc fjnousa,
lim ax = 0,
kai
lim ax = +.
5. An 6.
a = 1, ax = 1. a1 = a.
7. Gia kje
x, y R, (ax )y = axy . x, y R, ax ay = ax+y . x R, ax bx = (ab)x .

tte h antstrofh thc
8. Gia kje
9. Gia kje
10. An
a = 1, a > 0,
y = ax
enai h
log y log a ,
dhlad:
y = ax x =
Apdeixh:
log y . log a
IF ep ton orism th ax ki ton knn th lusd qoumeX
(ax ) = ex log a = (log a)ex log a = (log a)ax .

yi prgwgoi nterh txew prokptoun me prmoio trpoF PF ETF rofneD lmnont upyh ton orism th ax ki ti idithte th ekjetik sunrthshF UF 9iqoumeX
(ax )y = ey log(a
(yrism ax )
) = ey log(e (yrism ax ) = eyx log a (exp, log ntstrofe) = axy . (yrism ax )
x log a
IRP
KEFALAIO 7.
OLOKLHRWSH
VF romowX
ax ay = = = =
WF romowX
ex log a ey log b (yrism ax ) ex log a+y log a (sditht (7.7)) e(x+y) log a ax+y . (yrism ax )
ax bx = = = =
ex log a ex log b (yrism ax ) ex log a+x log b (sditht (7.7)) ex log ab (sditht (7.3)) (ab)x . (yrism ax )
IHF rthrste kt9 rqn ti n a > 1 h ax eni suneq ki gnhsw xousD en n 0 < a < 1 h ax eni suneq ki gnhsw fjnousF 9er se kje perptwshD h ntstrofh uprqeiF 9iqoume sqedisei merik prdegmt ekjetikn sunrtE sewn ki twn ntstrofwn logrijmikn tou sto qm UFPF rthrste pwX
y = ax y = ex log a log y = x log a x =
log y . log a
Orismc 7.6
An
@vogrijmik unrthsh me fsh = eA a > 0, a = 1, orzw ton logrijmo me bsh a wc
loga y =
dhlad thn antstrofh thc
log y , y (0, +), log a
y = ax . g(x) : I R
me
Pardeigma 7.7
'Estw paragwgsimh
g(x) > 0
kai paragwgsimh
h(x) : I R.
Na deiqje ti h
g(x)
kai
h(x)
enai paragwgsimh panto sto
I,
kai na
upologsete thn pargwg thc sunartsei twn eidikc perptwshc
g, h, g , h .
Poia enai h pargwgoc thc
, pou
x>0
a R?
Lsh:
9eskhshF
7.3.
IRQ
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 y 4 log 1x
0.5
ex
1.5x
x 2
1.5
2 log x
log0.5 x
qm UFPX ikjetik ki logrijmik sunrtsei gi difore seiF
IRR
KEFALAIO 7.
OLOKLHRWSH
Pardeigma 7.8
@unjh 9yri me thn vogrijmik ki thn ikjetik unrthshA
Na upologsete ta aklouja ria: 1.
ex n, x+ x
lim
pou
n N. a R , a > 0. a R , a > 0, n N . n N.
2.
lim logax , x+ x lim
pou
3.
(log x)n , a x+ x x0
pou
4.
lim+ x(log x)n , lim+ xx .
pou
5.
x0
6.
x0
lim log(1+x) x
a lim x log(1 + x ),
pou
7.
x+ x+
8.
a lim (1 + x )x ,
1
a R. b > 0, b R .
9.
x+
lim x(b x 1),

9eskhshF
pou
Lsh:
Keflaio 8
Efarmogc Oloklhrwmtwn
8.1
Upologismc Embado se Kartesianc Suntetagmnec
@yloklrwm = imdA 'Estw sunrthsh f mh arnhtik kai oloklhrsimh sto disthma [a, b]. A(R) tou qwrou R pou brsketai anmesa sto grfhma thc sunrthshc, thn eujea x = a, kai thn eujea x = b, dhlad tou sunlou
Jerhma 8.1
H epifneia ton xona
x,
R = { a x b, 0 y f (x) },
isotai me
A(R) =
a
f.
Apdeixh:
9istw mi opoidpote dimrish P = {t0 , t1 , . . . , tn } me
a = t0 < t1 < . . . < tn = b.

9istw epshD kt t gnwstD
mi = inf{f (x) : ti1 x ti }, Mi = sup{f (x) : ti1 x ti }.

rthrome pw to ktw jroism
n
L(f, P ) =
i=1
mi (ti ti1 ) A(R),
git to ktw jroism isoti me to emd en qwrou pou rsketi plrw ent tou qwrou RF o en lgw qwro eni to detero skismno qwro tou qmto VFID ki
IRS
IRT
KEFALAIO 8.
EFARMOGES OLOKLHRWMATWN
f(x)
f(x)
a f(x)
a f(x)
qm VFIX o qwro R nmes sto grfhm mi mh rnhtik sunrthsh f ki ton xon twn xD ki trei klimkwt proseggsei th sunrthsh f F
to emd tou isoti me to ktw jroism git to qwro poteleti p orjogniD me emd to kje n so me mi (ti ti1 )F we prmoio trpoD qoume
n
U (f, P ) =
i=1
Mi (ti ti1 ) A(R),
git to qwro R eni uposnolo en qwrou me emd so me to nw jroism @dete to trto skismno qwro tou qmto VFIAF 9erD gi opoidpote dimrishD isqei
L(f, P ) A(R) U (f, P ).

9ymwD epeid h f eni oloklhrsimhD uprqei mno n rijm pou iknopoie ut b th dipl nistht gia opoiadpote diamrishD ki ut eni to a f F 9erD prokptei to zhtomenoF
Parathrseic
IF RaregionD AaareaF
8.1.
UPOLOGISMOS EMBADOU SE KARTESIANES SUNTETAGMENES
IRU
PF y prto pou kne ton nw sullogism @qi kri se ut th morfA tn o erqimdhD gi thn perptwsh f (x) = x2 , a = 0, b = 1F QF hen qoume orzei xiwmtik thn epifneiD ki sizmste se idithte pou diiE sjhtik fneti ti iknopoiontiD r h pdeix m den eni entel usthrF RF wi pio diisjhtikD ligtero usthr pdeixhD msw jroismtwn RiemannD eni h exX 9istw mi dimrish
P = {a = t0 , t1 , . . . , tn = b},
ki stw n tim x1 , x2 , . . . , xn D mi gi kje disthm [ti1 , ti ]D pou epilgonti ujretD dhldX ti1 xi ti . te to jroism Riemann
n
f (xi )(ti ti1 ),

i=1
kt t gnwst p th jewrD sugklnei sto oloklrwm a f D kj h dimrish puknneiF hiisjhtik mwD koitnt to ttrto skismno qwro tou qmE to VFIAD eni profn ti to jroism sugklnei ki sthn epifnei A(R)D kj h dimrish puknneiF 9erD t do ri @oloklrwm ki epifneiA eni sF
Prisma 8.1
'Estw
@ipifnei wetx qrfhmtwnA sunartseic f, g oloklhrsimec sto [a, b].

dhlad tou sunlou
H epifneia
brsketai anmesa sta grafmata twn sunartsewn, thn
A(R) tou qwrou R pou eujea x = a, kai thn eujea
x = b,
R = { a x b, min(f (x), g(x)) y max(f (x), g(x)) },

dnetai ap to oloklrwma:
A(R) =
a
|f g|.
r pdeixh szeti sth lyh periptsewn ki sth qrsh profnn idiottwn th epifneiD ki prlepetiF wpore epsh n doje mi diisjhtik exghsh prmoi me ut tou tewrmto VFIF
Apdeixh:
IRV
KEFALAIO 8.
f(x) R a g(x) b
qm VFPX rdeigm qwrou me emd pou upologzeti p to rism VFIF

Pardeigma 8.1
twn sunartsewn Na sqedisete to qwro pou perikleetai metax twn grafhmtwn kai
f (x)
g(x)
me
a x b,
kai na upologsete thn epifnei tou,
gia tic akloujec periptseic: 1. 2. 3. 4.
f (x) = 4 x2 , f (x) = 4 x2 , f (x) = x3 + x2 ,
g(x) = 0,
a = 2,
b = 2. b = 2. b = 1. b = 2.
g(x) = 8 2x2 , g(x) = x3 + 1, g(x) = 0,
a = 2, a = 1, a = 1,
f (x) = |x| + |x 1|,

9eskhshF
Lsh:
8.2.
UPOLOGISMOS EMBADOU SE POLIKES SUNTETAGMENES
IRW
8.2
Upologismc Embado se Polikc Suntetagmnec
Orismc 8.1
To shmeo
@olik untetgmneA (x, y) qei polikc suntetagmnec (r, ),
pou
r 0, R ,
y . x2 +y 2
an
x = r cos , y = r sin
r= cos = x 2
x +y
x2 + y 2 , , sin = 2
y x=r cos P=(x,y)=(r,)
r 0
y=r sin x
Parathrseic
IF e ntjesh me ti krtesin suntetgmneD n shmeo qei poll polik suntetgmneX @A en n shmeo diforo tou (x, y) = (0, 0) qei polik suntetgmne (r, )D qei ki (r, + 2k) gi kje k ZF @A iidik to (x, y) = (0, 0) qei polik suntetgmne r = 0 ki opoiodpote sto RF PF w mporome n skeftmste ti polik suntetgmneX @A we ti krtesin suntetgmneD gi n rome to shmeo (x, y) proqwrme x kt mko tou xon x ki met y prllhl ston xon y F @yi kteujnsei exrtnti p t ntstoiq prshmFA @A we ti polik suntetgmneD prt koitme pro thn ktejunsh D ki met proqwrme pstsh r ep utF
ISH
KEFALAIO 8.
QF nt r 0F RD ll pnt uprqei kpoio [0, 2)F RF qi n shmeo (x, y) uprqoun do gwne 1 , 2 [0, 2) ttoie ste
cos 1 = cos 2 =
x x2 + y 2 y x2 + y 2
romowD uprqoun do gwne 1 , 2 [0, 2) ttoie ste
sin 1 = sin 2 =
qi utD tn knoume ton metsqhmtism (x, y) (r, )D pitome
= arccos
x x2 + y 2
ki
= arcsin
y x2 + y 2
SF r ti epiplok pou qoun @gi prdeigmD den uprqei 11 ntistoqish metx shmewn sto eppedo ki zeugn (r, )D pw me ti krtesin suntetgmneAD oi polik suntetgmne eni pol qrsimeF w epitrpounD gi prdeigmD n perigrfoume pol pl orismne kmpleF
Orismc 8.2
An h
@umplh se olik untetgmneA f : [1 , 2 ] R+ enai suneqc, tte h exswsh r = f ()
perigrfei mia
kamplh se polikc suntetagmnec.
Pardeigma 8.2
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Antistoiqsete tic kamplec twn Sqhmtwn 8.4, 8.5, me ta (Spera tou Arqimdh)
r = , [0, 2]. r = 1, [0, 2].
r = log , [1, 50]. r = | cos |, [0, 2]. r = 1 + cos , [0, 2]. r = | sin 2|, [0, 2]. r = 2 cos , [ , ]. 2 2 r = 2 + cos , [0, 2].
(Kardioeidc)
8.2.
ISI
3 2 1 r=2, = 0 1 2 3 3 r=0, =*
y r=2, = /4
r=1, = /4
r=1, =3 /2
qm VFQX rdegmt polikn suntetgmnwnF
qm VFRX umple tou rdegmto VFPF
ISP
KEFALAIO 8.
4 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0.5 2 1 1 5 0.5 0 0.5 1 3 2 1 0.5 0 0 0.5 1 5 5 0 5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0 2 4 0.5 0 0.5 1 2 0 2 4 6 5 3 2 1 0 1 0 5 10
qm VFSX umple tou rdegmto VFPF
8.2.
ISQ
Jerhma 8.2
@imd wrou se olik untetgmneA 'Estw gwnec a, b [0, 2] me a < b kai stw f mh arnhtik oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. To embad A(R) tou qwrou
R = { (r, ) : 0 r f (), a b }
dnetai ap to oloklrwma
@VFIA
1 A(R) = 2
f 2 () d.
a
y r=f( ) R =b x =a
qm VFTX 9in prdeigm qwrou th morf th exswsh @VFIAD ki trei klimkwt proseggseiF
Apdeixh:
9in prdeigm qwrou tou opoou to emd prpei n upologsoume eni to prto qwro tou qmto VFTF ut9 rqn pw fo h f eni oloklhrsimhD j eni oloklhrsimh ki h f 2 F @wE list isqei ki to ntstrofoD sei tou krithrou oloklhrwsimtht LebesgueD pou den j qoume dei edFA ipiplonD prthrome ti n kuklik tom @dhld n kommti ptsA ktn 1 r ki gwn qei emd 2 r2 F rgmtiD n kklo @lh h ptsA qei emd r2 F 9erD n proume gwn nt gi 2 D to emd j prpei n eni 2 r2 = 1 r2 F 2
ISR
KEFALAIO 8.
9istw tr mi opoidpote dimrish
P = {a = 1 , 2 , . . . , n = b}
tou distmto twn gwnin [a, b]F 9istw
(f ())2 mi = inf{ : i1 i }, 2 (f ())2 : i1 i }, Mi = sup{ 2

t inma ki suprema th ki
(f ())2 2
se kje n p t erh gwnin pou orzei h dimrishD

n
1 L( f 2 , P ) = 2 1 U ( f 2, P ) = 2
to ktw ki nw jroism thF rthrste ti
mi (i i1 ),
i=1 n
Mi (i i1 ),
i=1
1 L( f 2 , P ) A(R). 2 rgmtiD to ktw jroism isoti me to emd en qwrou pou eni uposnolo tou RD ki to opoo poteleti p pepersmno pljo kuklikn tomwn kjn me emd mi (i i1 )F o qwro eni to detero skismno tou qmto VFTD ki orzeti ousistik p mi klimkwt sunrthsh r = f () se polik suntetgmneF we prmoio trpoD prokptei pw 1 U ( f 2 , P ) A(R). 2 @hete to trto skismno qwro sto qm VFTFA 9er telikD 1 1 L( f 2 , P ) A(R) U ( f 2 , P ), 2 2 ki epeid o mno rijm pou iknopoie ut th dipl nistht gi opoidpote b 1 dimrish eni to a 2 f 2 D prokptei to zhtomenoF
Paratrhsh:
wi pio diisjhtikD ligtero usthr exghshD msw jroismtwn RiemannD eni h exX 9istw mi dimrish
P = {a = 0 , 1 , . . . , n = b},
8.2.
ISS
ki stw n tim x1 , x2 , . . . , xn D mi gi kje disthm [i1 , i ]D pou epilgonti ujE retD dhldX i1 xi i . 9istw to jroism Riemann
n
i=1
1 2 f (xi )(i i1 ), 2
pou isoti me to emd en qwrou pou proseggzei to RF @hete to ttrto grmmoE skismno qwro tou qmto VFT gi n prdeigmFA ut t gnwst p th jewrD b 1 to jroism Riemann sugklnei sto oloklrwm a 2 f 2 kj h dimrish puknneiF hiisjhtik mwD koitnt sto sqmD eni profn tiD kj h dimrish puknE neiD to dio jroism sugklnei ki sthn epifnei A(R)F 9erD t do riD h epifnei ki to oloklrwmD eni sF
Pardeigma 8.3
Na sqediaston ta qwra twn opown ta shmea qoun polikc sun-
tetagmnec pou ikanopoion tic sqseic: 1.
0 2, , 2 2 0 2, 0 2,
0 r f () =
(Paratrhsh: h exswsh
r=
orzei thn Spera
tou Arqimdh). 2. 3. 4.
0 r f () = 2 cos . 0 r f () = | sin 2|. 0 r f () = 1 + cos .
Se lec tic periptseic, na upologsete thn epifneia tou qwrou.
Lsh:
9eskhshF
IST
KEFALAIO 8.
8.3
Upologismc 'Ogkou me th Mjodo twn Dskwn
@wjodo hskwnA + 'Estw oloklhrsimh f : [a, b] R . 'Estw R to qwro pou grfhma thc f , ton xona twn x, kai tic eujeec x = a kai x = b. pou dhmiourgetai ap thn peristrof tou R per ton xona twn x:
Jerhma 8.3
perikleetai ap to 'Estw
to stere
S = { (x, y, z) : a x b, 0 y 2 + z 2 f 2 (x) }.
O gkoc
V (S)
tou stereo
dnetai ap thn exswsh
V (S) =
a
f 2.
to qm VFU emfnzeti n prdeigm mi sunrthsh ki tou ntstoiqou stereo ek peristrofF r pdeixh eni prmoi me ti podexei twn prohgomenwn prgrfwnF utrqnD prthrome pw n orjognio klindro you h ki ktn r qei gko r2 hF @hete to qm VFV risterFA ipshD prthrome ti h f 2 j eni ki ut oloklhrsimhD fo eni h f F 9istw tr mi opoidpote dimrish P = {a = t1 , t2 , . . . , tn = b} tou distmto [a, b]F 9istw
Apdeixh:
mi = inf{(f ())2 : ti1 ti },

n
Mi = sup{((f ())2 : ti1 ti },

n
t inma ki suprema th (f ())2 se kje n p t distmt th dimrishD ki
L(f , P ) =
i=1
mi (ti ti1 ),
U (f , P ) =
i=1
Mi (ti ti1 ),
y f(x) y f(x) R a b x z x
qm VFUX wi sunrthshD to qwro R metx tou grfmt th ki tou xon xD ki o gko pou dhmiourgeti me thn peristrof tou R per ton xon twn xF
8.3.
UPOLOGISMOS OGKOU ME TH MEJODO TWN DISKWN
ISU
r2 r r1
qm VFVX 9in klindro me yo hD ktn sh rD ki gko V = r2 hD ki n klufo me yo 2 2 hD meglh ktn sh r2 D mikr ktn sh r1 D ki gko V = h(r2 r1 ) = 2h(r1 r2 ) r1 +r2 F 2
to ktw ki nw jroism thF rthrste ti
L(f 2 , P ) V (S).
rgmtiD to ktw jroism isoti me ton gko en stereo pou eni uposnolo tou S D ki to opoo poteleti p pepersmno pljo kulndrwn you (ti ti1 ) ki epifnei sh mi D dhld gkou mi (ti ti1 )F o stere eni to prto skismno tou qmto VFWD ki orzeti p thn peristrof mi klimkwt sunrthsh per ton xon twn xF we prmoio trpoD prokptei pw
1 U ( f 2 , P ) A(R). 2
@hete to detero skismno stere sto qm VFWFA 9er telikD
1 1 L( f 2 , P ) A(R) U ( f 2 , P ), 2 2
ki epeid o mno rijm pou iknopoie ut th dipl nistht eni to ptei to zhtomenoF
b a fD
prokE
ISV
KEFALAIO 8.
Parathrseic
IF S =solidD V =volumeF PF hen orsme xiwmtik ton gko en trisdisttou sunlouD ki gi ut h pdeix m den eni entel usthrF QF wi pio diisjhtikD ligtero usthr exghshD msw jroismtwn RiemannD eni h exX 9istw mi dimrish
P = {a = t0 , t1 , . . . , tn = b},
ki stw n tim x1 , x2 , . . . , xn D mi gi kje disthm [ti1 , ti ]D pou epilgonti ujretD dhldX ti1 xi ti . te to jroism Riemann
n
f 2 (xi )(ti ti1 ),

i=1
kt t gnwst p th jewrD sugklnei sto oloklrwm a f 2 kj h dimriE sh puknneiF hiisjhtik mwD koitnt to sqmD eni profn tiD kj h dimrish puknneiD to dio jroism sugklnei ki ston gko V (S)F 9erD t doD oloklrwm ki gkoD eni sF RF ipeid to yo twn kulndrwnD kj h dimrish P puknneiD gneti lo ki pio mikrD oi klindroi moizoun me dskouD ex9 ou ki to nom th mejdouF
Pardeigma 8.4
Na sqedisete, kat to dunatn me megalterh akrbeia, to stere
pou dhmiourgetai me thn peristrof tou grafmatoc thc sunrthshc
f (x) sto disthma
[a, b]
1. 2. 3. 4.
grw ap ton xona twn
x,
gia tic akloujec periptseic:
f (x) = cx, pou c > 0, kai a = 0, b > 0. f (x) = x, a = 0, b = 1. f (x) = sin x, a = 0, b = . f (x) = | sin x cos x|, a = 0, b = .
Se kje perptwsh, na upologsete ton gko tou stereo pou sqhmatzetai.
Lsh:
9eskhshF
8.3.
UPOLOGISMOS OGKOU ME TH MEJODO TWN DISKWN
ISW
y f(x)
y f(x)
z x y f(x)
z x
qm VFWX roseggsei tou gkou tou qmto VFU w nwsh dskwnF
ITH
KEFALAIO 8.
8.4
Upologismc 'Ogkou me th Mjodoc twn Kelfwn
Jerhma 8.4
@wjodo uelfwnA + 'Estw oloklhrsimh f : [a, b] R . 'Estw R to qwro metax tou grafmatc thc, tou xona twn x, kai twn eujein x = a, x = b. 'Estw S to stere ek peristrofc pou dhmiourgetai ap thn peristrof tou R per ton xona twn y , dhlad to snolo
S = { (x, y, z) : a x2 + z 2 b2 , 0 y f (
O gkoc
x2 + z 2 ) }.
@VFPA
V (S)
tou stereo
dnetai ap thn exswsh
V (S) = 2
a
xf (x) dx.
Apdeixh:
rlepetiF
Parathrseic
IF r morf th @VFPA mpore n gnei ktnoht me th ojei tou qmto VFIID pou qei sqediste h prool tou S ep tou epipdou xz F PF wi diisjhtik exghsh tou jewrmtoD msw jroismtwn RiemannD eni h kloujhF utrqnD prthrste ti n kulindrik klufo me mikr ktn sh r1 D meE glh ktn sh r2 D ki yo h @dete to qm VFVAD qei gko
2 2 V = h(r2 r1 ) = 2
r2 + r1 h(r2 r1 ). 2
hhldD o gko tugqnei n isoti me ton gko en orjogniou prllhlepE pedou me distsei 2 r2 +r1 D hD ki (r2 r1 )F roseggistikD to prllhleppedo 2 ut j to proume n knoume mi dimkh tom sto klufo ki to plsoume sto eppedoF 9istw tr mi dimrish
P = {a = t0 , t1 , . . . , tn = b},
ki stw oi n tim x1 , x2 , . . . , xn D mi gi kje disthm [ti1 , ti ]D pou epilgonti n eni sth msh tou kje distmtoD dhldX
xi =
ti1 + ti . 2
8.4.
UPOLOGISMOS OGKOU ME TH MEJODOS TWN KELUFWN
ITI
f(x) R a b x
qm VFIHX wi sunrthsh f 0 ki o gko pou dhmiourgeti me thn peristrof tou qwrou R nmes sto grfhm th ki ton xon twn x per ton xon twn y F
a2x2+z2b2
z
qm VFIIX rool tou stereo tou qmto VFIH sto eppedo xz F y xon y eni pro t nwF
ITP
KEFALAIO 8.
qm VFIPX rosggish tou gkou tou qmto VFIH me didoqik kelfhF
@rthrste ti mqri trD pote nkupte jroism RiemannD epilgme uE jret t shme xi FA 9istw to jroism Riemann
n n
2xi f (xi )(ti ti1 ) =

i=1 i=1 n
(ti + ti1 ) f (xi )(ti ti1 ) 2
=
i=1
f (xi )(t2 t2 ). i i1
rthrste ti oi ekfrsei st dexi ekfrzoun @me diforetik trpo h kje miA to jroism twn gkwn twn epllhlwn kelufn tou qmto VFIPF hiiE sjhtikD sto rio pou h dimrish gneti peir puknD ut oi ekfrsei j sugklnoun ston gko tou S D V (S)F ipeid mw h kfrsh sto prto sklo j b tenei sto a xf (x) dxD prokptei telik h isthtF
Pardeigma 8.5
per ton xona twn twn 1. 2. 3. 4. Na sqedisete ta stere pou dhmiourgontai ap thn peristrof tou qwrou pou brsketai metax tou grafmatoc thc
f,
tou xona
x,
kai twn eujein
x = a, x = b, b=
5 2.
gia tic akloujec periptseic:
f (x) = x1 , a =
1 2,
(Hfasteio) (Jatro) (Poluwnumik khk)
f (x) = x 2, a = 2, b = 5.
f (x) = 2[1 (x 1)2 ], a = 0, b = 2. f (x) = 3 sin x, a = 0, b = .
(Hmitonik khk)
8.4.
UPOLOGISMOS OGKOU ME TH MEJODOS TWN KELUFWN
ITQ
5.
f (x) = 5 exp(x2 ), a = 0, b = 3.
9eskhshF
(Kaplo Mgissac)
Lsh:
ITR
KEFALAIO 8.
8.5
H Arq tou Kaltuqou Kabalrh
Jerhma 8.5
@9ygko terenA 3 'Estw to stere S R tou Sqmatoc 8.13. 'Estw pwc me to eppedo E(t) = {x = t} qei epifneia A(t). 'Estw kai A(t) = 0 allo. O gkoc tou stereo isotai me
b
h tom tou pwc
R(t) = S E(t) A(t) > 0 gia a t b,
V (S) =
a
efson to oloklrwma uprqei.
A(t) dt,
R(t)
E(t) x=a x=t x=b
qm VFIQX o stere tou tewrmto VFSF

Apdeixh:
r nlutik pdeixh prlepetiF o potlesm mpore n exhghje diisjhtik n prthrsoume ti proseggistik o gko tou stereo mpore n grfe w
n
V (S)
i=1
A(xi )(ti ti1 ),
pou t ti eni xont ki sqhmtzoun mi dimrish P D me t0 = aD tn = bD en to xi nkei sto disthm i th dimrishD dhld xi [ti1 , ti ]F y gko dhld prosegE gzeti p to jroism twn gkwn mi seir p fte epifnei A(xi ) ki pqou (ti ti1 )F @hete ki to trto stere tou qmto VFW gi thn eidik perptwsh pou to
8.5.
H ARQH TOU KALOTUQOU KABALARH
ITS
rqik stere eni stere ek peristrofFA uj h dimrish gneti peir puknD eni diisjhtik profn ti h prosggish gneti lo ki klterh ki sugklnei ston b gkoD en epiplon sugklnei ki sto V (S) = a A(x) dxF
Prisma 8.2
An do stere
@r erq tou Bonaventura CavalieriA qoun thn dia sunrthsh A(t), tte qoun
ton dio gko.
r pdeixh eni profnD fo ki t do stere j qoun gkou pou dnonti p ton dio tpoF qi prdeigmD sei th rq tou CavalieriD oi do klindroi tou qmto VFIR qoun ton dio gkoD fo oi tom tou me opoiodpote orizntio eppedo @n zego ttoiwn tomn emfnzeti grmmoskismnoA eni pnt seF @ui efrmzont thn mjodo twn dskwn ston prtoD prokptei ti o gko tou j eni V = 1 r2 FA 3
Paratrhsh:
qm VFIRX ep thn erq tou CavalieriD ki oi do knoi prpei n qoun ton dio gkoF
@qenikeumnoi ulindroiA 'Estw to snolo S = {(x, y, z)|(x, y) B, a z b}. B , tte o gkoc tou S isotai me
Prisma 8.3
An
A(B)
enai h epifneia tou
V (S) = (b a)A(B).
r pdeixh eni profnD sei tou tewrmto VFSF 9erD gi prdeigmD o {genikeumno klindro} tou qmto VFIS j qei gko V = (b a)A(B)F
Paratrhsh:
ITT
KEFALAIO 8.
A(B)
z=b
b-a
A(B) z=a
qm VFISX ep to rism VFQD to nw stere qei gko pou dneti p ton pl tpo V (S) = A(B)(b a)F
Prisma 8.4
@wjodo hskwn = iidik erptwshA To Jerhma 8.3 prokptei wc
eidik perptwsh tou Jewrmatoc 8.5.
Apdeixh:
rgmtiD sthn perptwsh ut h sunrthsh A(t) eni h epifnei kukliE ko dskou ktn f (t)F
8.6.
UPOLOGISMOS MHKOUS KAMPU LHS
ITU
8.6
Upologismc Mkouc Kamplhc
Orismc 8.3
@umpleA
Orzoume wc kamplh sto eppedo kje suneq apeiknish ap to
R sto R2
thc morfc:
x = f (t), y = g(t), a t b,
pou oi
@VFQA
f, g
suneqec sunartseic. H kamplh tou Sqmatoc 8.16 perigrfetai ap tic sunartseic
Pardeigma 8.6
x = t cos t, y = t sin t, 0 t 10,

10
t=5 /2
5 t= /2 0 t=3 t= t=0 t=2
t=10
t=3 /2
10 10
10
qm VFITX r kmplh tou rdegmto VFTF

Parathrseic
IF wporome n fntzmste thn kmplh w thn troqi en ntikeimnouD thn prmetro t w qrnoD ki ti sunrtsei f (t), g(t) w thn x ki y sunists tou ntikeimnou sunrtsei tou qrnouF PF yi f, g prpei n eni suneqeD lli h kmplh j eni dikekommnhF
ITV
KEFALAIO 8.
Pardeigma 8.7
Antistoiqste tic kamplec tou Sqmatoc 8.17 me tic akloujec
parametrikc exisseic:
1.
f (t) = cos t, g(t) = sin t, 0 t 2 . f (t) = cos t, g(t) = sin 2t, 0 t 2 . f (t) = cos 3t, g(t) = sin 2t, 0 t < 2 . f (t) = t sin t, g(t) = 1 cos t, 0 t < 4 . f (t) = t, g(t) = |t|, 1 t 1. f (t) = t, g(t) = sin t, t . f (t) = cos 2t, g(t) = sin 2t, 0 t . f (t) = t3 , g(t) = |t3 |, 1 t 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
@rtrhshX merik kmple perigrfonti p perisstere p mi prmetrik exisseiFA

Parathrseic
IF wpore mi kmplh n qei poll perigrf th morf @VFQAF PF en uprqoun oi f , g D ti ekfrzounc i ekfrzei h
Orismc 8.4
f 2 (t) + g 2 (t)c
@ve umplhA
Mia kamplh kaletai lea an qei perigraf thc morfc (8.3) kai oi enai suneqec sto
f ,g
uprqoun kai
[a, b],
kai qi tautqrona mhdenikc.
Parathrseic
IF hiisjhtikD mi le kmplh den qei gwneF PF r pthsh oi f , g n mhn eni tutqron 0 den eni profnD ll eni pE rthth gi n mhn uprqoun gwneF @hete thn teleut perigrf tou rE degmto VFUFA
8.6.
ITW
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 2 0 2 0 5 10 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 0 1
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0.5 1
qm VFIUX yi kmple tou rdegmto VFUF
Orismc 8.5
'Estw
@wko umplhA kamplh C me perigraf
x = f (t), y = g(t), a t b,
IUH
KEFALAIO 8.
kai stw diamrish
P = {a = t0 , t1 , . . . , tn = b}.
n
'Estw
l(C, P ) =
i=1
[f (ti ) f (ti1 )]2 + [g(ti ) g(ti1 )]2
to mkoc thc tmhmatik grammikc prosggishc thc kamplhc. Orzoume to mkoc thc kamplhc
l(C)
wc to
l(C) = sup l(C, P ),

P
efson enai peperasmno.
Parathrseic
IF prqoun kmple me peiro mkoD gi prdeigm orismn fractalD pw h nifd tou KochD ll ki h kloujh kmplh me thn pl perigrf
x = t, y =
t sin 1 , t = 0 t 0 t 1. 0, t = 0,
PF 9ypw orsthkeD to mko th kmplh den exrtti p thn prmetropohs thF @iutuq3A eut den eni profnD ll h pdeixh prlepetiF QF to qm VFIV fneti mi kmplh gi thn opo eni diisjhtik profn ti uprqei to supremumD ki to plhsizoume kj h nrm th dimrish tenei sto 0F
Jerhma 8.6
'Estw kamplh
@wko umplhA
x = f (t), y = g(t), a t b.
An oi
f ,g
uprqoun sto
[a, b]
kai enai suneqec, tte
l(C) =
a
(f (t))2 + (g (t))2 dt.
@VFRA
8.6.
IUI
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
qm VFIVX uj h dimrish tou [a, b] gneti olon ki pio puknD to mko th tmhmtik suneqo kmplh tenei sto mko th kmplh C F
Apdeixh:
r pdeixh eni meglh ki prlepetiD dnoume mw thn kloujh
IUP
KEFALAIO 8.
exghshX 9istw dimrish P D ki

n
l(C, P ) =
i=1
[f (ti ) f (ti1 )]2 + [g(ti ) g(ti1 )]2
to mko th tmhmtik suneqo kmplh pou dhmiourgeF rthrste ti h nw kfrsh ekfrzei to mko th tmhmtik suneqo kmplh w to jroism twn mhkn twn epimrou eujgrmmwn tmhmtwnF rthrste ti
n
l(C, P ) =
i=1
f (ti ) f (ti1 ) ti ti1
g(ti ) g(ti1 ) + (ti ti1 ). ti ti1
en fntstome ti to t ekfrzei qrno ki h kmplh thn troqi en ntikeimnouD tte sto nw jroism kje tetrgwnik rz ekfrzei thn msh tqtht me thn opo kinotn ep th kmplh to ntikemeno sto ntstoiqo eujgrmmo tmmF ipeid oi f , g uprqounD p to terhm wsh imD j uprqoun ti [ti1 , ti ] ki ti [ti1 , ti ] ttoi ste
n
l(C, P ) =
i=1
[f (ti )]2 + [g (ti )]2 (ti ti1 ).
e ut to shmeo j knoume mi prosggish pou den j dikiologsoume usthrD ll eni diisjhtik logikX ipeid oi f , g eni suneqeD tn h dimrish eni rket puknD h tim tou mkou den j llzei pol nD nt gi t ti , ti1 [ti1 , ti ]D qrhsimopoisoume kpoio i [ti1 , ti ]F 9erX
n
l(C, P )
i=1
[f (i )]2 + [g (i )]2 (ti ti1 ).
@VFSA
9ytn h dimrish gneti peir puknD to men rister sklo tenei sto mko th kmplh l(C)D to de dex skloD pou qei th morf jrosmto RiemannD tenei sto b oloklrwm l(C) = a (f )2 + (g )2 D en h prosggish @VFSA gneti lo ki klterhF b rokptei tsi ti telik l(C) = a (f )2 + (g )2 F 9erD telik o tpo @VFRA ekfrzei to sunolik mko th kmplh w to jroiE smD sto rioD twn mhkn pou dinonti se peiroelqistou qrnouD pou to kje peirost mko dneti w to ginmeno th stigmi tqtht me ton ntstoiqo peiroelqisto qrnoF
Keflaio 9
Diaforikc Exisseic
9.1
Diaforikc Exisseic Prthc Txewc
Orismc 9.1
@hiforik ixissei rth xew ki idh vsewnA
1. Kalome diaforik exswsh (DE) prthc txewc mia exswsh thc morfc
dy = f (x, y), dx
pou h exarthmnh metablht anexrththc metablhtc exswsh isqei se kpoio
@WFIA
y = y(x) enai mia paragwgsimh sunrthsh thc x, kai f (x, y) enai mia sunrthsh do metablhtn. H disthma tou x, I . y(x) : I R
pou ikanopoie thn
2. Kalome lsh thc DE (9.1) kje sunrthsh (9.1).
3. Kalome genik lsh thc DE (9.1) to snolo twn sunartsewn pou thn ikanopoion.
4. An, ektc thc (9.1), qei doje kai h arqik sunjkh
y(x0 ) = y0 ,
pou
x0 I ,
tte kalome eidik ( merik) lsh thc (9.1) mia sunrthsh pou ikanopoie kai thn DE, kai thn arqik sunjkh.
Parathrseic
IF thn prxhD to I ete nfreti rhtD ete uponoeti p t sumfrzmenF PF hen qoun le oi hi genik kiG eidik lseiF prolmt prxh ki mondiktht lsewn diforikn exissewn eni en gnei pol dskolF
IUQ
IUR
KEFALAIO 9.
DIAFORIKES EXISWSEIS
Pardeigma 9.1
y (x) = f (x))
dy dx
1. Smfwna me to Prisma thc Mhdenikc Paraggou, h exswsh genik lsh to snolo twn stajern sunartsewn. 2. H exswsh
= 0
qei wc
dy dx
= xn , pou n N, qei wc genik lsh to snolo twn sunartsewn y(x) = 1 xn+1 + C, C R, n+1 1 n+1 sunrthsh g(x) = n+1 x
@WFPA
kai stw opoiadpote
thc morfc
C R. Prgmati, stw lsh y(x) thc DE. Tte:

pou
(y(x) g(x)) = y (x) g (x) = xn xn = 0 y(x) g(x) = C 1 xn+1 + C, y(x) = n+1 gia kpoio C R. H prth sunepagwg prokptei kai pli ap to Prisma thc
Mhdenikc Paraggou. Epiplon, enai profanc ti lec oi sunartseic thc nw morfc apotelon lseic thc DE, ra prgmati h genik lsh thc DE enai to snolo (9.2). 3. Pio genik, an h
g(x)
enai suneqc se kpoio disthma
I,
tte h DE
dy = g(x) dx
qei wc genik lsh to snolo twn sunartsewn
y(x) =
a
g(t) dt + C.
Prgmati, me qrsh tou Prtou Jemelidouc Jewrmatoc tou Logismo prokptei ti h nw
y(x)
ikanopoie thn DE gia kje
C.
Antistrfwc, gia opoiadpote llh
y(x)
thn ikanopoie ja isqei
y(x)
a
gia kpoio
g(t) dt
= y (x) g(x) = 0 y(x) =

a
g(t) dt + C
C R.
(
Pardeigma 9.2
H exswsh
y (x) = ky(x)) dy = ky dx
9.1.
DIAFORIKES EXISWSEIS PRWTHS TAXEWS
IUS
qei genik lsh thn
y(x) = Cekx , C R.
Prgmati, parathrste katarqn ti gia aut thn
y(x)
qoume
y (x) = (Cekx ) = Ckekx = ky(x).

Antistrfwc, stw mia ste ti
y(x)
pou ikanopoie thn DE, dhlad
y (x) = ky(x).
Parathr-
(y(x)ekx ) = y (x)ekx ky(x)ekx = ky(x)ekx ky(x)ekx = 0 y(x)ekx = C y(x) = Cekx .

H deterh exswsh prokuye giat h
y(x) ex' upojsewc ikanopoie thn DE, kai h prth
sunepagwg kai pli ap to Prisma Mhdenikc Paraggou.
Parathrseic
IF r hi y (x) = ky(x) eni exiretik shmntik git emfnzeti suqntt sth fshF ugkekrimnD emfnzeti pote o rujm xhsh y (t) = dy me to qrno dt tD kt th qronik stigm tD mi postht y(t) eni nlogo th di th postht y(t)D dhld y (t) = ky(t), pou h stjer nlog k mpore n eni jetik rnhtikF werik prdegmt ttoiwn posottwn eniX @A y plhjusm njrpwnGkthrwnGlgnGmonomqwnGkokF @A r difor th jermokrs tou fghto p th jermokrs tou perillonE t qroD tn to gloume p to fornoF @gA o pos mi rdienergo postht kj ut disptiF @dA r tqtht tou utokintou mD n ssoume ti mhqn ki ptsoume to sumplkthF @eA @roseggistikA t left m sthn trpezD n stmtsoume n knoume nlyei ktjseiF @t nw prdegmtD h stjer eni jetikGrnhtikc weglhGmikrcA PF prohgomen do prdegmt m deqnoun ti sumnei se do eidik periE ptsei th sunrthsh f (x, y)D dhld ti f (x, y) = f (x) ki f (x, y) = y F qi thn genik perptwshD den mporome n rome ekol th morf twn lsewnF
IUT
KEFALAIO 9.
QF 9ymwD me th ojei twn pedwn dieujnsewnD mporome n qoume mi pol kl diisjhtik ktnhsh opoisdpote hi prth txewF ugkekrimnD n gnwrE zoume ti to grfhm th lsh y(x) dirqeti p to shmeo (x0 , y0 )D gnwrzoume ti j qei klsh eke sh me f (x0 , y0 )F enD gi n plgm shmewn (x0 , y0 )D pE rstsoume thn klsh me n dinusm pou deqnei thn diejunsh pou {kineti} to grfhmD dhmiourgome n pedo diejunsh me th ojei tou opoou mporome n poktsoume mi eikn gi th sumperifor th sunrthshF
Pardeigma 9.3
Sta paraktw sqmata, qoume sqedisei (me tuqaa seir) peda
dieujnsewn gia tic akloujec DE:
y = y,
y = x,
y = x y,
y = (1 + y 2 )ex .
Mporete na brete to pedo pou
'Eqoume epshc sqedisei merikc endeiktikc lseic. antistoiqe se kje DE?
9.1.
DIAFORIKES EXISWSEIS PRWTHS TAXEWS
IUU
0.5
0.5
1 1 1
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1 1
0.5
0.5
IUV
KEFALAIO 9.
0.5
0.5
1 1 1
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1 1
0.5
0.5
9.2.
GR AMMIKES DIAFORIKES EXISWSEIS PRWTHS TAXEWS
IUW
9.2
Grammikc Diaforikc Exisseic Prthc Txewc
Orismc 9.2
@qrmmik hi rth xewA
Kalome grammik DE prthc txewc kje DE thc morfc
y + P (x)y = Q(x),
pou isqei se na disthma
I.
Paratrhsh:
o rister mlo eni sqedn th morf f g +gf = (f g) F en tn akribc th morf utD j mporosme n rome ekol th genik lsh th hiF we th ojei mw th te ipifothshD prthrome pw n pollplsisoume to rister sklo me thn postht exp[R(x)]D pou R (x) = P (x)D dhld h R eni mi opoidpote prgous th P D qoumeX
exp[R(x)](y(x) + P (x)y(x)) = exp[R(x)]y (x) + exp[R(x)]P (x)y(x) = y (x) exp[R(x)] + y(x) exp[R(x)]R (x) = (exp[R(x)]y(x)) .
fsei th nw prtrhshD prokptei to kloujo jerhmX
Jerhma 9.1
'Estw h DE
@qenik ki werik vsh qrmmikn hi rth xewA
y (x) + P (x)y(x) = Q(x), P (x), Q(x) enai suneqec sunartseic. opoiadpote pargousa thc P (x), dhlad R (x) = P (x), kai S(x) pargousa thc Q(x) exp[R(x)], dhlad S (x) = Q(x) exp[R(x)].
se na disthma pou oi
@WFQA
'Estw
I,
R(x)
mia
mia opoiadpote
1. H genik lsh thc DE enai to snolo twn sunartsewn thc morfc
y(x) = [S(x) + C] exp[R(x)], C R.

2. Uprqei akribc mia sunrthsh sunjkh
@WFRA
y(x)
pou ikanopoie thn DE maz me thn oriak
y(x0 ) = y0 , y0 +
kai aut enai h
y(x) =
Apdeixh:
Q(u) exp
x0 x0
P (t) dt du exp
x0
P (t) dt .
IVH
KEFALAIO 9.
IF 9istw Y (x) prgwgsimhF rthrste pwX
Y (x) + P (x)Y (x) = Q(x) Y (x) exp[R(x)] + P (x)Y (x) exp[R(x)] = Q(x) exp[R(x)] [Y (x) exp[R(x)]] = S (x) Y (x) = [S(x) + C] exp[R(x)], C R.
9erD n h Y (x) iknopoie thn hiD j eni th morf @WFRA gi kpoio C RD enD ntistrfwD n eni th morf @WFRAD tte j iknopoie thn hiF PF r merik lsh j qei th morf @WFRA gi kpoio C D ki gi ujrete prgouse R(x) @th P (x)A ki S(x) @th Q(x) exp[R(x)]AF wr lh th genikthtD prnoume
x x u
R(x) =
x0
P (t) dt,
S(x) =
x0
Q(u) exp
x0
P (t) dt du.
9erD h genik lsh pokt th morf

x u x
y(x) =
x0
Q(u) exp
x0
P (t) dt du + C exp
x0
P (t) dt .
we ntiktstsh x = x0 D y(x0 ) = y0 D prokptei pw C = y0 F ttont C = y0 sthn nwD prokptei to zhtomenoF

Parathrseic
IF qi n efrmsoume to jerhmD mporome n epilxoume opoiesdpote prgouse S(x), R(x)D jloumeF PF hen qoun le oi hi kri mi merik lsh gi kje rqik sunjkhF @qeniE k milntD h grmmiktht th hi knei ti lsei n qoun difor qrsim qrkthristikD n ek twn opown eni ki utAF QF o jerhm qei thn idiitertht ti eni pio ekolo n efrmzoume thn pdeixh utosi sti skseiD pr n jummste to potlesmF rgmtiD gi thn eresh th genik lshD to mno pou qoume n knoumeD eni n froume to rister mlo sth morf f g +f g D pollplsizont me thn ktllhlh ekjetik sunrthshF 9iqont th genik lshD mporome n rome opoidpote merikD me ntiktstsh twn x0 D y0 ki eresh tou suntelest C F hete to prktw prdeigmX
9.2.
GR AMMIKES DIAFORIKES EXISWSEIS PRWTHS TAXEWS
IVI
Pardeigma 9.4
Brete th genik lsh thc exswshc
xy = x2 + 3y, x > 0,
kajc kai thn merik lsh pou dirqetai ap to shmeo
x0 = 1, y0 = 1.
Lsh:
utrqnD fo to I = (0, +)D mporome n diirsoume me to xX
3 y y = x. x
3 wi ntiprgwgo tou x eni h 3 log xF 9erD pollplsizw ki t do sklh me to exp[3 log x] = x3 X
1 dy 3 1 y 4y = 2 x3 dx x x x3
1 = x2
1 x
y(x) = x3 C
1 , C R y(x) = Cx3 x2 , C R. x
en ntiktstsoume sthn nw genik lsh ti tim x0 = 1D y0 = 1D prokptei pw C = 2F 9erD h merik lsh pou yqnoume eni h
y(x) = 2x3 x2 .
Pardeigma 9.5
arqikc timc: 1. 2. 3.
Epanalbete to nw pardeigma gia tic akloujec exisseic kai
y + 4y = 2,
me arqik sunjkh pou
x0 = 1, y0 = 1. x0 = , y0 = 0.
1 y + x y = cos x,
x > 0,
me arqik sunjkh
y + x2 y = x2 ,
9eskhshF
me arqik sunjkh
x0 = 0, y0 = 0.
Lsh:
IVP
KEFALAIO 9.
9.3
Diaqwrsimec wc
Diaforikc
Exisseic
Prthc
Txe-
Orismc 9.3
@hiqwrsimh hi rth xewA
Mia DE prthc txewc kaletai diaqwrsimh tan enai thc morfc
dy = g(x)h(y). dx
Paratrhsh:
en h h(y) = 0 sto I D h exswsh mpore n grfe ki w
dy 1 dy = g(x) a(y) = g(x), h(y) dx dx

1 pou a(y) h(y) F rthrste ti n A = aD tteD p ton knn th lusdD to rister sklo th exswsh eni h prgwgo th A(y(x))D opteD n mpor n rw ki mi ntiprgwgo th g(x)D tte qw lsei thn hiF io usthrD qoume to kloujo jerhmX
Jerhma 9.2
@qenik vsh hiqwrsimwn hi rth xewA
'Estw h diaqwrsimh DE
a(y)y = g(x)
se na disthma
@WFSA
I.
'Estw pwc h
sto dik thc pedo orismo.
g(x) qei pargousa G sto I , kai pwc h a qei pargousa H Y enai lsh thc DE ann ikanopoie thn exswsh A(Y (x)) = G(x) + C
@WFTA
sto
gia kpoia stajer
C R.
Apdeixh:
9istw ktrqn pw h Y (x) eni lshF t isqei pnto sto I X
a(Y (x))Y (x) = g(x) A (Y (x))Y (x) = G (x) (A(Y (x)) = G (x) A(Y (x)) = G(x) + C.
r deterh sunepgwg prokptei me qrsh tou knn th lusdD en h trth me qrsh tou orsmto whdenik rggouF entistrfwD n isqei h @WFTAD tte prgwgzont ki t do mlh prokptei h @WFSAF
Parathrseic
9.3.
DIAQWRISIMES DIAFORIKES EXISWSEIS PRWTHS TAXEWS
IVQ
IF o jerhm eni pol pl sthn efrmog touF rktikD n m dneti h hi a(y)y = g(x) ki gnwrzoume prgouse AD GD gi ti aD g ntstoiqD tte to jerhm lei pw mporome n gryoumeX
a(y)y = g(x) a(y)
dy = g(x) a(y)dy = g(x)dx dx a(y)dy = g(x)dx A(y) = G(x) + C.
PF r stjer C mpore n pleifje me qrsh mi rqik sunjkhF QF yi lsei pou rskoume eni se peplegmnh morf3 werik for eni dnto n lsoume thn exswsh pou prokptei w pro y F
Pardeigma 9.6
'Estw h DE
Brete mia lsh
gia thn opoa
dy = x + 3x2 . dx y(0) = 6. y2
Lsh:
1 3 x2 = x + 3x y dy = (x + 3x )dx y = + x3 + C y dx 3 2
2 dy 2 2 2
3x2 y= + 3x3 + 3C 2
1 3
en sthn nw genik lsh jsoume x = 0D y = 6D ekol prokptei pw C = 72D r telik h zhtomenh exswsh eni h
x2 y= + x3 + 216 2
Pardeigma 9.7
1. 2. 3.
1 3
Brete tic lseic twn akloujwn DE:
dy 2 xy dx = 1, x, y > 0, dy dx dy dx
= exy , = 3x2 ey .
9eskhshF
Lsh:
IVR
KEFALAIO 9.
9.4
H Mjodoc tou
Euler
Parathrseic
IF oll hiD km ki prth txewD den mporon n lujon se kleist morfF PF oll lle hi mporon n lujonD ll den m endifrei h lsh tou se kleist morfD pr mno mi grfik peiknishF QF qi tou nw lgouD h perioq reunF
arijmhtik
eplush diforikn exissewn eni tersti
RF id j dome thn plosterh mjodo eplushD th mjodo tou EulerF

Basik Ida
IF 9istw h diforik exswsh y = f (x, y)F 9istw pw jloume n rome proseggiE stik mi lsh y(x) pou dirqeti p to shmeo (x0 , y0 )F PF wporome n upologsoume thn prgwgo th y(x) sto (x0 , y0 )X eni h y (x0 ) = f (x0 , y0 )F QF 9istw mikr xF teD
kat prosggish
D h tim th y(x0 + x) j isoti me
y(x0 + x)
RF 9erD
proseggistik
y0 + x y (x0 , y0 ).
D rk llo n shmeoD to
(x0 + x, y0 + xy (x0 , y0 ))
SF r didiks mpore n epnlhfje p to no shmeo pou rkmeF
Algrijmoc
INPUT: f(*,*), Dx, x(0), y(0), y(0)=f(x(0),y(0)), N for i=1:N, x(i)=x(i-1)+Dx; y(i)=y(i-1)+Dx*f(x(i-1),y(i-1)); END OUTPUT: x(*), y(*)
Parathrseic
9.4.
H MEJODOS TOU
EULER
IVS
IF we th mjodo utD rskoume n snolo shmewn pou proseggzoun to grfhm th gnwsth sunrthshF PF wporome epsh n metkinhjome pro t risterD nt gi t dexiD jtont rnhtik xF QF 9in prdeigm th mejdou fneti sto qm WFID gi thn exswsh y = y D me rqik sunjke x0 = 1, y0 = eF @oi eni h sunrthsh y cA ipeid qoume epilxei rket meglo mD to sflmD met p mno pnte epnlyei tou lgrijmouD eni upologsimoF RF en qoume epilxei rket mikr m xD elpzoume ti to sflm j eni rket mikr km ki met p rket rijm hmtwnF wporome n dexoume jewrhtik ti to sflm sthn teleut epnlhyh tou lgrijmou eni nlogo tou mtoF SF 9in llo prdeigm fneti sto qm WFPD pou qei luje rijmhtik h y = cos x sto disthm [0, 10]D gi rqik sunjkh x0 = 0, y0 = 0D ki gi meioE meno mgejo mtoF 9iqoume epsh sqedisei thn kri lshD pou mpore n upologiste se kleist morfF @oi enicAF TF r mjodo genikeete ki gi ll edh hiF UF r mjodo eni pol pl ll me mtri epdoshD ki uprqoun pol kltereF qi prdeigmD h mjodo Runge-Kutta ttrth txew qei sflm nlogo th ttrth dnmh tou mtoF VF erisster se mjmt erijmhtik enlushF
IVT
KEFALAIO 9.
y 7 5 6 5 4 2 3 0 2 2 1 5 0 4 3 0.5 1 1.5 2 x 1 1 4 y(x)=ex 3
qm WFIX erijmhtik eplush th hi y (x) = y(x)D me rqik sunjke x0 = 1, y0 = eD sto disthm [0, 2]F 9iqoume ektelsei S epnlyei pro t risterD ki S pro t dexiF rthrste ti kj uxnoun oi epnlyeiD uxnei ki to sflm nmes sthn sunrthsh pou upologzoume rijmhtikD ki thn prgmtik lsh y(x) = ex F
9.4.
H MEJODOS TOU
EULER
IVU
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
x=1
2 x=0.5
10
2 x=0.2
10
2 x=0.1
10
10
qm WFPX erijmhtik eplush th hi y = cos xD me rqik sunjke x0 = 0, y0 = 0D ki gi difor megjh hmtwnD sto disthm [0, 10]F rthrste ti kj mikrnei to mgejo tou mtoD meineti ki to sflm nmes sthn sunrthsh pou upologzoume rijmhtik @ki pou qoume sqedisei me dikekommnh grmmAD ki thn prgmtik lsh y = sin x @pou qoume sqedisei me suneqmenh grmmAF
IVV
KEFALAIO 9.
9.5
Kathgoropohsh Diaforikn Exissewn
yi hi pou qoume dh mqri tr eni n pol mikr degm twn hi pou meletonti p mjhmtikoF indeiktikD nfroume ti klouje kthgorioE poiseiX
@idh hiA
1. Diaforik Exswsh kaletai mia exswsh pou sundei mia sunrthsh me tic paraggouc thc.
2. An h gnwsth sunrthsh enai miac metablhtc, tte h DE kaletai sunjhc. Allic, kaletai merik.
3. An h gnwsth sunrthsh enai bajmwt, tte h DE kaletai bajmwt.
Allic,
an h gnwsth sunrthsh enai dianusmatik, h DE kaletai dianusmatik.
4. H DE kaletai wc.
n-ostc
txewc an emfanzontai pargwgoi mqri kai
n-ostc txe-
5. Mia sunjhc DE kaletai grammik an enai thc morfc
an (x)y (n) + an1 (x)y (n1) + . . . + a1 (x)y + a0 (x)y = g(x),

allic onomzetai mh grammik. (Oi nnoiec genikeontai kai gia merikc DE.)
6. Mia sunjhc grammik DE kaletai omogenc an
g(x) = 0. ai (x)
enai sta-
7. Mia sunjhc grammik DE kaletai stajern suntelestn an ta jerc.
Orismc 9.5
wc proc thn
@werik rgwgoA
sto shmeo
'Estw sunrthsh polln metablhtn
xi
f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ). (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) to rio
Orzw thn merik pargwgo
f f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xi + h, . . . , xn ) f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xi , . . . , xn ) (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = lim . h0 xi h

Parathrseic
9.5.
KATHGOROPOIHSH DIAFORIKWN EXISWSEWN
IVW
IF r merik prgwgo tutzeti me thn pl prgwgo n jewrsoume le ti metlht stjerD ekt p thn xi F unepD dithre le ti idithte pou qoun oi prgwgoiF qi n mhn uprqei sgqush me thn perptwsh th pl df f prggouD th sumolzoume me xi nt gi dxi F PF yi perissteroi fusiko nmoi ekfrzonti w merik hiD pou oi nexrthte metlht eni o qrno t ki mi perisstere p ti suntetgmne x, y, z F
Pardeigma 9.8
1. H exswsh tou
@pusiko xmoiA
Poisson 2f 2f 2f (x, y, z) + 2+ 2 = 2 x y z (x, y, z)
f (x, y, z) entc qrou me dihlektrik stajer (x, y, z) kai qwrik katanom fortou (x, y, z) Coulomb an m3 . Sthn eidik perptwsh pou (x, y, z) = 0, parnoume thn exswsh tou Laplace:
ikanopoietai ap to hlektrik dunamik
2f 2f 2f + + = 0. x2 y 2 z 2
An perioristome stic do diastseic, lambnoume:
2f 2f + = 0. x2 y 2
2. H kumatik exswsh
@WFUA
c2
perigrfei na kma sth qord kai tou
2f 2f = 2. x2 t
@WFVA
f (x, t) kat mkoc miac qordc, sunartsei thc jshc x pnw qrnou t.
3. H exswsh didoshc thc jermthtac
2f f c 2 = x t
prpei na ikanopoietai ap th jermokrasa kat mkoc tou xona
@WFWA
x,
sto shmeo
f (x, t) pou qei mia rbdoc topojethmnh x kat th qronik stigm t.
IWH
KEFALAIO 9.
4. 'Alla paradegmata enai oi exisseic tou twna, oi exisseic pedou tou
Maxwell, oi nmoi thc dunamikc tou NeNavier-Stokes

thc udroduna-
Einstein,
pou perigrfoun ta barutik peda up th
genik jewra thc sqetikthtac, kai oi exisseic mikc.
Praktik, o mnoi fusiko nmoi pou den perigrfontai msw sunjwn
merikn DE enai oi nmoi tou
Murphy.
Keflaio 10
Polunuma
Taylor
10.1
Orismc kai Basikc Idithtec
@olunum TaylorA 'Estw sunrthsh f gia thn opoa uprqoun oi pargwgoi mqri a. Orzoume to polunumo Taylor bajmo n sth jsh a wc to
Orismc 10.1
kai
n txhc sto shmeo
Pn,a (x)
f (a) + f (a)(x a) +
f (n) (a) f (a) (x a)2 + . . . + (x a)n 2 n! 2 n a0 + a1 (x a) + a2 (x a) + . . . + an (x a) . f (k) (a) , 0 k n. k!
pou
ak
Parathrseic
IF ton orism tou suntelest a0 D ennoeti pw 0!
1D f (0)
fF
PF thn perptwsh a = 0D t polunum klonti ki polunum MaclaurinF QF werik for prlepoume to a ki grfoume Pn (x)F RF 9ytn jloume n nfroume rht thn sunrthsh f p thn opo to polunumo prorqetiD to grfoume w Pn,a,f (x)F SF ep thn ktskeu touD to polunumo Taylor tutzeti me th sunrthsh sth jsh aD ki epiplon qei prggou mqri ki n jmo se me ti ntstoiqe
IWI
IWP
KEFALAIO 10.
POLUWNUMA
TAYLOR
prggou th sunrthsh f sto shmeo aF rgmtiD

(0) Pn,a (a)
= =
(1) Pn,a (a) =
(2) Pn,a (a) =
... ... (n) Pn,a (a) =
f (n) (a) f (a) 2 (x a) + . . . + (x a)n f (a) + f (a)(x a) + 2 n! f (a), f (a) f (a) + f (a)(x a) + (x a)2 + . . . 2 (n) f (a) ... + (x a)n1 = f (a), (n 1)! x=a f (4) (a) (x a)2 + . . . f (a) + f (a)(x a) + 2 (n) f (a) ... + (x a)n2 = f (a), (n 2)! x=a ... f (n) (a).
x=a
TF ini ekolo n dexoume ti do polunum jmo n pou qoun se prgE gou txh 0 w n se n shmeo a tutzonti @dhld loi oi suntelest tou eni soiAF 9erD to polunumo Taylor mi sunrthsh f se n shmeo a eni to mno polunumo txh n me thn iditht n tutzonti oi prgwgo p 0 mqri n txh me ti ntstoiqe th sunrthsh se ekeno to shmeoF UF rthrste ti gi n = 1 to polunumo Taylor tutzeti me thn efptmenh euje th f sto shmeo aF VF ipeid to polunumo Taylor jmo n th sunrthsh f ki h sunrthsh f qoun se prggouD eni nmenmeno ti to polunumo j proseggzei thn sunrE thsh kont sto aD ki mlist so megltero eni to nD tso klterh j eni h prosggishF rgmtiD dete to qm IHFID pou qoume sqedisei ti exp xD sin x ki t ntstoiq polunum TaylorD sto shmeo a = 0D difrwn jmnF rthrste ti so meglnei to nD tso meglnei h krei th prosggishF thn epmenh prgrfo j sqolhjome me to pso kl eni h prosggishF
Pardeigma 10.1
Na dexete ti ta polunuma
Taylor
twn sunartsewn
exp x,
10.1.
IWQ
20 18
ex n=5
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 n=9,10 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 1 2 3 x 4 5 6 n=3,4 n=7,8 sin x n=1,2 0.5 1 1.5 x 2 2.5 n=1 n=2 n=4 n=3
n=0 3
n=5,6
qm IHFIX olunum Taylor diforwn jmn gi ti sunrtsei exp xD sin xF
IWR
KEFALAIO 10.
POLUWNUMA
TAYLOR
log(x + 1),
1 1x ,
sin x,
kai
cos x,
sth jsh
a = 0,
enai:
Pn,0,exp x (x) = Pn,0,log(x+1) = Pn,0,(1x)1 (x) = P2n+1,0,sin x (x) = P2n+2,0,sin x (x) = P2n,0,cos x (x) = P2n+1,0,cos x (x) =
Lsh:
x2 x3 xn 1+x+ + + ... + , 2! 3! n! 2 3 4 x x x xn x + + . . . + (1)n+1 , 2 3 4 n 2 3 n 1 + x + x + x + ... + x , 2n+1 x3 x5 x7 n x x + + . . . + (1) , 3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)! P2n+1,0,sin x (x), 2n x2 x4 x6 n x 1 + + . . . + (1) , 2! 4! 6! (2n)! P2n,0,cos x (x).
9eskhshF @vogism me olunum TaylorA Taylor qoun tic akloujec idithtec:
Jerhma 10.1
Ta polunuma
1. To polunumo
Taylor
tou grammiko sunduasmo do sunartsewn isotai me
ton grammik sunduasm twn poluwnmwn stajerc, tte
Taylor
twn sunartsewn:
an oi
c1 , c2
Pn,a,c1 f1 +c2 f2 (x) = c1 Pn,a,f1 (x) + c2 Pn,a,f2 (x).

2. H pargwgoc enc polunumou
Taylor enai na polunumo Taylor thc paraggou:
(Pn,a,f (x)) = Pn1,a,f (x).

3. To oloklrwma enc polunumou rmatoc: 'Estw
Taylor
enai na polunumo
Taylor
tou oloklh-
g(x) =
x a f.
Tte:
Pn,a,f (x) = Pn+1,a,g (x).

a
4.
Pn,a,f (cx) (x) = Pn,ca,f (x) (cx),

dhlad to polunumo
Taylor
thc
f (x)
sth
Taylor thc f (cx) jsh ca.
sth jsh
prokptei ap to polunumo
10.1.
IWS
r pdeixh eni pl ki prlepetiF e le ti periptsei rke n sugkrnoume to polunumo tou ristero mlou gi n dome pw eni dio me to polunumo tou ristero mlouF
Apdeixh: Pardeigma 10.2
numa ti To nw jerhma mac epitrpei na brskoume kainorgia poluGia pardeigma, gnwrzoume
Taylor,
qrhsimopointac aut pou gnwrzoume dh.
x2 x3 xn Pn,0,exp(x) (x) = 1 + x + + + ... + , 2! 3! n! (x)n x2 x3 + ... + . 2! 3! n!
ra, ap to teleutao skloc,
Pn,0,exp(x) (x) = Pn,0,exp(x) (x) = 1 x +
San na llo pardeigma, stw h sunrthsh uperboliko sunhmitnou (pou emfanzetai suqn, se lseic diaforikn exissewn, ektc twn llwn):
cosh(x)
ex + ex . 2
Tte, ap to prto skloc tou jewrmatoc, qoume
Pn,0,cosh(x) =
1 1 Pn,0,exp(x) (x) + Pn,0,exp(x) (x) 2 2 2 4 x x x2n = 1+ + + ... + . 2! 4! (2n)!
Parmoia orzetai kai to uperbolik hmtono:
cosh(x)
gia to opoo, entelc anloga, prokptei
ex ex , 2
Pn,0,sinh(x) =
1 Pn,0,exp(x) (x) 2 x3 x5 = 1+x+ + 3! 5!
1 Pn,0,exp(x) (x) 2 x2n+1 + ... + . (2n + 1)!
IWT
KEFALAIO 10.
POLUWNUMA
TAYLOR
10.2
Uploipo
Jerhma 10.2
An
(Akrbeia thc Prosggishc sto 'Orio)
enai mia sunrthsh me paraggouc
txhc sto
a,
kai
Pn,a (x)
to antstoiqo
polunumo
Taylor n
bajmo grw ap to
a,
tte:
f (x) Pn,a (x) = 0. xa (x a)n lim

Epiplon, to dhlad an
@IHFIA
Pn,a (x)
enai to monadik polunumo bajmo
kn
me aut thn idithta,
f (x) Q(x) =0 xa (x a)n lim

me
@IHFPA
Q(x)
polunumo bajmo mikrterou sou tou
n,
tte
Q(x) = Pn,a (x).
rt j podexoume thn @IHFIAD ki xekinme prthrnt pw to rio prousizei prosdiorist th morf 0/0D fo profn
Apdeixh:
xa
lim (x a)n = 0,
en epiplon
xa
lim (f (x) Pn,a (x)) = f (n) (a) lim f (x) lim f (a) + f (a)(x a) + . . . + (x a)n = f (a) f (a) = 0. xa xa n!
@th deterh isthtD qrhsimopoisme th sunqei th f (x) pou exsflzeti p thn prxh th prggou f (a)FA 9erD mporome n efrmzoume ton unn LHspitalF o rthrome mw pw n i < nD tte h prgwgo i txh tou pronomst eni
[(x a)n ](i) = n(n 1) . . . (n i + 1)(x a)ni 0, kj x a.
10.2.
UPOLOIPO
IWU
qetik me ton rijmhtD ekol prokptei ti gi i < nD
[f (x) Pn,a (x)]
(i)
f (n) (a) = f (x) f (a) + f (a)(x a) + . . . + (x a)n n! = f (i) (x) (x a)ni (i) (i+1) (n) f (a) + f (a)(x a) + . . . + f (a) (n i)! f (i) (a) f (i) (a) = 0, kj x a.
(i)
rthrste pw ki pli qrhsimopoisme th sunqei th f i sto aD pou exsflzeti p thn prxh th f i+1 F 9erD o unn LHspital mpore n efrmoste n1 forD o ktlgont sto
f (n1) (x) f (n1) (a) f (n) (x a) f (x) Pn,a (x) = lim lim xa xa (x a)n n!(x a) f (n1) (x) f (n1) (a) f (n) (a) = lim lim xa xa n!(x a) n! f (n) (a) f (n) (a) = n! n! = 0.
r trth istht prokptei p ton orism th f (n) sto x = aF t dexoume tr ti to Pn,a (x) eni to mondik polunumo jmo n me ut thn idithtF 9istw pw to Pn,a (x) den eni mondikD isqei dhld h @IHFPA gi kpoio Q me jm nF ep ti @IHFIA ki @IHFPA prokptei pw
Pn,a (x) Q(x) = 0, xa (x a)n lim

dhld
R(x) = 0, xa (x a)n lim

pou R(x) = Pn,a (x) Q(x) polunumo jmo n diforo tou mhdenikoF 9istw pw R(x) = rk (x a)k + . . . rl (x a)l , pou 0 k l nD ki rk , rl = 0F hhldD o ro mikrterh txh eni o rk (x a)k D ki o ro meglterh txh eni o rl (x a)l F @indeqomnw t k, l n tutzontiFA
IWV
KEFALAIO 10.
POLUWNUMA
TAYLOR
9er j prpei
rk (x a)k + . . . + rl (x a)l lim = 0. xa (x a)n

ipeid lim (x a)nk = 0D mporome n pollplsisoume to phlko ent tou nw orou me (x a)nk D gi n loume
xa
rk (x a)n + rk+1 (x a)n+1 + . . . + rl (x a)nk+l =0 xa (x a)n lim rk + rk+1 (x a) + . . . + rl (x a)lk = 0 rk = 0, lim

xa
pou eni topoF 9erD prpei tutotik R(x) = 0D dhld to Pn,a (x) eni mondikF
Parathrseic
IF o nw jerhm epieinei ti prgmti t polunum Taylor proseggzoun mi sunrthsh kj x aD ki prosdiorzei ki to pso kl eni ut h prosggishD gi sugkekrimno nF PF ipiplonD deqnei ti h prosggish eni h klterh duntD n perioristome se polunum tou diou jmo nF QF 9yso pio meglo eni to nD tso pio grgor pei to n sto 0D r ki tso klterh prpei n eni h prosggish nmes sth sunrthsh ki to polunumo TaylorF
Orismc 10.2
@ploipoA
Orzoume wc uploipo, sflma, tou polunumou
Taylor
thn posthta
Rn (x)
Jerhma 10.3
f (x) Pn,a,x (x) f (x) =

k=0
f (k) (a) (x a)k + Rn (x). k!
@terhm TaylorA
1. 'Estw pwc h sunrthsh sto disthma
qei suneqec paraggouc mqri kai
I me kra x, a, pou x = a. (Dhlad, I = [x, a], an a > x.) Isqei o akloujoc tpoc gia to polunumou Taylor Pn,a (x) grw ap to shmeo a: 1 Rn (x) = n!
x
n + 1 txewc panto I = [a, x] an a < x, sflma, sth jsh x, tou
(x t)n f (n+1) (t) dt.

a
10.2.
UPOLOIPO
IWW
2. An isqei to frgma
|f (n+1) (t)| M, t I,
tte isqei kai to frgma
|Rn (x)| M
Apdeixh:
|x a|n+1 . (n + 1)!
IF t qrhsimopoisoume epgwg sto nD sunep to prto m eni o upologism tou Rn (x) gi n = 1F rgmtiX
x x
R1 (x) = f (x) f (a) (x a)f (a) =

x x a
f (t) dt f (a)
a
dt
=
a
[f (t) f (a)] dt =
a x (a)]]a
(t x) [f (t) f (a)] dt
x
= [(t a)[f (t) f

x
(t x)f (t) dt
=
a
(x t)f (t) dt.
thn Sh istht qrhsimopoisme prgontik oloklrwshF 9istw tr pw iE sqei to jerhm gi nF t podexoume ti isqei ki gi n + 1F rgmtiX
Rn+1 (x) = = = = =
f (n+1) (a) (x a)n+1 Rn (x) (n + 1)! x f (n+1) (a) x 1 n (n+1) (x t) f (t) dt (x t)n dt n! a n! a x 1 (x t)n f (n+1) (t) f (n+1) (a) dt n! a (x t)n+1 1 x f (n+1) (t) f (n+1) (a) dt n! a n+1 x n+1 (x t) (n+1) (n+1) f (t) f (a) (n + 1)! a x 1 + (x t)n+1 f (n+2) (t) dt (n + 1)! a x 1 (x t)n+1 f (n+2) (t) dt. (n + 1)! a
PHH
KEFALAIO 10.
POLUWNUMA
TAYLOR
thn deterh istht qrhsimopoisme thn epgwgik upjeshD ki ton tpo

x
(x t)n dt =
a
(x a)n+1 . n+1
thn pmpth istht qrhsimopoisme ki pli prgontik oloklrwshF PF r pdeixh uto tou sklou eni pl ki prlepetiF
10.3.
PHI
10.3
Orismc 10.3
@umolism oA 'Estw sunrthsh g(x) ttoia ste g(x) = 0 gia kje x = a se kpoio anoikt disthma pou periqei to a R. Tte grfoume
f (x) = o(g(x)),
an isqei
x a,
kai lme ti {h
enai mikron tou 1. An
f (x) = 0, xa g(x) g }. lim

tte
Pardeigma 10.3
2. An
xa
lim f (x) = 0,
tte
f (x) = o(1)
kajc
kajc
x a.
H endiafrousa
xa
(x) lim fxn = 0,
pou
perptwsh enai tan 3. Parathrste ti
n N+ , a = 0.
f (x) = o(xn )
x a.
1/(1 + x) 1 log(x + 1) x = lim =0 x0 x0 x 1 lim

ra
log(1 + x) x = o(x),
allic
log(1 + x) = x + o(x).
Paratrhsh:
ol suqnD n mi sunrthsh f (x) = o(g(x)) pou emfnzeti se mi exswsh eni ete polplokh morfD ete gnwsthD grfoume o(g(x)) sth jsh th f (x)F
Pardeigma 10.4
Ap to Jerhma 10.2 prokptei ti
f (x) = Pn,a (x) + Rn (x) = Pn,a (x) + o((x a)n ), x a.

'Ara, mporome na gryoume:
1 = 1 + x + x2 + . . . + xn + o(xn ), x 0, 1x x2 x3 xn exp x = 1 + x + + + ... + + o(xn ), 2! 3! n! 2 3 4 x x x xn log(x + 1) = x + + . . . + (1)n+1 + o(xn ). 2 3 4 n
PHP
KEFALAIO 10.
POLUWNUMA
TAYLOR
Jerhma 10.4
Kajc 1.
@vogism me ton umolism oA

gia kje kai
x a, c1 , c2 R.
c1 o(g(x)) + c2 o(g(x)) = o(g(x)), c = 0,

tte
2. An 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
o(cg(x)) = o(g(x))
o(g(x)) = o(cg(x)).
f (x)o(g(x)) = o(f (x)g(x)). o(o(g(x))) = o(g(x)), o(f (x) + o(f (x))) = o(f (x)), o(g1 (x))o(g2 (x)) = o(g1 (x)g2 (x)),
1 1+g(x)
= 1 g(x) + o(g(x)),
efson
xa
lim g(x) = 0.
rthrste ti orismne p ti nw exissei fnonti entel prE loge n jewrsoume thn o(x) w sunhjismnh sunrthshF o o eni sumolismD ki prpei n ermhneeti nlogF qi prdeigmD h prth exswsh lei ti n proume ton grmmik sundusm do sunrtsewn pou eni o(g(x))D prnoume mi sunrthsh pou eni epsh o(g(x))F o detero sklo lei ti n mi sunrthsh f eni mikron mi g D tte ki h cf eni mikron th g @prth isthtAD ki epiplon h f eni mikron th cf @deterh isthtAF o ttrto sklo lei ti mi sunrthsh pou eni pol mikrterh p mi sunrthsh pou eni pol mikrterh p thn g(x) eni h di pol mikrterh p thn g(x)F rmoi ermhneonti ki t uploip sklhF
Apdeixh:
IF 9istw f1 (x) = o(g(x))D f2 (x) = o(g(x))F teX
f1 (x) f2 (x) c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) = c1 lim + c2 lim = 0, xa xa g(x) xa g(x) g(x) lim
9er f1 (x) + f2 (x) = o(g(x))F PFETF enlogF UF rthrste ti
1 1 1 + g 2 (x) g 2 (x) (1 g(x)) = = , 1 + g(x) 1 + g(x) 1 + g(x)

pou profn eni o(g(x))D fo
g 2 (x)/(1 + g(x)) g(x) 0 lim = lim = = 0. xa xa 1 + g(x) g(x) 0+1
10.3.
PHQ
Paratrhsh:
y sumolism eni pol euliktoD ki m epitrpei n sungoume ri ki loip sumpersmt gi th sumperifor sunrtsewn me sunoptik trpoF o kloujo prdeigm eni qrkthristikF
Pardeigma 10.5
H uperbolik efaptmenh orzetai anloga me thn efaptmenh:
tanh x
sinh x . cosh x
Qrhsimopointac ton sumbolism mikron, qoume:
x2 x4 cosh x = 1 + + + o(x5 ), 2 4! 3 x sinh x = x + + o(x4 ). 3!

Gia na upologzoume mia antstoiqh kfrash gia thn uperbolik efaptmenh, qoume:
tanh x =
x + x3 /3! + o(x4 ) 1 + x2 /2 + x4 /4! + o(x5 )

1
= x + x3 /3! + o(x4 ) 1 x2 /2 x4 /4! + o(x2 ) = x x3 /2 + o(x3 ). o(x3 ),
Sthn teleutaa isthta qrhsimopoiome to gegonc ti o pio megloc roc thc morfc mikron enai o sh tou opte mporome na agnosoume rouc me dnamh megalterh
4.
PHR
KEFALAIO 10.
POLUWNUMA
TAYLOR
Keflaio 11
Seirc
11.1
Sgklish Akoloujin
Jerhma 11.1
'Estw
orismnh
@njesh uneqo unrthsh me ekoloujA se na anoikt disthma A pou perilambnei na shmeo c.'Estw
xc
pwc
limf (x) = f (c), an

ttoia ste
@IIFIA
dhlad h
enai suneqc sto
c,
kai stw akolouja
an A,
Tte
n+
lim an = c.
@IIFPA
n+
lim f (an ) = f ( lim an ).

n+
@IIFQA
Antistrfwc, an h (11.3) isqei gia opoiadpote akolouja ikanopoie tic nw do sunjkec (11.2), tte isqei h (11.1), dhlad h
f (x)
enai suneqc.
Apdeixh:
@A 9istw opoiodpote
> 0F t uprqei > 0 ttoio ste
|x c| < |f (x) f (c)| < .

ipeid mw lim an = cD gi to sugkekrimno > 0 uprqei N ttoio ste
n+
n > N |an c| < .

unduzont t nwX
n > N |f (an ) f (c)| < ,

ki h pdeixh tou eujw oloklhrjhkeF
PHS
PHT
KEFALAIO 11.
SEIRES
y f(a1) f(a3) f(c) f(a4) f(a2) A a2 ... a4 ... c ... a3 ...
f(x)
x a1
@A 9istw tr pw h @IIFQA isqei gi opoidpote kolouj iknopoie ti nw do sunjke @IIFPAF 9istw pw den isqei h @IIFIAF t odhghjome se topoF rgmtiD tte j uprqei kpoio > 0 ttoio ste gi kje n uprqei x A ttoio ste n isqoun tutqronX |x c| < , |f (x) l| > .
1 r nw j isqei ki gi = n D ki n jsoume xn to ntstoiqo xD prokptei pw rkme kolouj xn ttoi ste
|xn c| <
1 , |f (xn ) l| > . n
ifrmzont to terhm th remol sthn prth sqshD prokptei ti h xn tenei sto cF ep th deterh sqsh prokptei ti h f (xn ) den mpore n sugklnei sto lF 9er ftsme se topoF
Pardeigma 11.1
1.
n+
lim cos
n2 +2 n2 +4
= cos
n2 +2 2 n+ n +4
lim
= cos 1.
2.
n+
lim e1 n = e.
(Erthsh: mporete na skeftete na antipardeigma sto opoo to jerhma den mpore na efarmoste?)
Parathrseic
11.1.
SUGKLISH AKOLOUJIWN
PHU
IF o euj tou jewrmto eni exiretik qrsimo ston prosdiorism orwn kolouE jinD fo ousistik m epitrpei n pernme to rio ms sth sunrthshD tn ut eni suneqF o ntstrofo epitrpei n prosdiorsoume n mi sunrthsh eni suneq qiD ll den j to qrhsimopoisoume iditer edF PF o potlesm mpore n genikeute ki gi thn perptwsh pou den eni suneq h f (x) sto cD ll pl qei rioF 9iqoume to kloujo jerhmF
Jerhma 11.2
@njesh unrthsh me ekoloujA 'Estw f orismnh se na anoikt disthma A pou perilambnei qi orismnh kai sto c. 'Estw pwc
xc
kai akolouja
na shmeo
all swc
limf (x) = l,
@IIFRA
an
ttoia ste
an A, an = c,
Tte
n+
lim an = c.
@IIFSA @IIFTA
n+
lim f (an ) = l.
Antistrfwc, an h (11.6) isqei gia opoiadpote akolouja ikanopoie tic nw treic sunjkec (11.5), tte isqei h (11.4).
Apdeixh:
rlepetiF @wonoton ki prgmtA
Orismc 11.1
1. Mia akolouja
an+1 an gia kje n N, kaletai gnhswc axousa an an+1 > an gia kje n N, kai kaletai nw fragmnh me nw frgma M an an M gia kje n N. an
kaletai axousa an thc ktw fragmnhc akoloujac kai tou ktw frgmatoc akoloujac.
2. Antstoiqa orzontai oi nnoiec thc fjnousac kai gnhswc fjnousac akoloujac,
3. Oi (gnhswc) axousec kai fjnousec akoloujec kalontai ap koino (gnhswc) montonec. 4. Oi akoloujec pou enai kai nw kai ktw fragmnec kalontai fragmnec. thrste pwc mia akolouja enai fragmnh ann uprqei gia kje Para-
ttoio ste
|an | M
n N.
PHV
KEFALAIO 11.
SEIRES
a1
a2
a3
a4 ...
Jerhma 11.3
@wonotonD prgm gklishA
1. An mia akolouja enai axousa kai fragmnh nw, tte sugklnei.
2. An mia akolouja enai fjnousa kai fragmnh ktw, tte sugklnei.
erke n podexoume to prto skloF o detero mpore n prokyei mes p to prtoD nexrtht me prmoi pdeixhF r an eni frgmnh nwD stw p kpoio M D r to snolo {an } qei supremumD stw aF o a eni to rio th an F rgmtiD stw opoiodpote > 0F ep ton orism tou supremumD uprqei kpoio N ttoio ste
Apdeixh:
a < aN a n > N, a < an a n > N, |an a| < .

@r prth sunepgwg prokptei git h an eni xousD ki frgmnh nw p to aFA 9erD p ton orism tou orouD lim an = aF
n+
Orismc 11.2
Upakolouja
@pkoloujA miac akoloujac {an }
enai mia opoiadpote akolouja thc morfc
an1 , an2 , . . . , ank , . . .

pou
n1 < n2 < nk < . . .

Pardeigma 11.2
an = (1)n mporome na dhmiourgsoume tic upakoloujec bn = a2n kai cn = a2n+1 me ria to 1 kai to 1 antstoiqa. Mporome na dhmiourgsoume llec upakoloujec me ta ria 1 kai 1?
Ap thn akolouja
Jerhma 11.4
@Bolzano-WeierstrassA
Kje fragmnh akolouja qei toulqiston mia sugklnousa upakolouja.
9istw an mi frgmnh koloujF frgmnhD j uprqoun l0 , r0 ttoi ste l0 an r0 gi kje nF en temqsw to disthm [l0 , r0 ] sth mshD profn ete to rister tmmD ete to dex tmmD j periqoun thn an gi peirou dekte nF
Apdeixh:
11.1.
SUGKLISH AKOLOUJIWN
PHW
eut mpor n to epnlw ep9 peironD ktlgont tsi se mi kolouj disthE mtwn [ln , rn ] ki do kolouje krwn ek twn opown h prthD {ln }D eni xous ki sunepD w frgmnh p to r0 sugklneiD stw sto x RD en h deterhD {rn }D eni fjnous ki sunepD w frgmnh ktw p to l0 D epsh sugklneiD epsh sto x RD lli qoume topoF @rgmtiD prthrste ti lim (rn ln ) = 0FA hhmiourg tr thn zhtomenh upkolouj ank w exX ipilgw an0 me n0 oE poiondpote dekth th an F ipilgw an1 me dekth n1 > n0 tsi ste an1 [l1 , r1 ]F ipeid sto [l1 , r1 ] uprqei h an gi peirou dekteD ttoio dekth sgour uprqeiF uneqzw me ton dio trpoD epilgont to an2 D me n2 > n1 n nkei sto [l2 , b2 ]D kokF ep to kritrio th premolD profn h upkolouj ank sugklnei sto xF
Orismc 11.3
Mia akolouja ttoio ste
n+
@ekolouje CauchyA kaletai akolouja Cauchy
an gia kje
> 0
uprqei kpoio
N N
n, m > N, |an am | < .

Lmma 11.1
dia. (Upakolouja Akoloujac
Cauchy)
An mia akolouja
Cauchy an
qei mia sugklnousa upakolouja, tte sugklnei kai h
Apdeixh:
9istw > 0F 9istw an1 , an2 , . . . h sugklnous upkoloujD ki stw l to ri thF prqei nK ttoio ste
k > K, |ank l| < . 2

r an eni CauchyD r uprqei N ttoio ste
n, m > N, |an am | < . 2

r nw j isqei ki gi kpoio m = np D pou p > K D dhld
n > N, |an anp | < . 2

9erD gi kje n > N D
|an l| |an anp | + |anp l| <

ki ex orismo h an qei rio to lF
= ,
PIH
KEFALAIO 11.
SEIRES
Lmma 11.2
An mia
@Cauchy prgmnhA akolouja enai Cauchy tte enai
kai fragmnh.
Apdeixh:
9istw an mi kolouj CauchyF 9istw
= 1 > 0F prqei N ttoio
ste
n, m > N, |an am | < 1 n > N, |an aN +1 | < 1 n > N, aN +1 1 < an < 1 + aN +1 .

9erD h kolouj eni frgmnh p to N ki prD ki epeid to pljo twn an D n N eni pepersmnoD prokptei ti h kolouj j eni pnto frgmnhF
Jerhma 11.5
Mia akolouja
@gklish sditht CauchyA enai Cauchy ann sugklnei.
Apdeixh:
@A 9istw an kolouj CauchyF 9er j eni frgmnh @vmm IIFPAD r j qei mi sugklnous upkolouj @terhm IIFRAD r j sugklnei @vmm IIFIAF @A 9istw pw h an sugklneiF 9istw > 0F te j uprqei N ttoio ste
n > N |an l| < . 2 9istw duo n, m > N F t qoumeX |an am | |an l| + |am l| <
r h kolouj eni CauchyF
Paratrhsh:
= ,
en den sque to exwm lhrtht @se poio shmeo to qrhsimopoiE smecAD den j sque ki to nw jerhmF rgmtiD n perioristome stou rhtoD pou to exwm lhrtht den isqeiD mporome n ktskeusoume kolouje pou eni Cauchy ll den sugklnoun se kpoio rhtF 9in prdeigm eni h
1, 1.4, 1.41, 1.414, 1.4142, 1.41421, . . .

@9ymw mi sugklnous kolouj eni pnt CauchyD km ki stou rhtoAF
Lmma 11.3
@gklish prgmA
Kje sugklnousa akolouja enai fragmnh.
r iditht mpore n podeiqje ekol peuje p ton orism tou orouF wpore mw ki n podeiqje qrhsimopoint thn jewr pou qoume nptxei w trF ugkekrimnD n mi kolouj sugklneiD eni Cauchy @terhm IIFSAD r ki frgmnh @vmm IIFPAF
Apdeixh:
11.2.
SEIRES
PII
11.2
Seirc
Orismc 11.4
'Estw
@eirA
H na akolouja
{an }
akolouja.
sn =
n i=1 an
twn merikn ajroismtwn
kaletai (peirh) seir, kai sumbolzetai enallaktik wc:
a1 + a2 + . . . ,
n=1
An mia seir akolouja
an ,
an
an
sugklnei se kpoio rio, tte kaletai sugklnousa, h antstoiqh
an
kaletai ajrosimh, en kalome to rio
n+
lim
n k=1 ak
jroisma thc
an ,
kai to sumbolzoume wc
ak
k=1
n+
lim
ak .
k=1
@IIFUA
An h seir den sugklnei, kaletai apoklnousa.
Parathrseic
IF rthrste ti me n=1 an sumolzoumeD ktqrhstikD ki th seir ki to ri thD efson ut uprqeiF PF oi p ti klouje seir sugklneic
1 1 + 1 1 + 1 1 + 1 ... 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ... 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + + + + + ... 2 3 4 5 6

th sunqei j meletsoume trpou me tou opoou mporome n dipistsoume thn sgklish qi seirnF QF wi poklnous seir endeqomnwc n tenei sto + sto F inllktikD prousizei {tlntsei} ep9 peironF
Jerhma 11.6
'Estw do seirc sugklnei kai h
@qrmmiko undusmo eirnA an , bn kai 1 , 2 stajerc. An sugklnoun kai oi do seirc, tte
(1 an + 2 bn ) = (1 a1 + 2 b1 ) + (1 a2 + 2 b2 ) + . . .
PIP
KEFALAIO 11.
SEIRES
kai qoume:
(1 ai + 2 bi ) = 1
i=1 i=1
ai + 2
i=1
bi .
Apdeixh:
rthrome pwX
n n n
(1 ai + 2 bi ) = 1
i=1 i=1
ai + 2
i=1
bi .
rnont to rio n +D prokptei to zhtomenoF

Pardeigma 11.3
@r qewmetrik eirA
'Estw h gewmetrik prodoc
an = r n
kai h gewmetrik seir
rn = r + r2 + r3 + . . .
n=1
Parathrome pwc to merik jroisma
sn = r + r 2 + r 3 + . . . + r n =
H isthta gia thn perptwsh
rrn+1 1r ,
n,
r = 1, r = 1.
r=1
prokptei qrhsimopointac thn gnwst tautthta
an bn = (a b)(an1 + an2 b + . . . + abn2 + bn1 ),

gia
a=1
kai
b = r,
kai pollaplasizontac me
r.
Diakrnoume periptseic:
1. 'Otan
|r| < 1, lim rn+1 = 0,

n+
ra h gewmetrik seir sugklnei sto
rn =
i=1
2. 'Otan 3. 'Otan
r . 1r +. +
r>1
to
rn+1
to
tenei sto
+,
ra h seir tenei sto
r < 1,
kai oi rtioi sto
rn+1 apoklnei (gia thn ), ra apoklnei kai h
akrbeia oi peritto roi pne sto seir.
11.2.
SEIRES
PIQ
4. 'Otan 5. 'Otan
r = 1,
qoume
sn = n,
pou tenei sto
+.
r = 1,
qoume
sn =
i=1
pou apoklnei.
(1)n+1 =
1, n = 2k + 1, 0, n = 2k,
Pardeigma 11.4
@r ermonik eirA
+
'Estw h armonik seir
n=1
1 1 1 1 = 1 + + + + ... n 2 3 4
Na deiqje, me katllhlh omadopohsh rwn, ti h armonik seir apoklnei.
Lsh:
9eskhshF @hleskopik eirA bn , h akolouja an = bn bn+1 ,

n
Pardeigma 11.5
'Estw h akolouja
kai h seir
an =
(bn bn+1 ).
Parathrome pwc (upojtontac ti ta ria pou grfoume sth sunqeia uprqoun):
ak =
k=1
n+
lim lim
ak
k=1 n
= = =
n+ n+ n+
(bk bk+1 )
k=1
lim [b1 b2 + b2 b3 + . . . + bn bn+1 ]
lim [b1 bn+1 ]

n+
= b1 lim bn+1 = b1 lim bn .

n+
'Ara, h seir
(bn bn+1 )
sugklnei ann sugklnei h
bn ,
kai an sugklnoun isqei
an = b1 lim bn .
n=1 n+
PIR
KEFALAIO 11.
SEIRES
11.3
Genik Kritria Sgklishc
Jerhma 11.7
Mia seir
@skn ki engko uritrio CauchyA an sugklnei ann gia kje > 0 uprqei N N
ttoio ste
n, m > N, m > n,
Apdeixh:
|an+1 + . . . + am | < .
r seir sugklnei ex9 orismo n h kolouj twn merikn jroismtwn sugklneiD pou sugklnei nn eni CauchyD pou isqei nn isqei h nw sunjkhD fo
m n
sm sn =
i=1
ai
i=1
ai = an+1 + . . . + am .
Jerhma 11.8
An mia seir
@engko uritrio CauchyA

sugklnei tte
an
n+
lim an = 0.
9istw pw h seir sugklneiF te mporome n efrmsoume to nw kritrioX uprqei N N ttoio ste

Apdeixh:
n, m > N, m > n,
ki n jsw m = n + 1 prokptei ti
|an+1 + . . . + am | < ,
n > N, |an+1 | < ,

pou isodunme me thn prxh orou th an sto 0F
Pardeigma 11.6
den tenei sto H seir
n n+2
apoklnei, afo h akolouja
an =
n n+2
profanc
0.
H armonik seir ikanopoie to kritrio all apoklnei. 'Ara to
Pardeigma 11.7
kritrio enai mno anagkao, kai qi ikan.
Jerhma 11.9
'Estw
k N.
@epokop epersmnou erijmo 9yrwnA + + n=1 an sugklnei ann h n=1 an+k sugklnei.
Apdeixh:
rlepetiF rokptei mes me qrsh tou orismo tou orou kolouE
jF
11.4.
SEIRES MH ARNHTIKWN ORWN
PIS
11.4
Seirc mh Arnhtikn 'Orwn
Jerhma 11.10
'Estw do
@uritrio gkrishA akoloujec an , bn 0. An uprqoun c R, n0 N,
ttoia ste
n > n0 , an cbn ,
tte an sugklnei h
@IIFVA
bn ,
sugklnei kai h
an .
Apdeixh:
utrqn prthrste ti h seir an sugklnei nn h kolouj twn n merikn jroismtwn sn = i=1 ai eni frgmnhF rgmtiD n h seir sugklneiD ex orismo h kolouj twn merikn jroismtwn sugklneiD r eni frgmnh @vmm IIFQAF entistrfwD n h kolouj twn merikn jroismtwn eni frgmnhD tte w xous @an 0A j sugklnei @terhm IIFQAD r ex9 orismo h seir sugklneiF ekolojwD prthrste ti n sugklnei h bn D j sugklnei ki h bn+n0 @teE rhm IIFWAD r j eni frgmn t merik jrosmt thF 9ymwD p thn @IIFVA qoumeX
n n
an0 +i c
i=1 i=1
bn0 +i cM,
pou M to frgm twn merikn jroismtwn th bn+n0 F 9erD j eni frgmn ki t merik jrosmt th an+n0 D rD p thn rqik m prtrhshD j sugklnei ki h an+n0 D r j sugklnei ki h an @terhm IIFWAF
Pardeigma 11.8
H
1 n!
sugklnei, giat
1 1 1 n n! 2 2
gia kje
n,
en h
1 2n
sugklnei wc gewmetrik (
r=
1 2 ).
PIT
KEFALAIO 11.
SEIRES
Jerhma 11.11
'Estw do
@uritrio gkrish sto 9yrioA akoloujec an , bn > 0 kai
an = c. n+ bn lim
Tte: 1. An 2. An h 3. An
c = 0, +,
tte h
an
sugklnei ann sugklnei kai h
bn .
c = 0, tte an sugklnei h an apoklnei kai h bn . c = +, bn

apoklnei kai h
bn
sugklnei kai h
an , en an apoklnei bn ,
en an
tte an sugklnei h
an abn .
sugklnei kai h
apoklnei h
Apdeixh:
utrqn prthrste ti l t sklh eni diisjhtik profnF
t podexoume to prto skloD kj t ll prokptoun me prmoio trpoF c ix9 orismo tou orouD gi = 2 > 0 j uprqei n0 N ttoio ste
n > n0 ,
an 3c c 3c c bn an bn . 2 bn 2 2 2
o zhtomeno prokptei efrmzont to kritrio sgkrish do forD mi gi thn c nistht 2 bn an bn 2 an ki mi for gi thn nistht an 3c bn F c 2
Pardeigma 11.9
afo
Afo h
1 n
apoklnei, ja prpei na apoklnei kai h
1 , n(n+1)
n+ 1/
lim
1/n n(n + 1)
= lim
n+
n(n + 1) = lim n+ n2
1+
1 = 1. n
11.4.
PIU
Jerhma 11.12
'Estw akolouja
@uritrio vgouA an > 0 kai
an+1 = r. n+ an lim
1. An 2. An
r > 1, r < 1,
h seir h seir
an an
apoklnei (kai gia thn akrbeia tenei sto sugklnei.
+).
Parathrseic
IF en r = 1D den mporome n pofnjomeF hhld ki t do nw endeqmen @sgklishD pklishA eni duntF PF feiwjete ti qete ktlei to kritrioF thn prth perptwshD h seir sumE perifreti w poklnous gewmetrikD en sth deterh perptwsh sumperifreE ti sn sugklnous gewmetrikF @rthrste ti gi thn gewmetrik prodo n+1 an = rn isqei aan = rFA QF o kritrio tou lgou eni ekolo n efrmoste tn h morf th an eni ttoi n+1 ste o lgo aan n qei pl morfF t exetsoume prt to endeqmeno r < 1F rthrste tiD p ton orism tou orouD prokptei pw uprqoun n0 N ki s R me r < s < 1 ttoi ste gi kje n > n0 D an+1 an+1 an < s n+1 < n , an s s n r h an /s eni fjnous gi n > n0 D ki sunep uprqei K ttoio ste an n > n0 , n K an Ksn , s ki p to kritrio th sgkrishD epeid sugklnei h sn D j sugklnei ki h an F ixetzoume tr to endeqmeno r > 1F rthrste tiD p ton orism tou orouD prokptei pw uprqoun n0 N ki s R me r > s > 1 ttoi ste gi kje n > n0 D an+1 > s an+1 > an , an
Apdeixh:
opte gi l t n > n0 D an > an0 D opte den qw sgklish th an sto 0D r ki h seir den mpore n sugklneiF
PIV
KEFALAIO 11.
SEIRES
Pardeigma 11.10
Apofanjete gia thn sgklish twn paraktw seirn qrhsimo-
pointac to kritrio tou lgou:
(n!)2 , (2n)!
Pardeigma 11.11
tou lgou stic seirc
(n!)2 , 2n2
1 n2
2n n! , nn
3n n! . nn
Ap tic seirc autc, mpore na
Na dexete ti to rio pou prokptei me efarmog tou krithrou
1 n
kai
enai h monda.
deiqje me to kritrio tou oloklhrmatoc (pou ja dome amswc tra) ti h prth apoklnei en h deterh sugklnei.
Lsh:
9eskhshF @uritrio tou yloklhrmtoA f : [1, +) R jetik fjnousa sunrthsh.

n n
Jerhma 11.13
'Estw
'Estw oi akoloujec
sn =
k=1
Oi akoloujec
f (k),
tn =
1
f (x) dx.
sn
kai
tn
sugklnoun apoklnoun maz.
Parathrseic
IF qenik eni pio ekolo n upologzoume oloklhrmt p jrosmtD gi9 ut ki to kritrio eni pol qrsimoF PF r sn eni kolouj
Apdeixh:
kai
seirD en h tn eni kolouj
kai
oloklrwmF
ut9 rqn prthrste tiD epeid h f eni fjnousD isqei ti

n n n1
f (k)
k=2 1
f (x) dx
k=1
f (k).
@IIFWA
r nw dipl nistht mpore n ermhneute me th ojei tou qmto IIFRF o rister mlo isoti me to emd th rister skismnh epifneiD en to dex mlo isoti me to emd th dexi skismnh epifneiF n en h tn = 1 f (x) dx sugklneiD tte eni frgmnhD r p thn prth nistht n n th @IIFWA j eni frgmnh ki h k=2 f (k)D r ki h sn = k=1 f (k)D ki w xous @h f eni jetikA j sugklneiF
11.4.
PIW
f(x) x 1 2 ... n 1 2 ... n
f(x) x
qm IIFIX qewmetrik exghsh th sqsh @IIFWAF
rmoiD n sugklnei h sn = k=1 f (k)D j eni frgmnhD r p thn deterh n nistht th @IIFWA j eni frgmnh ki h tn = 1 f (x) dxD ki w xous @h f eni jetikA j sugklneiF 9er h sn sugklnei nn h tn sugklneiD ki profn h sn poklnei nn h tn poklneiF
Pardeigma 11.12
1. H 2. H
Na deiqjon ta aklouja:
1 ns
sugklnei ann
s > 1. s > 1.
+ 1 n=2 n(log n)s
sugklnei ann
Lsh:
9eskhshF
Jerhma 11.14
'Estw akolouja
@uritrio th zA an > 0 kai

n+
lim (an ) n = r. +).
1. An 2. An
r > 1, r < 1,
h seir h seir
an an
apoklnei (kai gia thn akrbeia tenei sto sugklnei.
PPH
KEFALAIO 11.
SEIRES
Parathrseic
IF en r = 1D den mporome n pofnjomeF hhld ki t do nw endeqmen eni duntF PF feiwjete ti qete ktlei to kritrioF thn prth perptwshD h seir sumE perifreti w sugklnous gewmetrik seirD en sth deterh perptwsh sumperiE freti sn poklnous gewmetrik seirF @rthrste ti gi thn gewmetrik 1 prodo an = rn isqei (an ) n = rFA QF o kritrio th rz eni ekolo n efrmoste tn h morf th an eni ttoi 1 ste h rz (an ) n n qei pl morfF RF r pdeixh prlepetiD git moizei rket me thn pdeixh tou krithrou tou lgou
Pardeigma 11.13
kritrio tou lgou: Na breje an sugklnoun oi akloujec seirc, efarmzontac to
n 1
Lsh:
1 n
en ,
n3
2 + (1)n . 3n
9eskhshF
Na dexete ti to rio pou prokptei me efarmog tou krithrou
Pardeigma 11.14
thc rzac stic seirc
1 n
kai
1 n2
enai h monda. Ap tic seirc autc, mpore na deiqje
me to kritrio tou oloklhrmatoc ti h prth apoklnei en h deterh sugklnei.
Lsh:
9eskhshF
Parathrseic
IF unjw h qrsh en krithrou eni pol plosterh p th qrsh twn uploiE pwnD n ki den eni pnt profn poio eni utF PF we t kritri mporome n dipistsoume n mi seir sugklnei qiF hen mporome mw n dipistsoume se pio rijm sugklneiF unjw ut eni pol duskolteroD ekt orismnwn exirsewn @pFqF thleskopikn seirnFA
11.5.
ENALLASSOUSES SEIRES
PPI
11.5
Enallssousec Seirc
Orismc 11.5
An h akolouja
@inllssouse eirA ak > 0, h seir
(1)k1 ak = a1 a2 + a3 a4 + . . . + (1)k1 ak + . . .
k=1
kaletai enallssousa.
Jerhma 11.15
An h
ak
enai
@terhm LeibnizA fjnousa me rio to 0, tte
h enallssousa seir
+ k1 ak k=1 (1)
sug-
klnei, kai epiplon, an
S=
k=1
isqei, gia kje
(1)
k1
ak ,
sn =
k=1
(1)k1 ak ,
n 1, 0 < (1)n (S sn ) < an+1 .
Apdeixh:
rlepetiF
H enallssousa armonik seir
Pardeigma 11.15
1
sugklnei (kai mlista sto thn uprqousa jewra).
1 1 1 1 + + ... 2 3 4 5
log 2,
all aut enai kti pou den mporome na dexoume me
Orismc 11.6
Mia seir h
|an |
den
@epluth ki p unjkh gklishA an sugklnei apluta an h |an | sugklnei. An h an sugklnei, tte lme ti h an sugklnei up sunjkh. @epluth gklish gklishA |an |, tte sugklnei kai h an .
H enallssousa armonik seir
sugklnei all
Jerhma 11.16
An sugklnei h
Pardeigma 11.16
all h armonik seir (pou prokptei parnontac
1 1 1 2 + 1 1 + 5 . . . sugklnei, 3 4 1 1 1 1 apluta) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ...
apoklnei, ra h enallssousa armonik seir sugklnei up sunjkh, kai to antstrofo tou jewrmatoc den isqei.
PPP
KEFALAIO 11.
SEIRES
Keflaio 12
Diansmata
12.1
Rn
@hinsmtA
Orismc 12.1
1. Orzoume wc
Rn
to snolo twn diatetagmnwn
n-dwn xi R. xi
kalontai sunistsec, stoiqea,
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ),
Ta stoiqea tou
Rn
kalontai diansmata. Ta
suntetagmnec tou
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).
2. Orzoume thn isthta dianusmtwn wc isthta kat stoiqeo:
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) x1 = y1 , x2 = y2 , . . . , xn = yn .
3. Orzoume thn prsjesh dianusmtwn wc:
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn )
4. Orzoume to antjeto enc diansmatoc wc:
(x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ).
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
5. Orzoume thn afaresh dianusmtwn wc:
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn )
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + [(y1 , y2 , . . . , yn )] = (x1 y1 , x2 y2 , . . . , xn yn ).

PPQ
PPR
KEFALAIO 12.
DIANUSMATA
6. Orzoume thn pollaplasiasm diansmatoc me pragmatik
wc:
c(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
7. Orzoume to mhdenik dinusma wc exc:
(cx1 , cx2 , . . . , cxn ).
0 = (0, 0, . . . , 0).
8. Do mh mhdenik diansmata orzontai wc parllhla an
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ),
gia kpoio
= 0.
An
> 0,
ta diansmata kalontai omrropa. An
< 0,
tte
ta diansmata lgontai antrropa.
X+Y Y 2X
X 0
X-Y -X
Parathrseic
IF t sumolzoume sunjw t dinsmt me keflou ltiniko qrktreF qi prdeigmX
X = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ),
Y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ),
...
12.1.
RN
PPS
PF en den dieukrinzoume ti sumolzei kri to 0D j mpore n gnei ktnoht p t sumfrzmenF QF qi n = 2D prnoume t dinsmt tou epipdouF RF qi n = 3D prnoume t dinsmt tou qrouF SF r genik perptwsh tou ujretou n eni pol qrsimh gi poll efrmogF o n mpore n eniX @A y rijm kpoiwn metrsewnF @A y rijm twn prmtrwn pro ti opoe jloume n knoume kpoi eltiE stopohshF @gA y rijm twn pixels se mi eiknF @dA y rijm twn stoiqewn se n hlektrik kklwmF @eA y rijm twn zexewn se n dktuo epikoinwninF @A ktlF TF 9yle oi idithte twn dinusmtwn sto eppedo @n = 2A ki sto qro @n = 3A prokptoun p idithte pou mporome n dexoume mi ki kl gi ujreto nF
Jerhma 12.1
'Estw
@sdithte hinusmtwnA X, Y, Z aujareta diansmata kai a, b R.
Isqoun oi akloujec idithtec:
1. (Antimetajetik Idithta)
X + Y = Y + X. X +(Y + Z) = (X + Y ) + Z .
2. (Prosetairistik Idithta Prsjeshc Dianusmtwn) 3. (Oudtero Stoiqeo)
0 + X = X. X
uprqei stoiqeo
4. (Antjeto Stoiqeo) Gia kje
Y = X
ttoio ste
X + Y = 0.
5. (Epimeristik Idithta Prsjeshc Dianusmtwn) 6. (Epimeristik Idithta Prsjeshc Pragmatikn)
a(X + Y ) = aX + aY . (a + b)X = aX + bX . a(bX) = (ab)X .
7. (Prosetairistik Idithta Pollaplasiasmo Pragmatikn) 8. (Oudtero Stoiqeo Pollaplasiasmo)
1 X = X. X, Y X, Z .
enai parllhla kai ta
9. (H Parallhla enai Metabatik) An ta parllhla, tte enai parllhla kai ta
Y, Z
enai
PPT
KEFALAIO 12.
DIANUSMATA
Apdeixh:
rofnD sei twn ntstoiqwn idiottwn twn prgmtiknF
Orismc 12.2
Gia kje
@wko ston Rn A n dinusma (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ston R ,
orzw to mkoc nrma
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =
Jerhma 12.2
'Estw
x2 + x2 + . . . + x2 . n 1 2
@sdithte wkouA X, Y R kai a R.

n
1.
X 0. X = 0 X = 0. aX = |a| X
.
2.
3. (Idithta Omogneiac)
4. (Trigwnik Anisthta)
X +Y X + Y X +Y
2
5. (Nmoc tou Parallhlogrmmou)
+ X Y
= 2( X
+ Y
).
9yle oi idithte eni profneD ekt th trigwnik nistht ki tou nmou tou prllhlogrmmou pou eni skhshF
Apdeixh: Orismc 12.3
@wondi ki fsik hinsmtA
1. 'Ena dinusma
me monadiao mkoc
P =1
kaletai monadiao.
2. Opoiodpote jroisma thc morfc diansmata kai
v =
n i=1 xi vi
pou
vi
aujareta
n-distata
x i R,
kaletai grammikc sunduasmc twn
xi .
3. Orzw ta basik diansmata
e1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, . . . , 0), ... ei = (0, 0, . . . , 1, . . . , 0), ... en = (0, 0, . . . , 1).
(To mh mhdenik stoiqeo enai sth jsh
i.)
12.1.
RN
PPU
Kje dinusma wc exc:
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) mpore na grafe wc grammikc sunduasmc twn ei

n
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =
i=1
4. An
xi ei . A
to
A Rn , A = 0,
orzw wc to monadiao dinusma sthn katejunsh tou
A A= . A
Orismc 12.4
@iswterik qinmenoA
n
Orzw to eswterik ginmeno do dianusmtwn wc exc:
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + . . . + xn yn =
i=1
x i yi .
Jerhma 12.3
'Estw
@fsik sdithte iswteriko qinomnouA X, Y, Z R , kai a R. To eswterik ginmeno qei tic

n
akloujec idithtec:
1. (Antimetajetik) 2. (Prosetairistik) 3. (Epimeristik) 4. 5.
X Y = Y X. (aX) Y = a(X Y ).
(X + Y ) Z = X Z + Y Z.
X = 0 X X > 0. X = X X.
rofnF @enistht Cauchy-SchwarzA
Apdeixh:
Jerhma 12.4
X, Y Rn , |X Y | X
Sunartsei twn suntetagmnwn twn dianusmtwn, h nw anisthta grfetai:
|x1 y1 + x2 y2 + . . . + xn yn |
Epshc, tan
x2 + x2 + . . . + x2 n 1 2 Y X, Y Y X, Y
2 2 2 y1 + y2 + . . . + yn .
X, Y = 0
isqei ti
X Y = X
kai
omrropa
, .
X Y = X
antrropa
PPV
KEFALAIO 12.
DIANUSMATA
Apdeixh:
9eskhshF
||X||
||X Y| |
X+Y
||Y ||
|| +Y ||X ||X||
0 X-Y
Paratrhsh:
rthrste ti
2
X +Y
||Y ||
= (X + Y ) (X + Y ) = X X + Y Y + 2X Y = X
+ Y
+ 2(X Y ).
9istw n = 2 ki n = 3D X, Y = 0D ki [0, ] h gwn nmes st dinsmtF ep thn nw exswshD prokptoun t kloujX
= , 2 2 2 2 X Y > 0 X + Y > X + Y [0, ), 2 X Y < 0 X + Y 2 < X 2 + Y 2 ( , ]. 2 X Y =0 X +Y

2
= X
+ Y
@IPFIA @IPFPA @IPFQA
rthrste ti h exswsh X + Y 2 = X 2 + Y 2 eni to ujgreio terhmF rhsimopoint thn @IPFIAD dikiologomste n knoume ton kloujo orismD pou isqei gia kje n.
Orismc 12.5
Duo diansmata
@yrjogwnitht ston Rn A X, Y Rn kalontai kjeta
orjognia metax touc an
X Y = 0.
Parathrseic
12.1.
RN
PPW
IF y nw orism isqei km ki n X = 0 Y = 0F fi se ut ti periptsei den qei pol nhmF PF y nw orism isqei km ki gi n = 2, 33 QF irthshX mpore n dinusm n eni kjeto me ton eut touD smfwn me ton nw orismc
Jerhma 12.5
'Estw do
@enlush hinsmto se unistseA diansmata A = 0 kai B = 0. Mpor na analsw
to
se do sunistsec:
A =
H prth enai parllhlh sto enai kjeta, dhlad
AB B, B 2
A = A A . A, B B.
B A B = 0),
(ektc an enai mhdenik, pou sumbanei tan ta kai h deterh enai kjeth sto
RF rofn to jroism twn A , A m knei to AD ki epiplon to A eni prllhlo sto B @ekt n eni mhdenikAF qi n dexoume ti to A eni kjeto sto B D pl prthrome pwX AB AB A B = (A A ) B = A B BB =AB B 2 = 0. 2 2 B B
Apdeixh:
AB B 2
ut9 rqn prthrste pw to
A^
0 B
A A
A^
A||
A||
Paratrhsh:
qi n = 2 ki n = 3D gi th gwn nmes st ADB D qoume tiX
A 0 cos = 2 A A cos = 2 A
|AB| B B 2
A
|AB| B B 2
= =
AB , A B AB . A B
PQH
KEFALAIO 12.
DIANUSMATA
thn teleut istht th prth grmm qrhsimopoisme ti @IPFIAD @IPFPAD ki sthn teleut istht th deterh grmm qrhsimopoisme ti @IPFIAD @IPFQAF 9erD se kje perptwshD AB cos = . A B rthrste tiD p thn nistht Cauchy-SchwarzD h postht st dexi qei tim pntote ms sto [1, 1]F 9erD mporome n genikesoume thn nnoi th gwn se opoidpote distsh n w exX
Orismc 12.6
'Estw
@qwn wetx hinusmtwnA

difora tou mhdeniko diansmatoc. Orzw th gwna anmes touc wc
A, B Rn
arccos
AB A B
cos
AB AB A B
B cos .
Paratrhsh:
ep ton orism tou txou sunhmitnouD
arccos x [0, ] x [1, 1],

r pw orsthkeD h gwn metx do dinusmtwn eni pnt jetikF
12.2.
R2
PQI
12.2
R2
@iujeA
Orismc 12.7
1. Kalome eujea kje snolo shmewn thc morfc
L = {(x, y) : (x, y) = (x0 , y0 ) + (x1 , y1 ), R} = {(x0 , y0 ) + (x1 , y1 ), R},

gia kpoia
(x0 , y0 )
kai
(x1 , y1 ) = 0.
2. H dianusmatik exswsh
(x, y) = (x0 , y0 ) + (x1 , y1 ) { x = x0 + x1 , y = y0 + y1 }

kaletai parametrik exswsh eujeac, me parmetro 3. H eujea kaletai parllhlh (kjeth) se kje sto
(x2 , y2 ) pou enai parllhlo (kjeto)
(x1 , y1 ).
y (x0,y0) (x1,y1) (x,y)=(x0,y0)+(x1,y1) x (x1,y1) L
rofnD mi euje mpore n grfe me thn nw morf gi poll diforetik (x0 , y0 ) ki (x1 , y1 )F wpore n deiqje ti l t epitrept (x1 , y1 ) eni prllhl metx touF
'Estw oi eujeec
@rllhle iujeeA
La = {(xa0 , ya0 ) + (xa1 , ya1 ), R}, Lb = {(xb0 , yb0 ) + (xb1 , yb1 ), R}.
@IPFRA @IPFSA
PQP
KEFALAIO 12.
DIANUSMATA
An oi eujeec den qoun kanna koin shmeo, kalontai parllhlec, kai tte mporome na dexoume ti ta
(xa1 , ya1 ) kai (xb1 , yb1 ) enai parllhla. Antistrfwc, an ta (xa1 , ya1 ) kai (xb1 , yb1 ) enai parllhla tte oi La kai Lb ete tautzontai ete enai parllhlec. Mpore
epshc na deiqte ti do eujeec ete tautzontai, ete enai parllhlec, ete qoun na akribc koin shmeo.
Orismc 12.9
kai (12.5) me ta
@ujete eujeeA
Do eujeec kalontai kjetec an mporon na grafon sth morf twn exissewn (12.4)
(xa1 , ya1 ), (xb1 , yb1 )
kjeta metax touc.
Mpore na deiqje ti an oi
La , Lb enai kjetec kai dnontai ap tic exisseic (xb1 , yb1 ) enai anagkastik kjeta metax touc.
Jerhma 12.6
(12.4) kai (12.5), tte ta
(xa1 , ya1 ),
@ixissei iujeA
1. (Genik Exswsh Eujeac) 'Olec oi eujeec mporon na perigrafon ap exswsh thc morfc
ax + by = c,
pou
@IPFTA
ann ikanopoie thn (12.6) gia
a = 0 b = 0. Dhlad na shmeo (x, y) L kpoia a, b, c pou antistoiqon sthn L. a = 0, a = 0, b = 0, b = 0,

h nw exswsh gnetai h nw exswsh gnetai h nw exswsh gnetai h nw exswsh gnetai
(a) An (b) An (g) An (d) An
y= x= x= y=
c b. c b a a y. c a. c a b b x.
Ta
a, b, c
profanc den enai monadik gia kje eujea
L. (, )
2. H eujea dierqmenh ap na shmeo mpore na perigrafe me thn exswsh
(x0 , y0 )
kai parllhlh se dinusma
(x x0 ) (y y0 ) = 0.
Prgmati, parathrste pwc an, gia pardeigma, gnetai:
=0
kai
x = x0 ,
h nw exswsh
y y0 = . x x0
12.2.
R2
PQQ
y (,) (,)
L (x,y)
(x0,y0) x
3. Eujea
dierqmenh ap to shmeo
(x0 , y0 )
kai kjeth sto dinusma
(A, B) = 0
mpore na perigrafe ap thn exswsh
Ax + By = Ax0 + By0 .
Prgmati, an to
(x, y) L, tte to (x x0 , y y0 ) enai kjeto sto (A, B), dhlad
(x x0 , y y0 )(A, B) = 0 Ax + By = Ax0 + By0 .

y (x,y) (A,B)
(A,B)
(x0,y0) x
4. H eujea efaptmenh sth paragwgsimh sunrthsh na perigrafe ap thn exswsh:
f (x) sto shmeo (x0 , y0 ) mpore
y = y0 + f (x0 )(x x0 ).
PQR
KEFALAIO 12.
DIANUSMATA
5. H eujea dierqmenh ap ta shmea thn exswsh
(x0 , y0 )
kai
(x1 , y1 )
mpore na perigrafe ap
(y y0 )(x1 x0 ) = (x x0 )(y1 y0 ).
Prgmati, parathrste ti h exswsh enai grammik, dhlad thc morfc thc (12.6), kai ikanopoietai kai sta do shmea
(x0 , y0 ), (x1 , y1 ).
y (x1,y1) (x,y)
(x0,y0) L
Apdeixh:
rlepetiF @rmieppedA
Orismc 12.10
Orzoume wc hmieppedo kje snolo thc morfc
C = {(x, y) : (A, B)(x, y) = Ax + By c},

gia kpoio dinusma
(A, B) = 0
kai kpoio
c R.
o hmieppedo C = {(x, y) : (A, B)(x, y) = Ax + By c} eni to snolo twn shmewn pou rsketi ep th euje L me exswsh Ax + By = c sth meri th euje pro thn opo deqnei to kjeto se ut dinusm (A, B)F rgmtiD stw n shmeo (x1 , y1 ) ekt th euje Ax + By = cD ki stw (x1 , y1 ) = (x0 , y0 ) + (a, b) pou (x0 , y0 ) LD dhld Ax0 + By0 = cF te
Paratrhsh:
(x1 , y1 ) C A(x0 + a) + B(y0 + b) c (Ax0 + By0 ) + (A, B)(a, b) c (A, B) (a, b) 0 (A, B) (a, b) cos 0 cos 0 [0, ]. 2
12.2.
R2
PQS
pou h gwn pou sqhmtzoun t (a, b), (A, B)F efo [0, ]D to (a, b) deqnei 2 pro thn di meri me to (A, B)D to pol eni kjeto se utF
y (A,B) (x0,y0)+(a,b)=(x1,y1)
(a,b) (A,B) (x0,y0) x
PQT
KEFALAIO 12.
DIANUSMATA
12.3
R3
@ippedoA
Orismc 12.11
1. Orzoume wc eppedo kje snolo shmewn
P = {(x, y, z) : (x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + 1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + 2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ), 1 , 2 R}, @IPFUA 3 3 pou to dinusma (x0 , y0 , z0 ) R , kai ta diansmata (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ) R
enai mh mhdenik, kai qi parllhla. 2. H dianusmatik exswsh letai parametrik
(x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + 1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + 2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) exswsh epipdou, me paramtrouc 1 , 2 . P

an uprqoun
ka-
3. 'Ena dinusma
lgetai parllhlo sto
1 , 2
ste
V = 1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + 2 (x2 , y2 , z2 )
4. 'Ena dinusma thc morfc
V lgetai kjeto sto P an 1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + 2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ).
to
enai kjeto se la ta diansmata
Parathrseic
IF P = {plane}F PF qit t (x1 , y1 , z1 ) ki (x2 , y2 , z2 ) prpei n eni mh mhdenik ki qi prllhlc QF i gneti n (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = 0c
Jerhma 12.7
@om ipipdouA
Do eppeda ete tautzontai, ete tmnontai kat mkoc miac eujeac, ete den qoun kanna koin shmeo, opte kai lgontai parllhla.
Jerhma 12.8
@ixissei ipipdouA
1. (Genik exswsh epipdou) Kje eppedo thc morfc
mpore na perigrafe ap mia exswsh
ax + by + cz = d,
pou ta
@IPFVA
a, b, c
den enai la mhdn.
12.3.
R3
PQU
P (x2,y2,z2) (x1,y1,z1)
(x0,y0,z0) x
z
qm IPFIX yrism tou ipipdou ston R3 F
PQV
KEFALAIO 12.
DIANUSMATA
P (x1,y1,z1) y (x2,y2,z2)
(x0,y0,z0)
z
qm IPFPX ippedo dierqmeno p tr mh suneujeik shmeF
2. To eppedo pou perigrfetai ap thn (12.7) mpore na perigrafe kai ap thn exswsh
x x0 y y0 z z0 x1 y1 z1 = 0, x2 y2 z2
, isodnama,
(x x0 )(y1 z2 y2 z1 ) (y y0 )(x1 z2 x2 z1 ) + (z z0 )(x1 y2 x2 y1 ) = 0.

(Prgmati, to
(x, y, z)
ankei sto eppedo ann to
(x x0 , y y0 , z z0 )
dhlad
enai
grammikc sunduasmc twn
(x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ),
(x x0 , y y0 , z z0 ) = 1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + 2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ),
gia kpoia
1 , 2 R,
to opoo isqei ann h nw orzousa enai
0.)
3. To eppedo pou dirqetai ap ta mh suneujeiak shmea
(x0 , y0 , z0 ), (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ),
12.3.
R3
PQW
x x0 y y0 z z0 x1 x0 y1 y0 z1 z0 = 0, x2 x0 y2 y0 z2 z0
isodnama
(x x0 ) [(y1 y0 )(z2 z0 ) (y2 y0 )(z1 z0 )] (y y0 ) [(x1 x0 )(z2 z0 ) (x2 x0 )(z1 z0 )] + (z z0 ) [(x1 x0 )(y2 y0 ) (x2 x0 )(y1 y0 )] = 0.
(Prgmati, parathrste ti h exswsh mpore na rjei sth morf (12.8), kai epiplon ikanopoietai kai gia ta tra shmea.) 4. To eppedo pou dirqetai ap to shmeo nik) dinusma
(x0 , y0 , z0 )
kai enai kjeto sto (mh mhde-
(A, B, C)
A(x x0 ) + B(y y0 ) + C(z z0 ) = 0 Ax + By + Cz = Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 .

(Prgmati, an to sto
(x, y, z) ankei sto eppedo, to (x x0 , y y0 , z z0 ) enai kjeto (A, B, C), dhlad (x x0 , y y0 , z z0 ) (A, B, C) = 0.)
rlepetiF @iuje sto roA
Apdeixh:
Orismc 12.12
1. Orzoume wc eujea sto
R3
kje snolo thc morfc
L = {(x, y, z) : (x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + (x1 , y1 , z1 ), R},

pou
@IPFWA
(x0 , y0 , y0 ) R3
kai
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) R3
kai mh mhdenik.
2. H dianusmatik exswsh
(x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 )+(x1 , y1 , z1 ) { x = x0 +x1 , y = y0 +y1 , z = z0 +z1 }

kaletai parametrik exswsh eujeac, me parmetro 3. H eujea kaletai parllhlh (kjeth) se kje jeto) sto
(x2 , y2 , z2 ) pou enai parllhlo (k-
(x1 , y1 , z1 ).
PRH
KEFALAIO 12.
DIANUSMATA
(x0,y0,z0) (x1,y1,z1)
(x,y,z)=(x0,y0,z0)+(x1,y1,z1) x (x1,y1,z1) z L
rofnD mi euje mpore n grfe me thn nw morf gi poll diforetik (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ki (x1 , y1 , z1 )F wpore n deiqje ti l t epitrept (x1 , y1 , z1 ) eni prllhl metx touF
Do eujeec
@rllhle iujeeA
La = {(xa0 , ya0 , za0 ) + (xa1 , ya1 , za1 ), R}, Lb = {(xb0 , yb0 , zb0 ) + (xb1 , yb1 , zb1 ), R}.
kalontai parllhlec an enai parllhla ta
(xa1 , ya1 , za1 )
kai
(xb1 , yb1 , za1 ).
Jerhma 12.9
@ixissei iujeA
1. H eujea pou perigrfetai ap thn (12.9) mpore na perigrafe kai ap tic exisseic
x x0 y y0 z z0 = = , x1 y1 z1 x x0 y y0 = , z = z0 , x1 y1 y = y0 , z = z0 ,
an
x1 , y1 , z1 = 0,
an an
x1 , y1 = 0, z1 = 0,
x1 = 0, y1 = z1 = 0.
(Oi periptseic pou paralepontai enai anlogec me kpoiec ek twn nw.)
12.3.
R3
PRI
2. H eujea pou dhmiourgetai ap thn tom do epipdwn ikanopoie kai tic do exisseic touc. Gia pardeigma, h eujea pou dirqetai ap to shmeo h tom epipdwn kjetwn sta
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) kai enai
(a1 , b1 , c1 ), (a2 , b2 , c2 )
dnetai ap tic exisseic
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 , a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2 .
Apdeixh:
rlepetiF @iuje rllhlh se ippedoA
Orismc 12.14
Mia eujea ete periqetai ex' oloklrou se na eppedo, ete to tmnei se akribc na shmeo, ete den to tmnei se kanna shmeo, opte kai kaletai parllhlh se aut.
Orismc 12.15
'Estw nadiaa
@uteujnont unhmtonA P = (x, y, z) dinusma, kai stw 1 , 2 , 3 oi gwnec pou sqhmatzei diansmata, ep twn axnwn x, y, z antstoiqa. Ta sunhmton touc
me ta mokalontai
kateujnonta sunhmtona. Parathrome pwc
P (1, 0, 0) = P
kai omowc qoume:
(1, 0, 0) cos 1 cos 1 =
x x2 + y 2 + z 2
cos 2 =
y x2 + y 2 + z 2
, cos 3 =
z x2 + y 2 + z 2
PRP
KEFALAIO 12.
DIANUSMATA
12.4
Rn
Orismc 12.16
@iuje ston Rn A n Orzoume wc eujea ston R kje snolo thc morfc L = {X : X = X1 + (1 )X2 : R}, pou X1 = X2 kpoia diansmata sto Rn .
L X1 0<<1 X2 >1
<0
Orismc 12.17
@ippedo ston Rn A n Orzoume wc eppedo ston R kje snolo n A R me A = 0 kai b R.
thc morfc
P = {X : A X = b},
pou
@rmieppedo ston Rn A n Orzoume wc hmieppedo ston R kje snolo A Rn kai b R.

Orismc 12.18
thc morfc
H = {X : A X b},
pou
AX>b A AX=b
AX<b
Paratrhsh:
ifrmog utn twn orismn j dete se mjmt qrmmik 9elE ger ki feltistopohsh ki ipiqeirhsik 9ireunF
12.5.
QWROI
PRQ
12.5
Qroi
Orismc 12.19
'Ena snolo
@hinusmtik roA
kaletai dianusmatikc qroc tan ikanopoie ta aklouja aximata:
1. Aximata kleistthtac:
(a) Gia kje jroisma (b) Gia kje
x, y V , uprqei na monadik stoiqeo twn x, y , kai sumbolzetai wc x + y . xV

kai pragmatik arijm
tou
pou kaletai to
aR
uprqei na stoiqeo sto
pou
kaletai to ginmeno tou
me to
kai sumbolzetai wc
ax.
2. Aximata thc prsjeshc:
(a) (Antimetajetikthta) Gia kje
x, y V ,
isqei ti
x + y = y + x.
(b) (Prosetairistikthta) Gia kje
x, y, z V ,
isqei ti
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z).
(g) (Oudtero Stoiqeo) Uprqei na stoiqeo tou
V,
pou sumbolzetai me
kai
kaletai to oudtero stoiqeo, gia to opoo isqei, gia kje
xV.
x + 0 = x.
(d) ('Uparxh antjetwn) Gia kje
xV,
to stoiqeo
(1)x
qei thn idithta
x + (1)x = 0.
3. Aximata tou pollaplasiasmo:
(a) (Prosetairistik Idithta) Gia la ta
xV
kai
a, b R:
a(bx) = (ab)x.
(b) (Epimeristik Idithta gia thn Prsjesh) Gia la ta
x, y V
kai
a R:
a(x + y) = ax + ay.
PRR
KEFALAIO 12.
DIANUSMATA
(g) (Epimeristik Idithta gia thn Prsjesh Pragmatikn) Gia la ta
a, b
R, x V : (a + b)x = ax + bx.
(d) ('Uparxh Monadiaou Stoiqeou) Gia kje
xV,
qoume
1x = x.
Paradegmata
IF yi prgmtikoF PF yi migdikoF QF yi pnke n mF RF o snolo twn sunrtsewn orismnwn se n disthmF SF o snolo lwn twn sunrtsewn gi ti opoe f (1) = 0F TF o snolo lwn twn sunrtsewn gi ti opoe f (1) = 1 c UF o Rn F
Orismc 12.20
1. 'Estw
@roi xrmA
Mia sunrthsh
dianusmatikc qroc.
x x
ap ta stoiqea tou
stouc pragmatikoc kaletai nrma tan qei tic akloujec idithtec: (a) Gia kje
xV, x 0.
(b)
x = 0 x = 0.
(g)
@ymogneiA
ax = |a| x .
(d)
@rigwnik enisthtA
x+y x + y .
2. 'Enac dianusmatikc qroc
efodiasmnoc me nrma
kaletai qroc nrmac.
12.5.
QWROI
PRS
Paradegmata
IF o mko en dinsmto tou Rn eni nrmD r o Rn efodismno me nrm to mko tou dinsmto eni qro nrmF PF r sunrthsh
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = |x1 | + |x2 | + . . . + |xn |

eni nrmF uleti nrma tou taxitzD no me ut th nrm eni qro nrmF
nrma
ManhattanD ki o Rn efodismE
QF to dinusmtik qro C[a, b] lwn twn suneqn sunrtsewn h sunrthsh
f = max {|f (x)|}

x[a,b]
eni nrmD ki sunep o ntstoiqo qro eni qro nrmF

Orismc 12.21
@roi iswteriko qinomnouA 'Estw V dianusmatikc qroc. Mia sunrthsh ,
ap to kartesian ginmeno
V V
stouc pragmatikoc kaletai eswterik ginmeno tan isqoun oi akloujec idithtec, gia opoiadpote 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 'Enac
x, y V
kai
a R:
.
x + y, z = x, z + y, z x, y = x, y x, y = y, x x, x 0. x, x = 0 x = 0. V
. .
efodiasmnoc me eswterik ginmeno kaletai qroc eswteriko ginomnou.
Paradegmata
IF y Rn me to gnwst eswterik ginmenoF PF y qro L2 [a, b] lwn twn suneqn sunrtsewn sto [a, b]D me
b
x, y =
a
x(t)y(t) dt.
Parathrseic
PRT
KEFALAIO 12.
DIANUSMATA
IF 9yloi oi qroi eswteriko ginomnou eni ki qroi nrmD me nrm
x =
x, x .
PF oll p s xroume gi ton Rn genikeonti se opoiondpote dinusmtik qro me eswterik ginmenoF qi prdeigmX @A r nnoi th orjogwnithtF @A r nistht Cauchy-SchwarzF @gA y nmo tou prllhlgrmmouX
x+y
@dA ktlF
+ xy
= 2( x
+ y 2 ).
QF erisster se mjmt qrmmik 9elgerD unrthsik enlushD ki uE jr 9elgerF
Keflaio 13
Kwnikc Tomc
13.1
Kwnikc Tomc
{yrism} ulome kwnik tom thn tom en knou me n eppedoF
wh tetrimmne periptseiX IF 9illeiyhX
PRU
PRV
KEFALAIO 13.
KWNIKES TOMES
PF rolX
QF perolX
13.1.
KWNIKES TOMES
PRW
prqoun ki orismne tetrimmne periptseiX IF ukloX
PF ho eujeeX
PSH
KEFALAIO 13.
KWNIKES TOMES
QF w eujeX
RF hmeoX
13.2.
PAR ABOLH
PSI
13.2
Parabol
@rolA O gewmetrikc tpoc P twn shmewn pou isapqoun ap mia eujea d (pou kaletai dieujetosa) kai na shmeo F (pou kaletai esta) kaletai parabol. To shmeo V pou
Orismc 13.1
brsketai anmesa sthn dieujetosa kai thn esta kaletai koruf thc parabolc. H eujea pou enai kjeth sth dieujetosa kai dirqetai ap thn esta kaletai xonac thc parabolc.
P d1 d2 V d F d1=d2
Jerhma 13.1
'Estw
@ixissei rolA
p > 0. (0, 0),

xona
1. H parabol me esta to shmeo koruf to shmeo
F = (p, 0) kai dieujetosa thn eujea x = p qei thn eujea y = 0, kai exswsh y 2 = 4px.
(0, 0),
xona
F = (p, 0) kai dieujetosa thn eujea x = p qei thn eujea y = 0, kai exswsh y 2 = 4px.
PSP
KEFALAIO 13.
KWNIKES TOMES
y2=4px x=p
2 y =4px
(0,0) y
F=(p,0) y
F=(p,0)
(0,0)
x=p F=(0,p) (0,0) y=p (0,0) y=p

2 x =4py
x2=4py
F=(0,p)
(0, 0),
xona
F = (0, p) kai dieujetosa thn eujea y = p qei thn eujea x = 0, kai exswsh x2 = 4py.
(0, 0),
xona
F = (0, p) kai dieujetosa thn eujea y = p qei thn eujea x = 0, kai exswsh x2 = 4py.
13.2.
PAR ABOLH
PSQ
t podexoume thn prth perptwshF yi lle prokptoun prmoiF ini profn ti h koruf ki o xon eni uto pou dnontiF qetik me thn exswsh pou dnetiD stw n shmeo (x, y) th prolF r pstsh tou d1 p th dieujetos eni sh me thn pstsh tou d2 p thn estD rX
Apdeixh:
d1 = d2
(x + p)2 + 02 =
(p x)2 + y 2 x2 + 2px + p2 = p2 2xp + y 2 + x2 y 2 = 4px.
PSR
KEFALAIO 13.
KWNIKES TOMES
13.3
'Elleiyh
@9illeiyhA O gewmetrikc tpoc P twn shmewn gia ta opoa to jroisma d1 + d2 twn apostsewn touc d1 kai d2 ap do estec F1 kai F2 enai stajer kaletai lleiyh. H eujea pou dirqetai ap tic do estec kaletai megloc xonac. To shmeo O pou brsketai sto mso tou eujugrmmou tmmatoc F1 F2 kaletai kntro thc lleiyhc. H eujea pou dirqetai
Orismc 13.2
ap to kntro kai enai kjeth ston meglo xona kaletai mikrc xonac. Ta shmea
A1
kai
A2
pou tmnetai o megloc xonac me thn lleiyh kai 'Estw
o mikrc xonac me thn lleiyh kalontai korufc. thn ekkentrthta thc lleiyhc wc ton arijm estec
B1 kai B2 pou tmnetai d1 + d2 = 2a. Orzoume
gia ton opoo h apstash anmesa stic
F1 , F 2 ,
isotai me
|F1 F2 | = 2a .
1 F1 d1 F2 2
d2
d1+d2=2a, |F1F2|=2a
Parathrseic
IF erptwsh
= 0X yi este tutzontiD ki lmnoume kkloF
13.3.
ELLEIYH
PSS
PF erptwsh = 1X yi este tutzonti me ti korufD ki h lleiyh ekfulzeti eujgrmmo tmm nmes sti esteF QF erptwsh > 1X y gewmetrik tpo eni to ken snolo @pw prokptei p thn trigwnik nisthtAF RF erptwsh 0 < < 1X r mnh mh tetrimmnhF
Jerhma 13.2
@ixissei 9illeiyhA
1. H lleiyh me korufc tou meglou xona ta shmea
A1 = (a, 0) kai A2 = (a, 0) kai estec ta shmea F1 = (a , 0), F2 = (a , 0), pou 0 < < 1, qei korufc tou mikro xona ta shmea B1 = (0, b), B2 = (0, b), pou b = a 1 2 , kai x2 y2 x2 y 2 + = 1 2 + 2 = 1. a2 a2 (1 2 ) a b
exswsh
2. H lleiyh me korufc tou meglou xona ta shmea
A1 = (0, a) kai A2 = (0, a) kai me estec ta shmea F1 = (0, a ), F2 = (0, a ), pou 0 < < 1, korufc qei tou mikro xona ta shmea B1 = (b, 0), B2 = (b, 0), pou b = a 1 2 , kai
exswsh
x2 y2 x2 y 2 + 2 = 1 2 + 2 = 1. a2 (1 2 ) a b a Apdeixh: t podexoume thn prth perptwshF r deterh prokptei nlogF 9in shmeo (x, y) j nkei sthn lleiyh nn d1 + d2 = 2a (x + a )2 + y 2 + (x a )2 + y 2 = 2a [(x + a )2 + y 2 ][(x a )2 + y 2 ] = 4a2
2
(x + a )2 + y 2 + (x a )2 + y 2 + 2
(x + a )2 + y 2 + (x a )2 + y 2 4a2 = 4[(x + a )2 + y 2 ][(x a )2 + y 2 ] (x + a )4 + (x a )4 + 4y 4 + 16a4 + 2(x + a )2 (x a )2 + 4(x + a )2 y 2 8(x + a )2 a2 + 4(x a )2 y 2 8(x a )2 a2 16a2 y 2 = 4(x + a )2 (x a )2 + 4y 4 + 4y 2 (x a )2 + 4y 2 (x + a )2 (x+a )4 +(xa )4 +16a4 2(x+a )2 (xa )2 8(x+a )2 a2 8(xa )2 a2 16a2 y 2 = 0 (x + a )2 (x a )2 8a2 2a2 + (x + a )2 + (x a )2 + 2y 2 = 0 16a2 x2 2 +16a4 16a2 x2 16a4 2 16a2 y 2 = 0 x2 (a2 2 a2 )a2 y 2 = a4 ( 2 1) x2 y2 2 2 2 2 2 x (1 ) + y = a (1 ) 2 + 2 = 1. a a (1 2 )
2
PST
KEFALAIO 13.
KWNIKES TOMES
(x2/a2)+(y2/b2)=1
B =(0,b) 1
F =(a ,0) 1
F2=(a ,0) O=(0,0)
A2=(a,0)
A1=(a,0)
B =(0,b) 2
x (x2/b2)+(y2/a2)=1 A1=(0,a)
F1=(0,a ) O=(0,0) y B =(b,0) 1 B2=(b,0)
F =(0,a ) 2
A =(0,a) 2 x
13.4.
UPERBOLH
PSU
13.4
Uperbol
@perolA O gewmetrikc tpoc P twn shmewn gia ta opoa h apluth diafor |d1 d2 | twn apostsewn touc d1 kai d2 ap do estec F1 kai F2 enai stajer kaletai uperbol. H eujea pou dirqetai ap tic do estec kaletai xonac. To shmeo O pou brsketai sto mso tou eujugrmmou tmmatoc F1 F2 kaletai kntro. Ta shmea A1 kai A2 pou tmnetai o xonac me thn uperbol kalontai korufc. 'Estw |d1 d2 | = 2a. Orzoume
Orismc 13.3
thn ekkentrthta thc uperbolc wc ton arijm estec gia ton opoo h apstash anmesa stic
F1 , F 2 ,
isotai me
|F1 F2 | = 2a > 0.
P A1
F1 d1
d2 A2 |d1-d2|=2a, |F1F2|=2a
F2
Parathrseic
IF erptwsh = 1X yi este tutzonti me ti korufD ki h lleiyh ekfulzeti se do hmieujeeF PF erptwsh < 1X ep thn trigwnik nisthtD prokptei pw o gewmetrik tpo eni to ken snoloF @w kricA
PSV
KEFALAIO 13.
KWNIKES TOMES
QF erptwsh
Jerhma 13.3
> 1X r mnh mh tetrimmnhF

@ixissei perolA
kai estec ta
1. H uperbol me korufc ta shmea shmea
A1 = (a, 0) kai A2 = (a, 0) F1 = (a , 0), F2 = (a , 0), pou > 1, qei exswsh y2 x2 y 2 x2 = 1 2 2 = 1, a2 a2 (1 2 ) a b
pou
b
2. H uperbol me korufc ta shmea shmea
1.
kai estec ta
A1 = (0, a) kai A2 = (0, a) F1 = (0, a ), F2 = (0, a ), pou > 1, qei exswsh y2 x2 y 2 x2 = 1 2 2 = 1, a2 a2 (1 2 ) a b
pou
b
Apdeixh:
1.
9ypw ki h ntstoiqh gi thn perptwsh th lleiyhF
13.4.
UPERBOLH
PSW
(x2/a2)(y2/b2)=1
A =(a,0) A2=(a,0) 1 y F =(a ,0) 1 O=(0,0) F =(a ,0) 2
F1=(0,a ) (x2/a2)(y2/b2)=1 A1=(0,a) y O=(0,0) A2=(0,a) F2=(0,a )
PTH
KEFALAIO 13.
KWNIKES TOMES
13.5
Allag Suntetagmnwn
Jerhma 13.4
'Estw ta do
@ellg untetgmnwnA sustmata suntetagmnwn xy kai uv
tou sqmatoc:
P=(x,y)=(u,v) u
y0
x0
1. An na shmeo
qei suntetagmnec
(x, y)
sto ssthma suntetagmnwn
xy ,
tte
qei suntetagmnec metasqhmatism
(u, v)
uv
pou dnontai ap ton
u = (x x0 ) cos + (y y0 ) sin , v = (x x0 ) sin + (y y0 ) cos

2. An na shmeo
u v (x, y)
cos sin sin cos
x x0 y y0 xy ,
.
tte
qei suntetagmnec
qei suntetagmnec
(u, v)
uv
pou dnontai ap ton
antstrofo metasqhmatism
x = x0 + u cos v sin , y = y0 + u sin + v cos x y = x0 y0 + cos sin sin cos u v .
13.5.
ALLAGH SUNTETAGMENWN
PTI
3. Sthn eidik perptwsh pou
= 0,
oi metasqhmatismo mporon na grafon wc
u v
y y v
x x0 y y0
x y
x0 + u y0 + v
P=(x,y)=(u,v) u=r cos r v=r sin u
y0
x0 x
Apdeixh:
rthrste pw
x = x0 + r cos( + ) = x0 + r cos cos r sin sin x = x0 + u cos v sin .

ipiplonD
y = y0 + r sin( + ) = y0 + r cos sin + r sin cos y = y0 + u sin + v cos ,

r rkme ton metsqhmtism (u, v) (x, y)F qi n rome ton ntstrofo metsqhmtism (x, y) (u, v)D rke n lsoume to ssthm 2 2 w pro u, v F inllktikD qrhsimopoint pnkeD prthrome pw n jsoumeX cos sin R() = , sin cos
PTP
KEFALAIO 13.
KWNIKES TOMES
tte o nw metsqhmtism grfeti w
x y
9ymwX
x0 y0
+ R()
u v
R()R() = = =
9erX
cos sin sin cos
cos sin sin cos
cos2 + sin2 sin cos + sin cos sin cos + cos sin sin2 + cos2 1 0 0 1 .
x y
x0 y0
+ R()
u v
R() u v =
u v
x y
x0 y0
R()R() 1 0 0 1 u v
= R() cos sin sin cos
x x0 y y0 x x0 y y0 cos sin sin cos x x0 y y0 .
u v
IF wporete n perigryete thn leitourg tou pnk R() me pl lgic PF erisster gi pnke ki metsqhmtismo se mjmt qrmmik 9elgerF
13.6.
AX 2 + CY 2 + DX + EY + F = 0
PTQ
13.6
Ax2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
9yle oi exissei kwnikn tomn pou edme eni th genik morf
Ax2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
ssqei to ntstrofoc hhldD h nw exswsh perigrfei pnt kwnik tomc
@IQFIA
@uwnik om me xone prllhlou stou xD y A 2 H exswsh Ax + Cy + Dx + Ey + F = 0 perigrfei ete kwnik tom me xona(ec) parllhlo(ouc) proc touc xonec twn x y , ete orismnec eidikc periptseic.
Jerhma 13.5
2
Apdeixh:
hikrnoume periptseiX
IF A = 0, C = 0, D = 0F te h exswsh mpore n rjei sth morf (y y0 )2 = 4p(x + x0 )D r qoume parabol me kntro to (x0 , y0 )F PF A = 0, C = 0, D = 0F te h exswsh mpore n rjei sth morf (y y0 )2 = k D r qoume do parllhlec eujeecD ti y = y0 k D n k > 0D mi eujeaD thn y = y0 D n k = 0D to ken snoloD n k < 0F QF A = 0, C = 0, E = 0F enleti pw h prth perptwshF RF A = 0, C = 0, E = 0F enleti pw h deterh perptwshF SF A = 0, C = 0F r exswsh gneti Dx + Ey + F = 0D dhld eni TF AC > 0F te h exswsh mpore n rjei sth morf
eujeaF
(x x0 )2 (y y0 )2 + = k, a2 b2
r qoume
ken
me kntro to (x0 , y0 )D n k > 0D n snoloD n k < 0F

lleiyh
shmeoD
n k = 0D to
UF AC < 0F te h exswsh mpore n rjei sth morf
(x x0 )2 (y y0 )2 = k, a2 b2
r qoume
uperbol nec eujeec
me kntro to (x0 , y0 )D n k = 0D do diastauromepou dirqonti p thn rq twn xnwnD n k = 0F
PTR
KEFALAIO 13.
KWNIKES TOMES
Pardeigma 13.1
Na perigrafe o gewmetrikc tpoc pou dnetai ap thn exswsh
4x2 y 2 8x 6y 5 = 0.
Lsh:
umplhrnoume t tetrgwnX
4x2 y 2 8x 6y 5 = 0 (4x2 8x + 4) (y 2 + 6y + 9) 5 + 9 4 = 0 4(x 1)2 (y + 3)2 = 0.

en knoume ton metsqhmtism suntetgmnwn u = x 1, v = y + 3D h exswsh gneti 4u2 = v 2 2u = v, sunep o gewmetrik tpo poteleti p do eujeeD ti
2u = v 2(x 1) = y + 3 y = 2x 5, 2u = v 2(x 1) = (y + 3) y = 2x 1.
(0,0)
y=
(1,3)
y= 1 2x
2x
13.7.
AX 2 + BXY + CY 2 + DX + EY + F = 0
PTS
13.7
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
@eristrmmne uwnik omA
Jerhma 13.6
H exswsh
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
periptseic.
@IQFPA
perigrfei ete kwnik tom (me aujareth diejunsh axnwn), ete orismnec eidikc
Apdeixh:
iisgw ti suntetgmne (u, v) pou
x = u cos v sin , y = u sin + v cos .

r @IQFPA gneti
A(u2 cos2 + v 2 sin2 2uv cos sin ) + B(uv cos2 uv sin2 + u2 cos sin v 2 sin cos ) + C(u2 sin2 + v 2 cos2 + 2uv sin cos )+ D(u cos v sin ) + E(u sin + v cos ) + F = 0 u2 A cos2 + B cos sin + C sin2 + uv 2A cos sin + B(cos2 sin2 ) + 2C sin cos + v 2 A sin2 B sin cos + C cos2 + u [D cos + E sin ] + v [D sin + E cos ] + F = 0.
en uprqei gwn gi thn opo o suntelest tou uv mhdenzetiD tte qoume frei thn exswsh sthn gnwst morf @IQFIAD ll pl se n llo ssthm sunteE tgmnwnF r gwn pou qreizmste mpore n upologisje w exX
2A cos sin + B(cos2 sin2 ) + 2C sin cos = 0 AC cos 2 = (A C) sin 2 = B cos 2 sin 2 B AC 1 AC cot 2 = = arccot . @IQFQA B 2 B
rthrste ti h sunefptmenh prnei tim p to w to +D r pntote mpor n rw n pou n mhdenzei to C F r kinorgi exswsh eni th morf
A u2 + B v 2 + D u + E v + F = 0,
PTT
KEFALAIO 13.
KWNIKES TOMES
pou u, v eni oi suntetgmne en nou sustmto suntetgmnwn peristrmmnou risterstrof kt gwni F 9ymwD p t prohgomen xroume ti ut h exswsh ekfrzei kwnik tom mettopismnh w pro ton rq twn xnwn kpoi tetrimmnh perptwshF
Pardeigma 13.2
xswsh Na perigrafe o gewmetrikc tpoc pou perigrfetai ap thn e-
4x2 + 2 3xy + 2y 2 + 10 3x + 10y 5 = 0.
o prto m eni n upologsoume thn gwni kt thn opo prpei n peristryoume tou xone ste n mettryoume thn exswsh qwr ro th morf xy X 42 1 1 cot 2 = = = = . 2 3 6 2 3 3
Lsh:
9er jtw
3 1 x = u cos v sin = u v 6 2 2 2 1 3 y = v sin + u cos = u + v. 6 6 2 2

we ntiktstsh sthn dosmnh exswshD prokpteiX
3 1 u v 2 2
1 3 3 1 1 3 +2 3 u+ v u v u+ v 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 3 3 +2 u+ v + 10 3 u v + 10 2 2 2 2
2
1 3 u+ v 2 2
= 5,
pou met p plopoisei gneti
(u + 2)2 v 2 + = 1, 5 25 pou eni lleiyh me meglo xon ton xon twn v D a = 5D b = 5D ki kntro (u, v) = (2, 0)F 5u2 + v 2 + 20u = 5 5u2 + 20u + 20 + v 2 = 25
13.7.
AX 2 + BXY + CY 2 + DX + EY + F = 0
PTU
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 6
0 x
r didiks gi ton prosdiorism th morf tou gewmetriko tpou pou ntistoiqe se mi exswsh th morf @IQFPA eni pnt h diX
Paratrhsh:
IF utrqn plefoume ton ro xy D peristrfont kt th gwn pou iknopoie thn exswsh @IQFQAF PF utpinD sumplhrnoume t tetrgwnD ki ktlgoume se mi mes ngnwrE simh kwnik tom se kpoi eidik perptwshF
Pardeigma 13.3
Na sqedisete, me kat to dunat kalterh akrbeia, ton gewme-
trik tpo twn shmewn 1. 2. 3.
(x, y)
pou ikanopoion kje mia ap tic exisseic: gia
4x2 + 9y 2 + 8x 90y + k = 0, x2 2xy + y 2 + x + y = 0.
k = 193, 229, 230.
3x2 + 10xy + 3y 2 2x 14y 13 = 0.

9eskhshF
Lsh:
PTV
KEFALAIO 13.
KWNIKES TOMES
Parrthma A
Lseic Asksewn
PTW
PUH
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
A.1
Askseic Kefalaou 1
IF
GF(5) enai pedo) 9istw to snolo GF(5) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}D gi to opoo qoume orsei do prxei w exX
(To
@A hn prsjesh modulo 5D pou th sumolzoume me D ki smfwn me thn opo to x y isoti me to uploipo th diresh tou x + y me to 5F ssodnmD
x y = x + y 5k,
pou k eni o mondik krio gi ton opoo 0 x + y 5k < 5F @A on pollplsism modulo 5D pou ton sumolzoume me D ki smfwn me ton opoo to x y isoti me to uploipo th diresh tou x y me to 5F ssodnmD
y = xy 5k,
pou k eni o mondik krio gi ton opoo 0 xy 5k < 5F x deiqje ti to snolo GF(5)D efodismno me ti nw prxeiD iknopoie t eximt edouF
(Paratrhsh: To
CD player
sac qrhsimopoie kdikec anqneushc sflmatoc
Reed-Solomon
sto
GF(255)
Lsh:
.)
rpei n epieisoume ti isqoun ki t pnte eximt edouF
r prosetiristik iditht th prsjesh prokptei prthrnt tiX
x (y z) = x + (y + z 5k1 ) 5k2 = x + y + z 5(k1 + k2 ), (x y) z = (x + y 5k3 ) + z k4 = x + y + z 5(k3 + k4 ).

t nwD oi krioi ki eni ttoioi ste to ntstoiqo jroism n eni pntote nmes sto 0 ki to 4F rthrste tr ti uprqei mno n k ttoio ste to x + y + z 5k n eni nmes sto 0 ki to 4F 9er k1 + k2 = k3 + k4 D ki telik
x (y z) = (x y) z.
r prosetiristik iditht gi ton pollplsismD h ntimetjetiktht tou pollplsismo ki th prsjesh ki h epimeristik iditht prokptoun entel nlogF qetik me thn prxh oudetrwnD eni profn ti to 0 eni ki pli to oudtero stoiqeo th prsjesh ki to 1 eni to oudtero stoiqeo tou pollplsismoF qetik me thn prxh ntjetwnD eni profn ti
0 + 0 = 0, 1 + 4 = 0, 2 + 3 = 0,
r uprqei ntjeto gi kje stoiqeo sto GF(5)F qetik me tou ntstrofouD me lge dokim rskoume ti
1 = 1, 2
3 = 1, 4
4 = 1,
r loi oi rijmo ekt tou 0 qoun ntstrofoF
A.1.
ASKHSEIS KEFALAIOU 1
PUI
PF
9istw to snolo twn rijmn {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} gi tou opoou orzoume thn prsjesh modulo 6 ki ton pollplsism modulo 6 kri pw ki sthn 9eskhsh ID me th mnh difor ti prnoume to uploipo th diresh me to 6F ini ut to snoloD efodismno me ut ti prxeiD pedoc qitc
('Ena snolo pou den enai pedo) Lsh:
rthrste ti
0 = 0, 2
1 = 2, 2
2 = 4, 2
3 = 0, 2
4 = 2, 2
5 = 4,
9erD uprqei rijmD o 2D pou den eni to oudtero stoiqeo th prsjesh @fo gi prdeigm 2 1 = 1A ki o opoo den qei ntstrofoF eut prizei to ntstoiqo exwm edouF QF
(Orismc afareshc)
9istw oi prgmtiko a, bF rhsimopoint pokleistik ki mno t eximt edou ki ton knn th ploifD n dexete ti uprqei kri n x ttoio ste a + x = bD ki eni o x = b + (a)F on sumolzoume me b aF rthrste pw 0 a = 0 + (a) = aF
Lsh: 9istw a o ntjeto tou aD dhld o rijm y gi ton opoo y + a = 0F rthr pw gi ton rijm x = b + (a) isqeiX
a + x = a + (b + (a)) = a + ((a) + b) = (a + (a)) + b = 0 + b = b.

9er rkme nn x gi ton opoo a + x = bF 9istw pw uprqe ki detero x = x me thn di idithtF te a + x = b ki p ton knn th ploif x = x D dhld topoF RF
(Idithtec anisthtac)
x deiqjeD qrhsimopoint t eximt edou ki hitxhD ti
@A en a 0 ca < cbF

Lsh:
@A ix orismoD a < b shmnei ti o b a eni jetikD ki b < c shmnei ti o c b eni jetikF 9erD p to prto exwm hitxhD j eni jetik ki o (ba)+(cb) = caD dhld a < cF @A a < b shmnei ti o b a eni jetikD r p to prto exwm hitxhD j eni jetik ki o c(b a) = cb caD dhld ca < cbF SF
inmum) x podexeteD qrhsimopoint to exwm th lhrthtD ti kje mh kenD frgmno ktw snolo S qei inmumF
('Uparxh
9istw snolo S mh ken ki frgmno ktwD dhld uprqei L ttoio ste gi kje x S D x LF 9istw to snolo S {y : y S}.
Lsh:
o snolo S eni profn mh kenF ini epsh ki frgmno nw p to LF rgmtiD stw opoiodpote stoiqeo tou y S F o y nkei sto S D r y L y L ki to L eni nw frgmF 9erD p to exwm th lhrthtD to S qei supremumD pou to sumolzw me sup(S)F
PUP
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
t dexw ti to S qei gi inmum to sup(S)F utrqnD to sup(S) eni ktw frgmD dhld gi kje x S D x sup(S)F rgmtiD stw ti uprqei kpoio x sto S me x < sup(S)F te x > sup(S) ki qw topoD fo x S F ini mw ki to mgisto ktw frgmF 9istw pw den eniD ki pw uprqei > 0 ttoio ste gi kje x S D x sup(S) + F 9ymwD uprqei y (S) ttoio ste y > sup(S) D lli to sup(S) den j tn supremum tou S F 9er y < sup(S) + F ipeid to y nkei sto S D ktlxme se topoF TF
(' Ajroisma sunlwn)
9istw mh ken snol A, B RF 9istw to jroism
C =A+B
x deiqje tiX
{a + b : a A, b B}.
@A en t A, B qoun supremumD qei ki to C ki mlist sup C = sup A + sup B F @A en t A, B qoun inmumD qei ki to C ki mlist inf C = inf A + inf B F t podexoume mno to prto skloD kj to detero prokptei nlogF 9istw c C F t uprqoun a A, b B ttoi ste x = a + bD r fo a sup AD b sup B D ngkstik x = a + b sup A + sup B F 9erD to C eni frgmno nwD p to sup A + sup B D ki epeid eni ki mh ken qei supremumF
Lsh:
wnei n dexoume ti to sup A + sup B eni supremumF 9istw pw den eniF efo xroume pw eni nw frgmD ngkstik to supremum j eni mikrteroD r uprqei h > 0 ttoio ste c sup A + sup B h gi l t c C F eut mw eni topoF rgmtiD ex9 orismo tou sup A uprqei a0 A me a0 > sup A h F ymowD uprqei b0 A me b0 > sup B h F 9er 2 2 a0 + b0 > sup A + sup B hD r den uprqei mikrtero frgm p to sup A + sup B D r ut eni ki to elqisto nw frgmF UF
sunlwn) 9istw mh ken snol A, B RF en gi kje a AD ki gi kje b B D qoume a bD tte n deiqje ti to A qei supremumD to B qei inmumD ki sup A inf B F (Sgkrish Lsh: o A eni mh ken ki frgmno nw p kpoio tuqo b B D r qei supremumF ymowD to B eni mh ken ki frgmno ktw p kpoio tuqo a AD r qei inmumF 9istw tr ti sup A > inf B F 9er j uprqei > 0 ttoio ste sup A = inf B + F 9ymw p thn ktskeu tou supremum ki tou inmumD j uprqoun a A, b B D me a > sup A 2 D b < inf B + 2 F 9erD a b > sup A inf B = 0 a > bD pou eni topo ex9 upojsewF 9erD sup A inf B F
VF
(Ginmeno sunlou me arijm)
qi opoiodpote snolo S ki c RD orzoume
cS
x dexete ti
{cx : x S}.
inf cS = c inf S, sup cS = c sup S,
A.1.
PUQ
tn c > 0D ki
inf cS = c sup S, sup cS = c inf S.

tn c < 0F
Lsh:
ki
9istw ktrqn ti c > 0F t podexoume thn prth isthtF 9istw n > 0F te > 0D ki p ton orism tou inmum prokptei ti uprqei x S ttoio ste
x < inf S +
cx < c inf S + .
o cx nkei sto cS D ki h nw nistht deqnei ti inf cS c inf S D lli qoume n ekolo topoF 9istw tr pw qoume usthr nisthtD dhld inf cS < c inf S ki stw inf cS = c inf S F te x S : cx < c inf S x < inf S , 2 2c pou epsh eni topoF 9er prpei n isqei h isthtF r deterh istht podeikneti me entel nlogo trpoF 9istw tr ti c < 0F t podexoume thn prth isthtF 9istw n > 0F te ki c > 0D ki p ton orism tou supremum prokptei ti uprqei x S ttoio ste
x > sup S +
cx < c sup S + .
o cx nkei sto cS D ki h nw nistht deqnei ti inf cS c sup S D lli qoume n ekolo topoF 9istw tr pw qoume usthr nisthtD dhld inf cS < c sup S ki stw inf cS = c sup S F te
x S : cx < c sup S
x > sup S
2c
pou epsh eni topoD git c < 0 sup S 2c > sup S F 9er prpei n isqei h isthtF r deterh istht podeikneti me entel nlogo trpoF
PUR
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
A.2
Askseic Kefalaou 2
IF
(Monadikthta orou)
rhsh: Telik Extash
en limf (x) = L ki limf (x) = M D n deiqje ti L = M F

xc xc
0.7 mondec.)
(Parat-
Septembrou 2009,
Lsh:
9istw ti limf (x) = L ki limf (x) = M D ki ti L = M F t dexoume ti tte

xc xc
prokptei topoF wr lh th genikthtD stw L > M F @r pdeixh gi L < M eni entel nloghFA 9istw = LM > 0F efo to L eni rioD uprqei 1 ttoio ste 2
0 < |x c| < 1 |f (x) L| < =
LM M L L+M f (x) L > f (x) > . 2 2 2
efo mw ki to M eni rioD uprqei 2 ttoio ste
0 < |x c| < 2 |f (x) M | < =
LM LM L+M f (x) M < f (x) < . 2 2 2
en epilxw = min{1 , 2 }D tte gi l t x me 0 < |x c| < prpei n isqoun do moiw pokleimene nisthteF 9er prokptei topoD ki prpei L = M F PF 9istw mi opoidpoE te sunrthsh f (x)D me rio limf (x) = L ki stw pw llzoume thn tim th me ujreto trpo
(Tropopohsh sunrthshc se peperasmno arijm shmewn)
se n ektommrio tim th xD pou mpore n perilmnoun thn tim cD ll qi prthtD gi n dhmiourgsoume mi sunrthsh g(x)F prqei to rio limg(x)c
xc
xc
9istw 1 h pstsh tou c p to plhsistero shmeo pou llxme thn tim th sunrthshD me exresh to c @n qoume llxei th sunrthsh ki sto cFA r pstsh 1 > 0F
Lsh:
@rthrste ti to nw epiqerhm den j mporosme n to knoume n t shme tn peirD difor tou cD ki sunklinn sto cF te to 1 den j oriztnD git den j uprqe kpoio shmeo {pio kont} sto c p t uploipFA 9istw tr
> 0F efo h f (x) qei rio sto cD uprqei 2 > 0 ttoio ste 0 < |x c| < 2 |f (x) L| < .
9istw = min{1 , 2 }F nto pou 0 < |x c| < D qoume f (x) = g(x)D ki epiplon |f (x) L| < D r ki |g(x) L| < F 9er ex9 orismo limg(x) = LD dhld to rio den llxeF
xc
QF
(Allagc metablhtc)
x deiqjon t kloujX
@A lim f (h) = A nn lim f (ah b) = AD pou a = 0F

h0
b h a
@A en lim f (h) = AD tte lim f (h2 ) = AF ssqei to ntstrofoc

h0 h0
Lsh:
A.2.
PUS
@A epodeiknoume prt to eujF 9istw > 0F ep thn upjesh lim f (h) = A prokptei pw uprqei > 0 tsi ste
h0
0 < |h| < |f (h) A| < .

ipilgw
|a|
@eFIA
> 0 ki prthr pw b 0 < |h | < 0 < |ah b| < |f (ah b) A| < . a |a|
r sunepgwg prokptei efrmzont thn @eFIA me to ah b sth jsh tou hF 9erD gi to sugkekrimno > 0 rk kpoio = |a| > 0 tsi ste
b 0 < |h | < |f (ah b) A| < . a

9erD p ton orism tou orouD prokptei ti lim f (ah b) = AF
b h a
ekolojwD podeiknoume to ntstrofoF 9istw > 0F ix9 upojsew uprqei > 0 ttoio ste b @eFPA 0 < |h | < |f (ah b) A| < . a ttw = |a| > 0F t qoumeX
0 < |h 0| < = |a| 0 < |h + b b| < |a| 0 < | |f (a
h+b b |< a a
h+b b) A| < |f (h) A| < . a

h+b a
r sunepgwg prokuye efrmzont thn @eFPA me to orismo j isqei lim f (h) = AF

h0
sth jsh tou hF 9erD ex9
@A 9istw
> 0F ep thn upjeshD uprqei > 0 ttoio ste 0 < |h| < |f (h) A| < .
@eFQA
ipilgw =
> 0 ki prthr pwX 0 < |h| < 0 < |h2 | < 0 < |f (h2 ) A| < .
r deterh sunepgwg prokptei me efrmog th @eFQA gi to h2 nt gi to hF 9erD p ton orism tou orouD prokptei ti lim f (h2 ) = AF
h0
o ntstrofo den isqeiD pw dipistnoume ekol n prospjsoume n to efrmE soume sthn sunrthsh
f (x) =
1, x 0, 1, x < 0.
PUT
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
RF
(Uprqei rio
uprqoun pleurik ria)
x deiqje ti limf (x) = L nn lim f (x) = +

xc xc
2009, 0.7 mondec.)
L ki lim f (x) = LF
xc
Lsh:
(Paratrhsh:
Telik Extash Septembrou
utrqnD stw pw lim = LF 9istw

xc
> 0F te uprqei > 0 ttoio ste
0 < |x c| < |f (x) L| < .

9er c < x < c + 0 < |x c| < |f (x) L| < ki r uprqei to dexi rioD en epsh c < x < c 0 < |x c| < |f (x) L| < D ki r uprqei ki to rister rioF entistrfwD stw pw uprqoun ki t do pleurik riF 9istw > 0F t uprqoun 1 , 2 > 0 ttoi ste
c < x < c + 1 |f (x) L| < , c 2 < x < c |f (x) L| < .

9erD n epilxw = min{1 , 2 }D tte pote 0 < |x c| < D j isqei ete h prthD ete h deterh perptwshD ki tsi sgour |f (x) L| < D r limf (x) = LF
xc
SF
rhsimopoint ton orism Gki gnwst idithte tou orou @Dti protimteAD n upologsete t klouj riX
(Upologismo orwn)
25x +2 @A lim 75x7 2 F x0
@A lim |x| F + x
x0
@gA lim |x| F x

x0
@dA lim
Lsh:
x3 +8 F 2 x2 x 4
@A rhsimopoint gnwst jewrmtD lim (25x3 + 2) = 25 03 + 2 = 2 ki lim 75x7 2 =
75 07 2 = 2D ki epiplon
x0
x0
lim (25x3 + 2) 25x3 + 2 2 x0 lim = = = 1. 72 7 2) x0 75x lim (75x 2

x0 |x| @A 9istw f (x) F rthrome ti x > 0 |x| = 1F 9er gi opoiodpote > 0 uprqei x x > 0D gi prdeigm to = 1D ttoio ste tn 0 < x < n qoume |f (x) 1| = |1 1| = 0 < F 9er |x| lim = 1. + x x0
@gA ymowD prokptei

x0
lim
|x| = 1. x
A.2.
PUU
@dA r mjodo tou prtou sklou den mpore n efrmoste utosiD git o pronomst qei rio 0F rthrome mw ti gi x = 2D
x3 + 8 (x + 2)(x2 2x + 4) x2 2x + 4 = = . x2 4 (x 2)(x + 2) x2
9ymw
lim (x2 2x + 4) 12 x2 2x + 4 x2 = = = 3, lim x2 x2 lim (x 2) 4

x2
sunep
x3 + 8 = 3. x2 x2 4 lim
TF
hexte ti oi prktw kolouje eni sugklnouE seD ete peuje p ton orismD ete me gnwst idithteX
(Epaljeush orismo akoloujac)
an =
1 , n
an =
1 , n!
an =
n , n+1
an =
2n , 2+1 n
an =
(1)n+1 . n
qi kje > 0D j uprqei n N > 0 ttoio ste gi l t n > N D n qoume |an L| < D pou L = lim an F qi kje mi p ti nw koloujeD n rejon t N pou pitonti gi ti tim
Lsh:
n+
= 1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001F
e kje perptwshD prpei n rome to rio ki n N gi to opoo n > N |an L| < F r epilog profn den eni mondikX n m knei n N D j m knei ki opoiodpote N + k D pou k jetik krioF
1 @A r an = n qei rio to 0D pw prokptei ekol p ton orismF rthrome ti |an | < 1 | n | < n > 1 F 9erD rke n epilxw N = 1 D pou x eni o mikrtero krio megltero so tou xF yi tim pou prokptoun emfnzonti ston nk eFIF 1 @A thn perptwsh th an = n! D eni entel profn ti h kolouj sugklnei sto 0D ll den eni profn pw j to dexoumeD qrhsimopoint t ergle pou qoume dei w trF 9iqoumeX 1 1 0 . n! n o dex rio sugklnei sto 0D r p to terhm th remolD ktllhl tropopoihE 1 mno gi koloujeD prokptei ti h n! tenei sto 0F e ut thn perptwshD den mporome n lsoume thn exswsh |an | < w pro nF wporome mw n upologsoume thn tim th an gi difore tim tou nD ki n rome kje for thn prth pou exsflzei thn nistht |an | < F ipeid h an eni fjnousD ut h tim tou n eni dektF yi tim pou prokptoun emfnzonti ston nk eFIF
@gA thn perptwsh th an = sunrthsh
n D n+1
qw rio L = 1D pw prokptei qrhsimopoint thn
f (x) =
x 1 = x+1 1+
1 x
PUV
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
an 1 1 an = n I 1 an = n! I n an = n+1 H 2n an = n2 +1 I (1)n+1 an = n I
0.1 IH R W PH IH
0.01 IHH S WW PHH IHH
0.001 IHHH U WWW PHHH IHHH
0.0001 IHHHH V WWWW PHHHH IHHHH
nk eFIX N pou pitonti gi to ntstoiqo D gi ti kolouje th 9eskhsh TF ki to jerhm

x+
lim f (x) = L lim f (n) = L.

n+
@eFRA
9iqoumeX
n nn1 1 1 1| < | |< < n > 1. n+1 n+1 n+1

1
9erD rke n epilxw N = eFIF
1F yi tim pou prokptoun emfnzonti ston nk
2n @dA thn perptwsh th an = n2 +1 qoume rio L = 0D pw prokptei qrhsimopoint thn 2x sunrthsh f (x) = x2 +1 F rgmtiD
0 f (x) <
2x 2 = . x2 x
2 r deterh nistht isqei gi x > 1F ipeid h x qei rio to 0D ki h f (x) j qei rio to 0D p to terhm th remolF 9erX 2n < n2 2n + > 0. |an L| < 2 n +1 ipeid > 0D h teleut nistht isqei n epilxoume to n megltero p thn meglE terh rz tou trinumouD dhld n epilxoumeX
n>N =
2+
4(1 2
2)
1+
we ntiktstsh gi ti difore tim tou ston nk eFIF @eA r kolouj an =

(1)n+1 n
prokptoun oi tim tou N pou emfnzonti
qei rio to 0F rgmtiX
1 (1)n+1 1 , n n n
1 ki p to kritrio th premol prokptei to zhtomenoF ipiplon |an | < | n | < F ipomnwD ut h perptwsh tutzeti me thn prthD ki ntistoqw prokptoun oi tim tou N ston pnkF
A.2.
PUW
UF
x dexete ti mi kolouj an den mpore n qei perisster tou en riD qrhsimopoint pokleistik ton orism tou orou koloujF
(Monadikthta orou akoloujac)
t qrhsimopoisoume pgwg se topoF 9istw pw h an qei do riD A ki B D kt9 ngkh diforetikF 9istw = |AB| > 0F 9erD p ton orism tou orouD j uprqei N1 ttoio 2 ste gi kje n > N1 D n qoume |an A| < F ipshD j uprqei N2 ttoio ste gi kje n > N2 D n qoume |an B| < F 9istw tr N = max{N1 , N2 } + 1D opte N megltero ki p to N1 D ki p to N2 F t qoumeX
Lsh:
|A B| = |A aN B + aN | |A aN | + |aN B| < + = 2
ki sunep ftsme sto topo |A B| < |A B|F
|A B| = |A B|, 2
qi n ktloume ekol thn pdeixhD mporome n skeftome w exX n mi kolouj qei kpoio rioD tte ousistik rsketi kont sto rioD gi rket megl nF 9er den mpore n qei do diforetik riD git den mpore n rsketi kont se do diforetiko rijmoF
aujareta aujareta
VF
(Grammikc sunduasmc akoloujin)
@A x deiqjeD qrhsimopoint ton orism tou riou koloujD ti n oi kolouje an D bn D qoun ri A ki B D ntstoiqD tte to jroism an + bn qei rio to A + B F @A x deiqjeD epsh qrhsimopoint ton orism tou orou koloujD ti n h kolouj an qei rio to AD h kolouj can qei rio to cAF @gA unduzont t nwD n deiqje ti n oi kolouje an D bn D qoun ri A ki B D ntstoiqD tte to jroism c1 an + c2 bn qei rio to c1 A + c2 B F
Lsh:
@A 9istw ujreto > 0F 9er ki 2 > 0F efo h an qei rio to AD j uprqei kpoio N1 ttoio ste gi kje n > N1 D n qoume |an A| < 2 F entistoqwD j uprqei kpoio N2 ttoio ste gi kje n > N2 D n qoume |bn B| < 2 F ipilgw N0 = max{N1 , N2 }F 9iqwD gi kje n > N0 D
|an + bn (A + B)| |an A| + |bn B| <
= .
9erD p ton orism tou orouD prokptei ti h an + bn j qei rio to A + B F @A en c = 0 h iditht eni tetrimmnh ki profn isqeiF 9istw loipn c = 0F 9istw ujreto > 0F t qoume |c| > 0D ki lgw th sgklish th an sto A j uprqei N > 0 ttoio ste gi kje n > N D
|an A| <
ipeid to
|c|
|can cA| < .
epilqjhke ujretD prokptei pw h can sugklnei sto cAF
@gA ep to detero sklo prokptei ti h c1 an sugklnei sto c1 A ki h c2 bn sugklnei sto c2 B F ekolojwD p to prto sklo prokptei ti h c1 an +c2 bn sugklnei sto c1 A+c2 B F
PVH
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
A.3
Askseic Kefalaou 3
IF
x2 enai suneqc sto 0) rhsimopoint pokleistik ton orism th sunqei @dhld epiqeirmt me ki AD n dexete ti h sunrthsh f (x) = x2 eni suneq sto mhdnF
(H
rpei n dexoume ti gi kje > 0D uprqei > 0 ttoio ste |x 0| < |f (x) f (0)| < F 9istw loipn > 0F yrzw = > 0F 9iqoumeX
Lsh:
|x 0| < x2 < 2 = |x2 02 | < |f (x) f (0)| < .

PF
|x| enai panto suneqc) rhsimopoint pokleistik ton orism th sunqei @dhld epiqeirmt me ki AD n dexete ti h sunrthsh f (x) = |x| eni pnto suneqF
(H Lsh:
t dexoume prt th sunqei sto 0F 9istw
> 0F hilgoume = > 0F 9iqoume
|x 0| < |x| < ||x| |0|| .

9istw tr kpoio x0 > 0F 9istw
> 0F ttw = min{x0 , } > 0F teX
|x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 )| < ,

ki r h f (x) = |x| eni suneq gi x0 > 0F loD stw x0 < 0F 9istw
> 0F ttw = min{x0 , } > 0F teX
|x x0 | < | x (x0 )| < |f (x) f (x0 )| < ,

ki r h f (x) = |x| eni suneq ki gi x0 < 0F QF
(Sunjkh gia sunqeia sunrthshc)
9istw h sunrthsh
f (x) =
sin x, x c, ax + b, x > c,
pou t a, b, c stjerF en t b, c eni dosmnD rete ti tim tou aD n uprqounD gi ti opoe h f (x) eni pnto suneqF r f (x) eni suneq se l t shme prn tou x = cD lgw th sunqei twn sunrtsewn sin x ki ax + bF qi n qw sunqei sto x = cD ex orismo prpei n uprqei rioD ki n isoti me f (c) = sin cF qi n uprqei rioD prpei n tutzonti to rister ki to dex rioD dhldX sin c b . lim sin x = lim ax + b sin c = ac + b a = + xc xc c r sunrthsh pou prokptei qei sqediste sto qm eFI gi c = D b = 1D ki a w nwF 4 rthrste ti se ut thn perptwsh j prpei c = 0F hiforetikD gi n eni suneq h sunrthsh j prpei prittw b = 0D en to a mpore n prei opoidpote tim stou prgmtikoF
Lsh:
RF
(Upologismo orwn me qrsh sunqeiac)
x upologsete t klouj riX
A.3.
PVI
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
qm eFIX r sunrthsh th 9eskhsh QF @A lim sin(tan x) F sin x

x0
@A lim sin(cos x) F cos x

x 2
@gA lim
Lsh:
x4
1+
xF
@A rthrome ti gi 0 < |x| < D 2
sin(tan x) sin(tan x) 1 1 = = g(tan x) , sin x tan x cos x cos x

pou h sunrthsh g(x) orzeti w
g(x) =
sin x , x
1,
x = 0, x = 0.
ut t gnwstD h g(x) eni suneq sto 0D r p to gnwst jerhm gi th snjesh suneqn sunrtsewnD qoume
x0
lim g(tan x) = g(tan 0) = g(0) = 1,
ki telik qoumeX
x0
lim
1 1 sin(tan x) = lim g(tan x) = lim [g(tan x)] lim = 1. x0 x0 x0 cos x sin x cos x
PVP
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
@A utrqn prthrome tiD efson uprqei to rioD j prpei n isqeiX
sin sin x + sin (cos x) 2 = lim lim x x cos x sin x + 2 2 2
sin sin x 2 = lim x sin x 2 2 sin sin x 2 = lim x sin x 2 2 = lim sin (sin x) . x0 sin x
9ymwD efrmzont th mjodo tou prohgomenou sklouD ekol prokptei ti to teE leuto rio sthn nw istht ntw uprqei ki isoti me th mondD r j uprqei ki to prto rio ki telikX sin (cos x) lim = 1. x 2 cos x @gA 9iqoume dei pw n limf (x) > 0D tte lim
xc xc
f (x) =
xc
limf (x)F 9er ekol prokptei pw lim x = 3.
x4
lim
1+
x=
1 + lim x =
x4
1+
x4
SF
(Sqedn panto suneqc sunrthsh)
9istw h sunrthsh
1 x
f (x) =
sin A,
, x = 0, x = 0.
x deiqje ti h sugkekrimnh sunrthsh eni pnto suneqD ekt p to shmeo x = 0D pou den eni suneq nexrtht p thn epilog tou AF
Lsh:
r sunrthsh qei sqediste sto qm eFPD pou qoume upojsei ti A = 0F E rthrste ti kj to x tenei sto 0D to rism tou hmitnou pokt pol megle timD me potlesm n uprqei mi epitqunmenh tlntwshF
r sunqei th sunrthsh se shme ekt tou x = 0 prokptei prthrnt ti h f (x) = sin x 1 eni pnto suneqD h g(x) = x eni suneq pnto ekt tou x = 0D ki efrmzont gnwst jerhm gi th sunqei snjetwn sunrtsewnF wnei n dexoume ti h sunrthsh eni suneq sto 0D gi opoidpote epilog tou AF wi prosektik melth tou sqmto j prpei n m pesei ti ntw ut isqeiD en m ohj n mntyoume thn podeiktik didiksF 9istw loipn pw to A 0F @r pdeixh n to A < 0 eni nloghFA 9istw = 1 > 0F en h 2 sunrthsh eni suneqD prpei n uprqei > 0 ste n x (, )D utmt n exsflzeti ti |f (x) f (0)| < = 1 F 9ymwX 2
|f (x) f (0)| < =
1 1 1 1 1 |f (x) A| < = A f (x) < f (x) > A . 2 2 2 2 2
9ymwD ms sto disthm (, ) mpor n rw n x gi to opoo f (x) = 1D prizont thn nw nisthtF rgmtiX
1 (2n + 1) +
<
1 1 1 1 3 < (2n + 1) + 2n + 1 > n> . 2 2 2 4
A.3.
PVQ
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
0.5
0.5
qm eFPX r sunrthsh th 9eskhsh SF en epilxw n opoiodpote n pou iknopoie thn teleut nisthtD j isqei ki h prthD 1 r j qw x = (2n+1)+ (, ) me f (x) = sin((2n + 1) + ) = 1F 9erD odhghjkme se 2 2 topoD ki h f (x) eni pnt suneqD nexrtht p thn tim tou AF TF
(Sunrthsh
Dirichlet) 9istw h sunrthsh Dirichlet f (x) = 1, x Q, 0, x Q.
@we to smolo Q sumolzoume tou rhto rijmoFA 9istw epsh h sunrthsh g(x) = |x|f (x)F @A x deiqje ti h f (x) eni pnto suneqF @A x deiqje ti h g(x) eni pnto suneqD me exresh to shmeo x = 0 pou eni suneqF
(Updeixh: qrhsimopoiste to gegonc ti tso oi rhto so kai oi rrhtoi enai
pukno
sto
snolo twn pra gmatikn
ujret
Lsh:
, dhlad gia kje pra gmatik kai na rrhto.)
(rht rrhto), mporome na brome
kont tou tso na rht, so
t dexoume mno to detero skloD kj to prto prokptei me prmoioD pio ekolo trpoF utrqnD prthrome ti h sunrthsh g(x) eni suneq sto x = 0D p to jerhm th premolF rgmtiD 0 g(x) |x|D me rio sto 0 ki th f1 (x) |x| ki th f2 (x) 0 to 0F unepD lim g(x) = 0D ki h g(x) eni suneq sto 0D git g(0) = 0F
x0
9istw tr pw h g(x) eni suneq se kpoio c = 0F 9istw pw to c QD opte g(c) = c1 = cF 9istw = g(c) > 0F vgw sunqeiD uprqei > 0 ttoio ste gi l t x (c , c + )D n 2 qoume |g(x) g(c)| < = g(c) F 9ymwX 2
|g(x) g(c)| <
g(c) g(c) g(c) g(c) g(x) < g(x) > > 0. 2 2 2
PVR
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.5 0 0.5
qm eFQX wi proseggistik peiknish th sunrthsh th 9eskhsh TF 9ymw p thn updeixhD uprqei n rht x o opoo rsketi ent tou (c , c + )D gi ton opoo ex orismo g(x) = 0D ki profn prizeti h nw nisthtF unepD ftsme se topoF we prmoi mjodo mporome n dexoume pw h g(x) eni suneq n to c QF elikD prokptei ti h sunrthsh g(x) eni pnto suneqD ekt p to 0F to qm eFQ qoume mi @profn diisjhtikA peiknish th sunrthsh g(x)D h opo mpore n m ohjsei n ktnosoume to potlesmF UF
(Sunrthsh Riemann) 9istw h sunrthsh f gi thn opo f (x) = 0 tn to x eni rrhtoD ki f (x) = 1 tn x = p D pou q > 0 ki oi p, q eni oi mikrteroi dunto kE q q rioiD dhld o mgisto koin diirth tou eni h mond @pw lne oi mjhmtikoD eni prtoi metx touAF ini kpou suneq h f c
utrqnD h f eni suneq se lou tou rhtoF rgmtiD stw rht c = p D pou q 1 p, q w nwD ki gi ton opoo f (c) = 1 F 9istw = 2q > 0F 9istw opoiodpote > 0F ipeid q se kje rht uprqei ujret kont n rrhtoD j uprqei ki ent tou (c , c + ) n rrhto x gi ton opoo
Lsh:
f (x) = 0 |f (x) f (c)| =
1 1 > = . q 2q
9erD uprqei ttoio ste gi kje D uprqei x (c , c + ) me |f (x) f (c)| > D ki r h f den qei rio sto c to f (c)F thn prgmtikthtD h f (x) qei rioD gi kje cD to 0D dhld limf (x) = 0F ipeid f (x) = 0 gi x rrhtouD prokptei ti h f (x) eni suneq stou rrhtouF qi n dexoume to rioD ktrqn prthrome ti @A f (x) = 1 gi x kriouF
xc
A.3.
PVS
@A f (x) = @gA f (x) =
1 2 1 3
gi x hmikriouF
i gi x = k + 3 D pou k krio ki i = 1, 2 F i D N 2 ll qi lF qi prdeigmD f ( 4 ) = 1 D 2
1 @dA qenik f (x) = N gi orismn p t x = k + 2 1 ki qi f ( 4 ) = 4 F
9istw tr c rrhtoD ki stw > 0F 9istw N = o mikrtero fusik p sou eni 1 meglteroi soi tou F 9istw fusik M N ki M > 0 h pstsh nmes ston x ki k l t shme th morf M F 9istw epsh = min{M , 1 M N } > 0F 9iqoume
|x c| < 0 f (x)
r telik limf (x) = 0F
xc
1 |f (x) 0| , N
VF
9istw sunrthsh suneq sto kleist disthm [a, b]D me f (a) a ki f (b) bF x dexete ti h sunrthsh qei sto [a, b]D dhld uprqei c [a, b] ttoio ste f (c) = cF wporete n ermhnesete to potlesm gewmetrikc Bolzano
(Sunrthsh me stajer shmeo)
stajer shmeo (Updeixh: efarmste to jerhma tou se katllhla orismnh sunrthsh.)
yrzw th sunrthsh g(x) = f (x) xD pou eni suneq sto [a, b] w grmmik sunduE sm suneqn sunrtsewnF rthrome pwX g(a) = f (a) a 0 ki g(b) = f (b) b 0. prqoun do periptseiX ete n p t g(a)D g(b) eni 0D ete ki t do eni diforetik p to 0F th deterh perptwshD qoume ngkstik g(a) < 0 ki g(b) > 0F ifrmzont to jerhm BolzanoD qoume ti uprqei c (a, b) ttoio ste g(c) = 0F 9er se kje perptwshD uprqei c [a, b]D ttoio ste g(c) = 0 f (c) c = 0 f (c) = cD dhld se kje perptwsh uprqei stjer shmeo th f (c)F
Lsh:
r gewmetrik ermhne tou potelsmto eni h exX en xekinsoume p n shmeo (a, f (a)) pou nkei sthn euje y = x rsketi ktw p utD ki prpei n pme se n shmeo (b, f (b)) pou nkei sthn euje rsketi pnw p utD me mi suneq grmmD eni io ti se kpoio shmeo th didrom j prpei n tmsoume thn euje y = xF 9in prdeigm fneti sto qm eFRF WF
(Paradegmata sunartsewn Lipschitz) qi ti klouje sunrtseiD rete se poi shme ki se poi distmt eni Lipschitz suneqeX
@A f (x) = cos xF @A f (x) = x2 F @gA f (x) =

Updeixh: nea thc
|x|F
pwc , se lec tic periptseic, ekfrz ei qrhsimopointac na fr gma ston thn diaisjhtik ermhthc
Parathrste
sunqeiac
Lipschitz
pou
ousiastik
rujm
metabolc
sunrthshc, enai ekolo na
brome to anamenmeno apotlesma.
Lsh:
PVT
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
y x=y f(b) f(c)=c f(x)
f(a)
x a c b
qm eFRX r sunrthsh th 9eskhsh VF @A rthrome pw gi kje x, y isqei
|f (y)f (x)| = | cos y cos x| = |2 sin
y+x xy xy |x y| sin | 2| sin |2 = |y x|, 2 2 2 2
r teleut nistht prokptei p th gnwst sqsh | sin x| |x|F fsei th nwD ekol prokptei ti h cos x eni Lipschitz suneq se kje x RD ki kje uposnolo tou RF @A t dexoume ktrqn thn sunqei Lipschitz se kje shmeo x0 > 0F 9istw y (0, 2x0 )F teX |f (y) f (x0 )| = |y 2 x2 | = |y x0 ||y + x0 | 3x0 |y x0 |, 0 r h f (x) eni Lipschitz se kje x0 > 0F rmoi mporome n exetsoume ki thn perptwsh x0 < 0F loD gi to shmeo x0 = 0 prthrome ti n y (1, 1)D tte
|f (y) f (x0 )| = |y 2 02 | = |y||y 0| 1 |y 0|,

r telik h f (x) eni Lipschitz se kje shmeo tou RF th sunqeiD meletme thn sunqei Lipschitz se distmtF 9istw ktrqn n opoiodE pote disthm I frgmnoD dhld x I |x| < M D gi kpoio M RF @qi prdeigmD to I = (0, 1) eni ut th morfFA 9istw do x, y I F teX
|y 2 x2 | = |y x||y + x| 2M |y x|.
9erD n to I eni frgmnoD h f (x) eni Lipschitz sto I F
A.3.
PVU
9istw tr pw to I den eni frgmnoF te toulqiston n p t kr tou eni to + to D gi prdeigm I = (0, )D kokF hen mpore n isqei
|y 2 x2 | = |y x||y + x| M |y x|.
gi knn M D git mporome n knoume to |x + y| so meglo jloumeF 9erD n to I den eni frgmnoD h f (x) den eni Lipschitz sto I F @gA weletme prt th sunqei Lipschitz se shmeF t dexoume ktrqn ti h sunrthsh eni Lipschitz se kje x0 = 0F rgmtiD stw x0 > 0 ki stw to disthm I = ( x0 , +)F 2 teD n y I D j qoumeX
|f (y) f (x0 )| = | |y|
|x0 || =
||y| |x0 || | |y| + |x0 ||
|y x0 | , 3 x0 2
r h sunrthsh eni Lipschitz se kje x0 > 0F r perptwsh x0 < 0 eni entel nloghD pl qrhsimopoiome to disthm (, x0 )F ekolojwD j dexoume ti h sunrthsh den 2 eni Lipschitz sto 0F rgmtiD
|f (y) f (x0 )| = | |y|
|0|| =
|y 0| |y|
to opooD gi rkontw mikr y gneti megltero p kje M |y 0|F qewmetrikD to potlesm lei to exX den mporome n topojetsoume n kno sthn rq twn xnwn o opoo n periqei thn sunrthsh f (x) = xD git h f (x) uxnei pol ptom kj to x fegei p to mhdnF ekolojwD meletme th sunqei Lipschitz se distmtF utrqnD sei tou nw sulE logismoD h sunrthsh den mpore n eni Lipschitz se n disthm pou periqei to 0F ell to dio isqei ki n to I qei pl sto kro tou to 0F e upojsoume gi prdeigm ti I = (0, a]F @yi lle periptsei ntimetwpzonti nlogFA en x, y (0, a]D tte to
|f (y) f (x)| = | |y|
|x|| =
|y x| |y| + |x|
mpore n gnei ujret megltero p kje M |y x|D rke n prw t x, y rkontw mikrF 9istw tr opoiodpote disthm I pou den qei sto kro tou to 0F en to I eni dexi tou 0D stw a > 0 to rister tou kroF elliD n to I eni rister tou 0D stw a < 0 to dex tou kroF 9iqoumeD gi kje x, y I D
| |y|
|x|| =
|y x| |y| + |x|
1 |y x|, 2|a|
r se distmt pou den periqoun to 0 ki den qoun kro to 0 h sunrthsh den eni LipschitzF IHF
(Sqlia sto Jerhma
Heine)
@A frete sunrthsh pou n eni suneq sto (, +) ll qi omoimorf suneqF
PVV
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
@A frete sunrthsh pou n eni suneq se n noikt frgmno disthmD ll qi omoiE morf suneqF
Lsh:
@A wi sunrthsh pou eni suneq ll qi omoimorf suneq sto (, +) eni h f (x) = x2 F rgmtiD j dexw ti uprqei n > 0 ste gi kje > 0 den isqei ti
|y x| < |f (y) f (x)| < .

9istw
= 1F 9istw opoiodpote > 0F rthr pwX |f (y) f (x)| = |y 2 x2 | = |y x||y + x|.
9erD h sqsh |y x| < den exsflzei ti |f (y) f (x)| < = 1F rgmtiD mpore gi prdeigm n qoume y = 2 ki x = 2 + 2 F te |y x| = 2 ll
|f (y) f (x)| = |y 2 x2 | = |y x||y + x| =
4 + 2
> 1.
1 @A 9istw h f (x) = x orismnh sto (0, 1)D pou kt t gnwst p th jewr eni pnto suneq sto (0, 1)F 9istw pw eni omoimorf suneqD dhld gi kje > 0 uprqei > 0 ttoio ste |x y| < |f (x) f (y)| < .
t ktlxw se topo w exX 9istw kpoio D ki stw to ntstoiqo gi to opoo isqei h nw sunepgwgF ttw y = x + 2 D r |x y| < F 9ymw
|f (x) f (y) = |
yx |= > 2, xy 2x(x + /2) 2x
to opoo mw ekol mpore n gnei megltero p to D gi rkontw mikr xF ugkeE krimnD x< 2 > . 2 2x 9erD qoume topo ki h sunrthsh den eni omoimorf suneqF IIF
(Sunqeia Lipschitz Omoimorfh Sunqeia) x dexete ti n h f (x) eni Lipschitz sto disthm I D eni ki omoimorf suneq sto I F Lsh:
ix upojsewD
x, y I, |f (y) f (x)| C|y x|,

gi kpoio C F 9istw
> 0F ttw =
2C
F 9iqoume
|y x| < |f (y) f (x)| C =

< ,
A.3.
PVW
IPF
Sunqeia Lipschitz) wporete n rete mi sunrthsh pou n eni omoimorf suneq se kpoio I D ll qi Lipschitz suneqc
(Omoimorfh Sunqeia
t qrhsimopoisoume thn f (x) = |x|D gi thn opo edme sthn 9eskhsh W ti den eni Lipschitz suneq sto (1, 1)F r f (x) eni mw omoimorf suneq sto dio disthmF qi n to podexwD prthr pw |x y| < |f (x) f (y)| < . @eFSA
Lsh:
9erD gi kje
> 0 uprqei to =
> 0 ttoio ste
|x y| < |f (x) f (y)| < .

qi n podexw thn sunepgwg @eFSA upojtw pw |x y| < ki prnw periptseiX @A en y = x tte h nistht profn isqeiF @A en y > x > 0D tte
|f (y) f (x)| = | y x| | x + x| =
= . < x++ x 0++ 0
@gA en x > y > 0 y < x < 0 x < y < 0D tte h nistht prokptei w nwF @dA en x > 0 > y D tte 0 f (x) , 0 f (y) f (x) f (y) |f (x) f (y)| < . @eA en y > 0 > x h nistht prokptei pw sthn msw prohgomenh perptwshF
PWH
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
A.4
Askseic Kefalaou 4
IF
(Upologismc
paraggou
bsei
orismo)
prggouD t kloujX 1 @A ( x) = 2x gi x > 0D en gi x = 0 h dexi prgwgo eni +F @A ( @gA

1 x
x deiqjonD me qrsh tou orismo th
|x|) =
|x| 1 x 2 |x|
gi x = 0D en gi x = 0 to ntstoiqo rio den uprqeiF
1 = x2 gi x = 0F
Lsh:
@A 9istw ktrqn x > 0F 9iqoumeX
x+h lim h0 h
x+hx ( x + h x)( x + h + x) = lim = lim h0 h( x + h + h0 h( x + h + x) x) 1 1 1 = lim = . = h0 ( x + h + 2 x x) lim ( x + h + x)

h0
en tr x = 0D j qoumeX
0+h 0 1 = lim+ , lim+ h0 h0 h h

pou ekol mporome n dexoumeD peuje p ton orismD ti eni +F @A en x > 0D erqmste sthn prohgomenh perptwshF en x < 0D tte qoumeX
|x + h| |x| ( |x + h| |x|)( |x + h| + |x|) = lim h0 h0 h h( |x + h| + |x|) x h + x 1 1 = lim = = lim h0 h( x h + x) h0 ( x h + x) lim ( x h + x) lim

h0
1 |x| 1 = = . x 2 |x| 2 x
qi thn perptwsh x = 0 prthrome ti to rio p t dexi qei upologiste sto prto sklo ki eni 0D en gi to rio p t rister qoumeX
h0
lim
|0 + h| h
|0|
= lim
h0
h h 1 = lim = lim , h0 h h0 h h
pou ekol mporome n dexoumeD peuje p ton orismD ti eni F 9erD fo t pleurik ri difrounD to rio den uprqeiF en sqedisete thn |x|D to potlesm j gnei mes ktnohtF
A.4.
PWI
@gA rmoiD
1 lim x+h h0 h 1 x
= lim
x (x + h) 1 1 1 = lim = = 2. h0 xh(x + h) h0 x(x + h) lim (x(x + h)) x

h0
PF
(Enallaktiko orismo thc paraggou)
shmeo aD dhldD smfwn me ton orismD
9istw pw h prgwgo th f (x) uprqei sto
f (a + h) f (a) = f (a). h0 h lim

oi p t klouj ri uprqoun n ki mno n uprqei ki h prgwgoc oi p ut isonti me thn prgwgo sto shmeo ac e le ti periptsei mporete n mntyete thn pnthshD n lete up9 yin th diisjhtik ermhne th prggou w klsm peirostn metolnF @A lim f (h)f (a) F ha
ha h0 h0
@A lim f (a)f (ah) F h @gA lim f (a+2h)f (a) F 2h @dA lim f (a+2h)f (a) F h
h0
@eA lim f (a+6h)f (a+5h) F h

h0 h0 )f @A lim f (a+hh2 (a) F
2
@zA lim f (a+h h)f (a) F

h0 h0
@hA lim f (a+h)f (a) F h2

(Updeixh: mporete na qrhsimopoisete ta aklouja:
(a)
h0
(b) An
lim f (h) = A
h0
ann
b h a
lim f (ah b) = A
h0
, pou
a=0
lim f (h) = A
, tte
lim f (h2 ) = A
.)
Lsh:
@A o rio uprqei n ki mno n uprqei h prgwgoD ki isoti me utnF qi n to podexoumeD efrmzoume thn prth updeixh gi a = 1D b = aF @A ymowD ll gi a = 1D b = 0F @gA ymowD ll gi a = 2D b = 0F @dA rthrste ti to en lgw klsm eni diplsio tou klsmto pou emfnzeti sto prohgomeno skloF rokptei loipn pw to rio uprqei n ki mno n uprqei h prgwgoD ll isoti me 2f (a)F
PWP
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
@eA rthrste pwX
f (a + 6h) f (a) f (a + 5h) f (a) f (a + 6h) f (a + 5h) =6 5 . h 6h 5h

en uprqei h prgwgoD t klsmt pou emfnzonti sto dex sklo qoun ki t do rioD kj h 0D thn prgwgo f (a)F eut prokptei efrmzont thn prth updeixh gi a = 6 ki a = 5 ntstoiqF 9er j uprqei ki to rio tou grmmiko tou sundusmoX
f (a + 6h) f (a + 5h) f (a + 6h) f (a) f (a + 5h) f (a) = 6lim 5lim h0 h0 h0 h 6h 5h = 6f (a) 5f (a) = f (a). lim
o ntstrofo mw den isqeiX mpore n uprqei to nw rioD qi mw ki h prgwgoF qi ntiprdeigmD mporome n proume opoidpote sunrthsh eni pnto prgwgsimh ekt p to a pou eni suneqF wi ttoi sunrthsh eni h f (x) = x2 + 1 gi x = 0 ki f (x) = 0 gi x = 0D gi thn opo den uprqei prgwgo sto 0D uprqei mw to nw rioD ki isoti me 0F @A we efrmog th deterh updeixh prokptei ti n uprqei h prgwgoD j uprqei ki to up extsh rioF o ntstrofo mw den isqeiF qi ntiprdeigmD mporome n proume opoidpote sunrthsh eni dexi prgwgsimh sto aD ll qi prgwgsimhF wi ttoi sunrthsh eni h f (x) = |x|D gi thn opo den uprqei prgwgo sto 0D uprqei mw to nw rioD ki isoti me 1F @zA rthrste ti
f (a + h2 ) f (a) f (a + h2 ) f (a) =h . h h2 o detero klsm qei rio thn f (a)D smfwn me to prohgomeno skloF 9erX f (a + h2 ) f (a) f (a + h2 ) f (a) = lim h lim = 0 f (a) = 0. h0 h0 h0 h h2 lim
@hA e ut thn perptwshD to rio mpore n uprqeiD mpore ki qiF qi prdeigmD n f (x) = cD tte f (a + h) f (a) f (a + h) f (a) = 0 lim = 0. 2 h0 h h2 9ymw nD gi prdeigmD f (h) = ch + bD tte
f (a + h) f (a) ca + ah + b ca b 1 = = , 2 2 h h h
gi to opoo ekol prokptei pw den qei rio sto 0F QF
(Ginmeno Paraggwn) Lsh:
x dexete ti (f g) = f g + f g F
9istw x sto opoo uprqoun oi f (x)D g (x)D r oi f D g eni suneqeF rthr pwX
f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x)g(x) f (x + h) f (x) g(x + h) g(x) = g(x) + f (x + h) . h h h

rnont riD prokptei to zhtomenoF
A.4.
PWQ
RF
(Pargwgoi
Antstrofwn
Trigwnometrikn
Sunartsewn)
oun t kloujX
x deiqje ti isqE
(arcsin y) = (arccos y) =
1 1 y2 1
, 1 < y < 1,
, 1 < y < 1, 1 y2 1 (arctan y) = , y R. 1 + y2
Lsh:
9iqoumeX
@A
. 1 y2 1 sin2 x rthrste ti h prgwgo tou prtou sklou eni w pro y D en tou deterou w pro xF ipshD prthrste ti gi to sugkekrimno pedo orismoD qoume pnt cos x = 1 sin2 F feiwjete ti qete ktlei l t mtF (arcsin y) =
@A we prmoio trpo qoumeX
1 1 = = cos x (sin x)
(arccos y) =
1 1 1 = = = sin x (cos x) 1 cos2 x
1 1 y2
@gA ut9 rqnD prthrome pwX
(tan x) =
9er qoumeX
sin x cos x
sin2 + cos2 x = 1 + tan2 x. cos2 x
(arctan y) =
SF
1 1 1 = = . 2 1 + tan x 1 + y2 (tan x)
(Dosmnec pargwgoi sto 0) ho sunrtsei f ki g qoun prte ki detere prE ggou sto 0D ki iknopoion ti sqsei
f (0) =
@A en h(x) =
f (x) D g(x)
2 , f (0) = 2g (0) = 4g(0), g (0) = 5f (0) = 6f (0) = 3. g(0)

upologste thn h (0)F
f (x) g (x)
@A en k(x) = f (x)g(x) sin xD upologste thn k (0)F @gA pologste to rio

Lsh:
kj x 0F
utrqn prthrome p p th dosmnh exswsh mes prokpteiX
1 3 f (0) = , f (0) = 16, f (0) = , g(0) = 4, g (0) = 8, g (0) = 3. 2 5
PWR
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
@A uj g(0) = 0D p gnwst jerhm prokptei pw
h (0) =
15 f (0)g(0) f (0)g (0) = . 2 (0) g 4
@A ikol prokptei pw gi x = 0D pou uprqoun oi f , g D
k (x) = f (x)g(x) sin x + f (x)g (x) sin x + f (x)g(x) cos x,

ki me ntiktstsh rskoume pw k (0) = 2F @gA r f (x) ki h g(x) qoun detere prggouD dhld h f (x) ki h g (x) qoun prte (x) prggouF ipiplonD h g (0) = 0F ep gnwst jerhmD h f (x) qei prgwgo sto 0D g r eni suneq sto 0F 9er telik
f (x) f (0) = = 2. x0 g (x) g (0) lim

TF
(Pargousec)
x prosdiorsete ti klouje prgouseX
@A @A @gA
x3 x4 + 11 dxF sin3 2x cos 2x dxF

cos x x
dxF
Lsh:
@A
1 x3 x4 + 11 dx = 4
pou u = g(x) = x4 + 11F @A
(x4 + 11) 2 (4x3 dx) =
1 4
1 3 1 3 1 u 2 du = u 2 = (x4 + 11) 2 + C, 6 6
sin3 2x cos 2x dx =
1 2
(sin 2x)3 (2 cos 2x) dx =
1 u4 +C 2 4 1 (sin 2x)4 sin4 2x = +C = + C, 2 4 8 1 2 u3 du =
pou u = g(x) = sin 2xF @gA
cos x dx = 2 x pou u = g(x) = xF
cos
1 x dx = 2 2 x
cos u du = 2 sin u + C = 2 sin
x + C,
A.5.
PWS
A.5
Askseic Kefalaou 5
IF
(Proseggistiko upologismo) pologste ti klouje posthte proseggistik eE ktelnt mno ti tsseri rijmhtik prxei ki upologzont pl rzeD ki ktpin ektimste to sflmX 3 172, 63, sin(0.01), cos(0.01).
Lsh:
e le ti periptseiD qrhsimopoiome thn prosggish
f (x)
io nlutikX
f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 ).
@eFTA
1 @A rhsimopoiome x0 = 169 ki f (x) = xD opte f (x0 ) = 13 ki f (x0 ) = 21 = 26 F 169 qi x = 172D h @eFTA dnei f (x) 13.115384615384615 . . .D en me upologist tsph lmnoume 172 = 13.114877048604001 . . .F o sflm eni 5.075 . . . 104 F 1 @A rhsimopoiome x0 = 64 ki f (x) = 3 xD opte f (x0 ) = 4 ki f (x0 ) = 1 2 = 48 F qi x = 63D h @eFTA dnei f (x) 3.979166666666667 . . .D en me upologist tsph lmnoume 3 63 = 3.979057207896392 . . .F o sflm eni 1.09458 . . . 104 F
@gA qi x0 = 0 qoume f (x0 ) = 0 ki f (x0 ) = 1F qi x = 0.01 h @eFTA dnei f (x) 0.01D en me upologist tsph lmnoume sin(0.01) = 0.0099998333341 . . .F o sflm eni mli 1.666658 . . . 107 D gi lgou pou j gnoun ktnohto tn knoume nptgmt TaylorF @dA qi x0 = 0 qoume f (x0 ) = 1 ki f (x0 ) = 0F qi x = 0.01 h @eFTA dnei f (x) 0D en me upologist tsph lmnoume cos(0.01) = 0.999950000416665 . . .F o sflm eni mli 4.9999 . . . 105 D ki pli rket mikrF PF 9istw k stjerD n jetik krioD ki u, v sunrtsei tou xF x deiqje ti isqoun t exD gi t diforik twn u, v se kpoio shmeo x0 pou oi u, v eni prgwgsimeX
(Logismc me diaforik)
364 3
@A dk = 0F @A d(ku) = kduF @gA d(u + v) = du + dv F @dA d(uv) = udv + vduF @eA d

u v
vduudv F v2
@innoeti v(x0 ) = 0FA
@A dun = nun1 duF e le ti periptseiD h logik eni h diX qrhsimopoiome ton orism tou diforiko gi thn ntstoiqh sunrthshD dhld
Lsh:
du = u dx, dv = u dx,
PWT
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
ki thn ntstoiqh iditht twn prggwnF enlutikX
dk d(ku) d(u + v) d(uv) u d v dun
= = = =
(k) dx = 0 dx = 0, (ku) dx = ku dx = kdu, (u + v) dx = u dx + v dx = du + dv, (uv) dx = uv dx + vu dx = udv + vdu, u uv vu uv dx vu dx vdu udv = dx = dx = = , v v2 v2 v2 = (un ) dx = nun1 u dx = nun1 du.
entistjete ston peirsm n disete t nw mhqnikD ki eiwjete ti shmnei h kje posthtD ki pw pme p to n m sto lloF QF
(Mjodoc
Newton) iktelste th mjodo Newton gi th sunrthsh f (x) = cos(x) x ki gi do rqik shmeD t x0 = 0 @4 epnlyeiA ki x0 = 3 @6 epnlyeiAF utgryte thn kolouj twn shmewn pou dhmiourgetiF e poi perptwsh pisteete ti o lgrijmo leitourge pw prpeic
didoqik shme pou rskei h mjodo emfnzonti sto qm eFSD ki eni t kloujX
Lsh:
x0 = 0 : x0 = 3 :
0, 1.0000, 0.7504, 0.7391, 0.7391. 3.0000, 0.6597, 3.0858, 0.7829, 4.2797, 46.7126, 29.5906.
y lgrijmo fneti n leitourge mno sthn prth perptwshF RF

(Diatrhsh Kurtthtac)
r min(f1 , f2 )c
Lsh:
en oi f1 , f2 eni kurt se n disthm I D eni ki h max(f1 , f2 )c
we lgh skyh mporome n dome ti h min(f1 , f2 ) den mpore n eni kurtF 9in ntiprdeigm qei sqediste sto qm eFTD pou f1 (x) = x2 ki f2 (x) = (x 4)2 F ep to sqm lpoume epsh ti h max(f1 , f2 )D gi ut toulqiston ti sunrtseiD eni kurtF eut isqei genikF qi n to podexwD prthr kt9 rqn pw isqeiX
max{a + b, c + d} max{a, c} + max{b, d}.

qi n podexoume thn nwD rke n proume ti 4 periptseiX
@eFUA
a c, a c, a < c, a < c,
b d, b < d, b d, b < d,
A.5.
PWU
cos(x)x 1 0
0.5 3 24
0.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1 x cos(x)x 1 1.2
60 40 20 0 20 40 60 60
01 2 4 6
40
20
0 x
20
40
60
qm eFSX 9eskhsh QF
PWV
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
2 2 x , (x4)
30 20 10 0 2 0 2 x 4 6
qm eFTX 9eskhsh RF ki n sugkrnoume se kje perptwsh t do sklhF 9istw [a, b] to pedo orismo twn f1 , f2 F ttw f = max{f1 , f2 }F 9istw x0 , x1 [a, b]D ki stw [0, 1]F 9iqoumeX
f (x0 + (1 )x1 ) = = =
max{f1 (x0 + (1 )x1 ), f2 (x0 + (1 )x1 )} max{f1 (x0 ) + (1 )f1 (x1 ), f2 (x0 ) + (1 )f2 (x1 )} max{f1 (x0 ), f2 (x0 )} + max{(1 )f1 (x1 ), (1 )f2 (x1 )} max{f1 (x0 ), f2 (x0 )} + (1 ) max{f1 (x1 ), f2 (x1 )} f (x0 ) + (1 )f (x1 ).
thn prth nistht qrhsimopoisme ton orism th kurtthtD en sth deterh thn @eFUAF SF
(Ljoc efarmog tou kanna tou
isthtec
LHspital) ou uprqei ljo sti klouje o
x3 + x 2 3x2 + 1 6x = lim = lim = 3. 2 3x + 2 x1 x x1 2x 3 x1 2 lim

to detero sklo den uprqei prosdioristF unepD den qreizetiD ki den mpore n efrmoste o knn tou LHspitalF 9iqoumeX o
Lsh:
x3 + x 2 3x2 + 1 3 12 + 1 = lim = = 4. x1 x2 3x + 2 x1 2x 3 213 lim

TF
(Efarmog tou kanna tou
LHspital) x upologsete t klouj riX o
x @A lim tan x F x0
A.5.
PWW
x1 @A lim cos x2 F x0
Lsh:
@A
(x) 1 x 1 = lim = = 1. = lim 2x x0 (tan x) x0 tan x x0 1/ cos 1 lim

@A
cos2 x 1 (cos2 x 1) 2 cos x = +. = lim = lim 2 2) x0 x0 x0 2x x (x lim LHspital) x rete to f (0) n o
UF
(Upologismc paraggou me ton kanna tou
f (x) =
ki g(0) = g (0) = 0D g (0) = 17D g (0) = 2F
Lsh:
g(x) , x
0,
x = 0, x = 0,
f (h) f (0) g(h) g (h) g (h) 17 = lim 2 = lim = lim = . h0 h0 h h0 2h h0 2 h 2 thn teleut istht qrhsimopoisme to gegon ti uprqei h trth prgwgo th g sto mhdnD r h deterh prgwgo eni suneqF f (0) = lim
QHH
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
A.6
Askseic Kefalaou 6
IF
9istw f (x) = cD gi x [a, b]F x deiqjeD qrhsimopoint pokleistik ton orism tou oloklhrmtoD ti
(Oloklrwma Stajerc Sunrthshc)
f = c(b a).
a
Lsh:
9istw mi opoidpote dimrish P = {t0 , t1 , . . . , tn }F t qoumeX

n
L(f, P ) =
i=1 n
mi (tk tk1 ) c(tk tk1 )

i=1
= c(b a),
r ki
sup{L(f, P )} = c(b a).

P
we nlogo trpoD prokptei pw
inf {U (f, P )} = c(b a).

P
9erD fo to nw ki to ktw oloklrwm tutzontiD h sunrthsh eni oloklhrsimh me b f = c(b a)F a PF 9istw f orismnh sto [0, 2] me f (x) = 0 pntoD ekt p n pepersmno rijm p shmeD x1 , x2 , . . . , xK D pou h f prnei tim ujretF x dexete ti h f eni oloklhrsimhD ki n prosdiorsete to oloklrwmF
(Mia sunrthsh me peperasmno arijm ap asunqeiec) Lsh:
hhmiourg thn kolouj twn shmewn
a = y1 < y2 < . . . < yK 1 < yK = b,

h opo perilmnei l t xi D topojethmn se xous seirD ki endeqomnw t a, bD n den nkn dh sto snolo twn xi F 9istw km
M = max{|f (x1 )|, |f (x2 )|, . . . , |f (xK )|}

to mgistoD kt9 pluth timD twn mh mhdenikn timn th f F 9istw epsh
= min {|yi yi1 |}

2i<K
h elqisth pstsh metx do shmewn yi F 9istw ujreto
> 0F ipilgw
= min{
, } > 0. 6M K 2
A.6.
QHI
yrzw thn dimrish
P = {y1 + , y2 , y2 + , y3 , y3 + , . . . , yK 1 , yK 1 + , yK }
eut pou qw epitqei w tr eni n dhmiourgsw grw p kje sunqei n disthm me mko rket mikr ste t distmt n mhn qoun koin shmeD ki epsh rket mikr ste km ki n le oi tim tn se me thn mgisthD h olik suneisfor tou sto nw jroism n mhn tn pnw p 2 F @rin prospjsete n ktnosete ti exisseiD eiwjete ti qete ktlei thn idFA rgmtiX
U (f, P ) = f (y1 ) + 2f (y2 ) + 2f (y3 ) + . . . + 2f (yK 1 ) + f (yK ) K M2 K M2

we nlogo trpoD mporome n dexoume ti
6M K
< . 2
L(f, P ) > . 2
9erD
U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < ,

ki epeid to eni ujretoD telik h sunrthsh eni oloklhrsimhF qi n prosdiorsoume thn tim tou oloklhrmtoD prthrome pwX
b a
f = sup{L(f, P )} > , > 0, 2 P

b a
ki epiplon
f = inf {U (f, P )} < , > 0, P 2

b
r ngkstik
f = 0.
a
QF
(Ikan kai Anagkao Kritrio Oloklhrwsimthtac) 9istw f frgmnh sto [a, b]F x dexete ti h f eni oloklhrsimh me oloklrwm I nn uprqoun kolouje p dimersei {Pn } ki {Qn } ttoie ste
L(f, Pn ) I, U (f, Qn ) I.
Lsh:
@eFVA
@A 9istw kt9 rqn ti uprqoun oi dimersei me thn iditht @eFVAF 9istw tuqo > 0F ep thn @eFVA prokptei ti uprqoun dimersei Pn1 ki Qn2 ttoie ste
|L(f, Pn1 ) I| < , |U (f, Qn2 ) I| < . 2 2
QHP
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
yrzw thn dimrish R = Pn1 Qn2 D gi thn opo prthr pw isqeiX
U (f, R) L(f, R) U (f, Qn2 ) L(f, Pn1 ) = U (f, Qn2 ) I + I L(f, Pn1 ) |U (f, Qn2 ) I| + |L(f, Pn1 ) I| + 2 2 = .
r prth nistht prokptei lgw gnwst iditht twn ekleptnsewnF ipeid to ujretoD p gnwst kritrio prokptei pw h f eni oloklhrsimhF tn
qi n dexw ti to oloklrwm eni to rio I D qrhsimopoi ei topon pgwgF 9istw pw to oloklrwm

b
f = inf {L(f, P } = sup{U (f, P },

a P P
eni diforetik tou I F e pome pw eni meglteroD ki upojsoume pw

b
f =I+ .
a
9ymw p thn @eFVA qoume ti uprqei dimrish Qn0 ttoi ste

b
|U (f, Qn0 ) I| <
U (f, Qn0 ) < I +
<I+ =
a
f = inf U (f, P ),
P
pou i eni topoD git rkme dimrish me nw jroism mikrtero p to inmum twn nw jroismtwnF rmoiD mpor n poklesw to endeqmeno to oloklrwm n eni mikrtero tou I D r telik j eni soF @A heqnoume tlo ki to euj mroF 9istw pw h f eni oloklhrsimhD me oloklrwm I F 1 9istw h kolouj n > 0F ep gnwst kritrioD gi kje nn ro th koloujD j uprqei dimrishD stw Pn D ttoi ste
U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn ) <

ipiplonD
1 . n
U (f, Pn ) > I,
ki firntD qoume
1 . n qnwrzoume mw ti L(f, Pn ) I D r p to kritrio th premolD prokptei to prto rioF o detero prokptei me trpo nlogoF L(f, Pn ) > I
RF
x2 ) 9istw f orismnh sto [0, b] me f (x) = x2 F x dexete ti h f eni oloklhrsimhD ki n prosdiorsete to oloklrwmF wporete n qrhsimopoisete thn gnwst istht n n(n + 1)(2n + 1) i2 = . 6 i=1
(To oloklrwma thc
A.6.
QHQ
Lsh:
rhsimopoiome thn dimrish
Pn = {t0 = 0, t1 =
gi thn opo qoume
ib nb b , . . . , ti = , . . . , tn = = b}, n n n
mi = f (ti1 ) = (ti1 )2 , Mi = f (ti ) = t2 . i

o ktw jroism isoti me
b2 b3 b L(f, Pn ) = (ti1 ) (ti ti1 ) = (i 1) 2 = 3 n n n i=1 i=1

2 2
(i 1)2 =
i=1
b3 n(n 1)(2n 1) . n3
thn teleut isthtD qrhsimopoisme thn tuttht pou dneti sthn ekfnhshF o nw jroism isoti me
n n
U (f, Pn ) =
i=1
t2 (ti i
ti1 ) =
i=1
b b3 b2 i 2 = 3 n n n
2
i2 =
i=1
b3 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) . n3
thn teleut isthtD qrhsimopoisme thn istht pou dnetiF rthrste ti
b3 b3 , U (f, Pn ) , 3 3 r p gnwst kritrio prokptei pw h f eni oloklhrsimh me oloklrwm L(f, Pn )

b
f=
a
b3 . 3
SF
(To oloklrwma thc cf ) x dexete ti n h f eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]D tte gi kje rijm c h sunrthsh cf eni oloklhrsimhD ki mlist
cf = c
a a
f.
wporete n qrhsimopoisete to gegon ti gi opoiodpote snolo S D n orsoume
cS = {cx : x S},
isqei ti
inf cS = c inf S, sup cS = c sup S,

tn c > 0D ki
inf cS = c sup S, sup cS = c inf S.

tn c < 0F
Lsh:
utrqnD prthrome ti h perptwsh c = 0 eni tetrimmnhF
QHR
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
9istw tr ti c = 0F ep gnwst kritrioD qoume ti uprqoun kolouje dimersewn Sn D Tn D ttoie ste

b b
L(f, Sn )
a
f, U (f, Tn )
a
f.
rnont thn koin eklptunsh tou Pn = Sn Tn D ekol rskoumeD qrhsimopoint to kritrio th premolX
b b
L(f, Pn )
a
f, U (f, Pn )
a
f.
9istw ti c > 0F qi opoidpote dimrish RD qoumeX

n
L(cf, R) =
i=1 n
inf{cf : ti1 x ti }(ti ti1 ) inf{f : ti1 x ti }(ti ti1 )

i=1
= c
= cL(f, R).
th deterh istht qrhsimopoisme thn ekfnhshF we prmoio trpoD qoume
U (cf, R) = cU (f, R).

9erX
b b
L(cf, Pn ) = cL(f, Pn ) c
a
f, U (cf, Pn ) = cU (f, Pn ) c
a
f,
r p to gnwst kritrio prokptei to zhtomenoF 9istw ti c < 0F qi opoidpote dimrish RD qoumeX

n
L(cf, R) =
i=1 n
inf{cf : ti1 x ti }(ti ti1 ) sup{f : ti1 x ti }(ti ti1 )

i=1
= c
= cU (f, R).
th deterh istht qrhsimopoisme thn ekfnhshF we prmoio trpoD qoume
U (cf, R) = cL(f, R).

9erX
b b
L(cf, Pn ) = cU (f, Pn ) c
a
f, U (cf, Pn ) = cL(f, Pn ) c
a
f,
rD ki pli p to gnwst kritrio prokptei to zhtomenoF
A.6.
QHS
TF
(Anisthtec)
x deiqjon t kloujX
@A 9istw f oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] me f (x) 0 x [a, b]F ssqei

b
f 0.
a
rhsimopoiste pokleistik ton orism tou oloklhrmtoF @A 9istw f, g oloklhrsime sto [a, b] me f (x) g(x) x [a, b]F ssqei
b b
f
a a
g.
rhsimopoiste to prohgomeno sklo ki gnwst idithteF

Lsh:
@A ix9 orismoD to oloklrwm isoti me

b
f = inf U (f, P ).
a P
9ymwD gi thn tuq dimrish P = {t0 , t1 , . . . , tn } isqei ti

n
U (f, P ) =
i=1
Mi (ti1 ti ) 0,
r ki to
b a
f = inf P U (f, P ) 0F
@A fsei idiottwn pou qoume dei w trD n h g eni oloklhrsimhD j eni ki h g D ki epeid eni oloklhrsimh ki h f j eni oloklhrsimo to jroism f + (g) = f g F ipeid f g 0D p to prohgomeno sklo
b b b b b b b
(f g) 0
a a
f+
a
(g) 0
a
f
a
g0
a
f
a
g.
UF
(Metatpish Sunrthshc)
9istw f (x) oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]F x dexete ti tte ki h f (x c) eni oloklhrsimh sto [a + c, b + c]D ki mlist
b b+c
f (x)dx =
a a+c
f (x c)dx.
9istw mi opoidpote dimrish P tou [a, b]F rthrste ti mporome n th ntiE stoiqsoume mi dimrish tou [a + c, b + c] w exX
Lsh:
P = {a = t0 , t1 , t2 , . . . , tn } S = {a + c = t0 + c, t1 + c, t2 + c, . . . , b + c = tn + c}.
QHT
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
rthrste ti
n
L(f (x), P ) =
i=1 n
inf{f (x) : x [ti1 , ti ]} (ti ti1 ) inf{f (x c) : x [ti1 + c, ti + c]} [(ti + c) (ti1 + c)]
i=1
= L(f (x c), S).

rmoiD qoume
U (f (x), P ) = U (f (x c), S).

we lg lgiD gi kje dimrish th f (x)D uprqei dimrish th f (x c) ttoi ste t nw ki ktw jrosmt n tutzontiF we dedomno loipn ti h f (x) eni oloklhrsimh me oloklrwm a f (x) dxD qrhsimopoint gnwst kritrioD j uprqoun kolouje p dimersei Pn D Qn D ttoie ste
b b b
L(f (x), Pn )
a b
f (x) dx L(f (x c), Sn )

a b
f (x) dx, f (x) dx,

a
U (f (x), Qn )
a
f (x) dx U (f (x c), Tn )
pou oi dimersei Sn @Tn A prokptoun p ti Pn @Qn A sei tou nw metsqhmtismoF 9er rkme kolouje dimersewnD Sn ki Tn D me ti opoe to dio kritrio exsflzei ti h f (x c) eni oloklhrsimh me oloklrwm
b b+c
f (x)dx =
a a+c
f (x c)dx.
A.7.
QHU
A.7
Askseic Kefalaou 7
IF
(Pargwgoi
Oloklhrwmtwn)
jwnX @A F (x) = @A F (x) = @gA F (x) = @dA F (x) = @eA F (x) =

x cos3 2t dtF a x3 cos3 2t dtF a b 1 dtF x 1+(t+sin2 t)2 b x a 1+t2 +sin2 t x 1 0 1+t2
x upologsete ti prggou w pro x twn klouE
dtF
1 x
dt +
1 1+t2
dtF
@en prokptoun oloklhrmt pou den periqoun to xD den qreizeti n t upologseteFA

Lsh:
@A r sunrthsh cos3 t eni oloklhrsimh ki suneq se kje kleist disthmD r p to rto temelide terhm tou vogismoD j qoumeX
x
cos3 t dt
a
= cos3 2x.
x
@A rthrste ti h sunrthsh eni h snjesh F (g(x)) th sunrthsh F (x) = a cos3 2t dt me th sunrthsh g(x) = x3 F 9erD mporome n efrmsoume ton knn th lusdX
x3
cos3 2t dt
a
= (F (g(x))) = F (g(x))g (x) = (cos3 2x3 ) (3x2 ) = 3x2 cos3 2x3 ,
pou h F prokuye p to rto temelide terhm tou vogismoF @gA r oloklhrwt sunrthsh eni oloklhrsimh ki suneq pnto @ekol prokptei ti o pronomst den mhdenzeti gi kpoio tAF ep to rto temelide terhm tou vogismo prokpteiX
b x
1 dt 1 + (t + sin2 t)2
1 . 1 + (x + sin2 x)2
@dA
b a
x dt 1 + (t + sin2 t)2
x
a
1 dt 1 + (t + sin2 t)2
=
a
1 dt. 1 + (t + sin2 t)2
@eA rmoi me t prohgomen sklhD qoumeX

x 0
1 dt + 1 + t2
1 x
1 dt 1 + t2
=
0
1 dt 1 + t2
1 x
+
0
1 dt 1 + t2
1 1 1 + ( 2 ) 2 2 1+x 1 + (1/x) x = 0. =
QHV
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
PF
rhsimopoint to rto temelide terhm tou vogismoD n dexete ti n h f eni suneq sto [a, b]D ki f = g gi kpoi sunrthshD tte
(Detero Jemelidec Jerhma Logismo)
f = g(b) g(a).
a
Lsh:
9istw h sunrthsh
F (x) =
a
f,
h opo eni egguhmno ti uprqeiD lgw th sunqei th f D ki h opoD p to rto temelide terhmD eni prgwgsimh sto [a, b]D me F = f F 9er F = g D ki p gnwst jerhmD F (x) = g(x) + c. 9er
b a b
F (b) F (a) = g(b) g(a)

a
f
a
f = g(b) g(a)
a
f = g(b) g(a).
QF
(Kataqrhstik
Oloklhrmata)
mtX @A @A @gA @dA @eA @A @zA @hA

+ s x dxD pou a + a|x| e dxF
x upologsete t klouj ktqrhstik oloklhrE
a > 0F
+ ax e dxF xe2x dxF 0 xe2|x| dxF xex dxF (Paratrhsh: 0

da.)
Jma
telikc
extashc
akadhmako
touc
2007-2008,
mon-
x dxF 10 1+x2 a xs dxD pou 0+
a, s > 0F
Lsh:
@A en s = 1D tte
+ b b
x
a
dx = lim
b+
x
a
dx = lim
b+
[log x] dx = lim [log b log a] = +.

a b+
en s = 1D tte qoumeX
b b
x
a
dx =
a
xs+1 s + 1
dx =
1 b1s a1s . 1s
A.7.
QHW
9er se ut thn perptwsh qoumeX

+ b
xs dx = lim
a
b+
xs dx = lim
a
1 b1s a1s = b+ 1 s
+, s < 1, a1s , s > 1. s1
@A
+ 0 +
a|x|
dx =
e lim
a|x| 0
dx +
0
ea|x| dx
b
= =
ea|x| dx + lim
b 0
b+ b
ea|x| dx
0
lim
eax dx + lim
b b
b+
eax dx
0
= 2 lim
b+
eax dx
0
b 2 = lim eax dx a b+ 0 2 = lim eab 1 a b+
a > 0, +, a < 0.
2 , a
r ttrth istht prokptei me thn llg metlht sto oloklrwm x xD ki thn epkloujh tropopohsh tou orou p b se b +F rthrste ti st nw upojsme a = 0F en a = 0D ekol prokptei ti to oloklrwm eni +F @gA
+ 0 +
ax
dx =
e lim
ax 0
dx +
0
eax dx
b
= =
eax dx + lim
b
b+
eax dx
0
lim
1 eab eab 1 + lim . b a a
rthrste ti upojsme ti a = 0F en a > 0D to prto rio eni + ki to detero pepersmnoF en a < 0D tte to detero rio eni + ki to prto pepersmnoF thn perptwsh a = 0D ekol prokptei ti to oloklrwm eni +F 9erD se kje perptwsh to oloklrwm eni +F o potlesm mpore n exhghje pl n sqedisoume thn eax D ki prthrsoume ti gi opoidpote tim th aD h epifnei ktw p to grfhm th prpei n eni +F
QIH
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
@dA pologzoume prt to kloujo oloklrwmX

a
xe
0
2x
1 dx = 2
x e
0
2x
xe2x 1 a 2x dx = + e dx = 2 0 2 0 ae2a 1 a 2x ae2a e2a 1 e dx = + . 2 4 0 2 4 4

0
rnont to rio a D prokptei telik ti @eA 9iqoume

xe2x dx = 1 F 4
0
xe2|x| dx =
0
xe2x dx +
xe2x dx,
efson uprqoun ki t do epimrou oloklhrmtF o prto p ut qei upologiste sto prohgomeno skloF qi to deteroD qoumeX
0 0 0 a
xe2x dx = lim
xe2x dx = lim
a
xe2x dx = lim
a
1 xe2x dx = . 4
r deterh istht prokuye me llg suntetgmnwn x xD en h teleut istht prokuye me qrsh tou prohgomenou sklouF elik prokptei pw
xe2|x| dx =
1 1 = 0. 4 4
@A 9ypw ki st prohgomen mlhD qoume ktrqnX

a a
xex dx =
0 0
x ex
dx = xex
a
a 0
+
0
(x) ex dx
a
= aea + 0 +
0
ex dx = aea +
0 0
(ex ) dx = 1 aea ea . xex dx = 1F
ki prnont to rio a D telik prokptei pw @zA pologzoume ktrqn to kloujo oloklrwmX

a 10 a 10
x dx = 1 + x2
1 1 1 1 1 + a2 log(1 + x2 ) dx = log(1 + a2 ) log 101 = log . 2 2 2 2 101
ekolojwD qoume
10
x dx = lim a 1 + x2
a 10
x 1 1 + a2 dx = lim log = , a 2 1 + x2 101
ki telik to ktqrhstik oloklrwm eni peiroF @hA o ktqrhstik oloklrwm eni deterou tpouD git sto n rio oloklrwsh h sunrthsh pou oloklhrnoume peirzetiF en s = 1D tte
a a
x
0+
dx = lim +
b0
(log x) dx = lim [log a log b] = +. +

b0
A.7.
QII
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 y
qm eFUX r oloklhrwt sunrthsh th 9eskhsh Q@i9AF en s = 1D tteX

a a
x
0+
dx = lim +
b0
x
b
dx = lim +
b0
x1s 1s
a b
1 = lim a1s b1s = 1 s b0+
s < 1, +, s > 1.
a1s , 1s
e le ti periptseiD j s ohjsei n sqedisete thn oloklhrwt sunrthshD ki n sugkrnete @thn sjhsh pou qete giA to emd tou qwrou nmes sto grfhm ki ton xon twn x me to ktqrhstik oloklrwmF e orismne periptseiD to potlesm j prpei n s tn plrw nmenmenoF e orismne qiD kj den eni profn n n qwro me peiro mko ki metlht ki fjnwn plto prpei n qei pepersmno peiro emdF r pnthsh sto erthm krete sto rujm me to opoo to plto fjneiF RF
g(x)h(x) ) 9istw prgwgsimh g(x) : I R me g(x) > 0 ki prgwgsimh h(x) : I RF x deiqje ti h g(x)h(x) eni prgwgsimh pnto sto I D ki n upologsete thn prgwg th sunrtsei twn g, h, g , h F oi eni h prgwgo th eidik perptwsh xa D pou x > 0 ki a Rc
(H sunrthsh Lsh:
utrqn prthrome tiD ex9 orismoD
g(x)h(x) = exp(h(x) log g(x)).

ipeid h g(x) eni prgwgsimhD j eni ki h log g(x)D r ki to ginmeno h(x) log g(x)D r ki h snjesh exp(h(x) log g(x))F 9er h g(x)h(x) eni prgwgsimhF qi n upologsoume thn prgwgoD rke n qrhsimopoisoume ton knn th lusdX
g(x)h(x) = [exp(h(x) log g(x))] = exp(h(x) log g(x)) [h (x) log g(x) + h(x)(log g(x)) ] g (x) . = g(x)h(x) h (x) log g(x) + h(x) g(x)
QIP
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
thn eidik perptwsh pou I = (0, +)D g(x) = xD h(x) = aD qoumeX
(xa ) = (exp(a log x)) = exp(a log x) a
1 x
= xa
a = axa1 , x
dhld isqei o gnwst tpo km ki n to a eni rrhtoF SF

(Sunjh 'Oria me thn Logarijmik kai thn Ekjetik Sunrthsh)
x podexete ti isqoun t klouj riX @A @A @gA

ex D xn x+
lim
pou n NF pou a RD a > 0F pou a RD a > 0D n NF
lim logax D x+ x lim
(log x)n D a x+ x x0
@dA lim x(log x)n D pou n NF + @eA lim xx F +

x0
@A lim log(1+x) x
x0
@zA @hA @jA
x+
a lim x log(1 + x )D a lim (1 + x )x D pou a RF

1
x+ x+
lim x(b x 1)D pou b > 0D b RF
Lsh:
@A rthrste pw rijmht ki pronomst tenoun sto peiroD sunep qoume prosE dioristD mporome mw n qrhsimopoisoume ton knn tou LHspitalX o
ex ex ex = lim = . . . = lim = +. x+ xn x+ nxn1 x+ n! rthrste pw efrmsme ton knn n for mqri n fireje h prosdioristF 9erD h ekjetik sunrthsh uxneti tqter p opoidpote dnmh tou xF lim
@A rthrste ti ki pli qoume prosdioristD ll me mi mno qrsh tou knn tou LHspital qoumeX o 1/x 1 log x = lim = lim , lim x+ axa1 x+ axa x+ xa pou tenei sto 0F @eut mpore n podeiqje p ton orism tou orouD qrhsimopoint to ti xa = exp(a log x)FA ipeid to a mpore n eni osodpote mikr @ll i jetikAD prokptei pw o logrijmo uxnei menD ll pol rgF @gA qi n = 1D prokptei to prohgomeno skloF en n 2D me efrmog tou knn LHspital ki tou knn th lusd n for qoumeX o
1 n(log x)n1 x (log x)n n(n 1)(log x)n2 n! 1 = lim = lim = . . . = lim n a = 0. x+ x+ x+ x+ a x xa axa1 a2 x a 9erD o logrijmo uxnei km pio rg p ti m deqnei to prohgomeno skloF
lim
A.7.
QIQ
@dA we llg metlht t =
1 x
qoumeX
x0
lim x(log x)n = lim +
(log t)n 1 1 1 (log )n = lim (log 1 log t)n = lim (1)n = 0. t+ t t+ t t+ t t
r teleut exswsh prokptei me qrsh tou prohgomenou sklouF @eA
x0+
lim xx = lim exp(x log x) = exp( lim x log x) = 1. + +

x0 x0 x
r deterh istht prokptei epeid h e eni suneqF r teleut istht prokptei p to prohgomeno skloF @A rthrome pw qoume prosdiorist 0/0D ki mporome n qrhsimopoisoume ton knn LHspitalX o 1/(1 + x) log(1 + x) = lim = 1. lim x0 x0 x 1 @zA ui pli qoume prosdioristD ki qrhsimopoiome ton knn tou LHspital w exX o
log 1 + a = lim lim x log 1 + 1 x+ x+ x x
a x
= lim
1 1+a/x
a x2
x+
1 x2
= lim
a = a. x+ 1 + a/x
y knn LHspital efrmsthke sth deterh isthtF o @hA rthrste pw qoume thn kpw sunjisth prosdiorist 1+ D thn opo mw mpoE rome n ntimetwpsoume w exX
x+
lim
1+
a x
= lim exp x log 1 +

x+
a x
= exp
x+
lim x log 1 +
a x
= exp a.
thn deterh istht qrhsimopoisme thn sunqei th ex D en sthn teleut qrhsimoE poisme to prohgomeno skloF yrismnoi suggrfe orzoun to e msw tou nw orouF @jA 9iqoume prosdiorist 0 (+)D h opo ntimetwpzeti w exX
x+
lim x b 1 = lim
1 x
bx 1 1 x+ x0 x x (log b)bx exp(x log b) 1 = lim = lim = (log b) lim exp(x log b) = log b. x0+ x0+ x0+ x 1 bx 1 = lim +
thn deterh exswsh knme llg metlht x 1/xD epomnw to rio llzei p + se 0+ F thn ttrth istht qrhsimopoisme ton knn tou LHspitalF thn o teleut qrhsimopoisme th sunqei th expF TF
(Paragontik Oloklrwsh)
x upologisjon t klouj orismn oloklhrmtX

Jma epanalhptikc telikc extashc akadhmako touc
@A @A
e 1
x2 log x dxF (log x)2 dxF
(Paratrhsh: monda.)
2006-2007, 1.5
e3 e
(Paratrhsh:
Jma
telikc
extashc
akadhmako
touc
2006-2007,
monda.)
QIR
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
Lsh:
@A t qrhsimopoisoume prgontik oloklrwshX

e e
x log x dx =
1 1
x3 3
e 3 x3 x log x dx = log x (log x) dx 3 1 3 1 e 3 e3 x 1 e3 x3 = dx = 3 3 9 1 3 x
=
1
2e3 + 1 . 9
@A t qrhsimopoisoume ki pli prgontik oloklrwshX

e3 e3
(log x) dx =
e e
(x) (log x) dx =
3 3 2
e3 x (log x)2 e e3 2
e3
1 2x log x dx x
e3 3
= e (log e ) e(log e)
e
2 log x dx = 9e e 2
e
log x dx.
we mi km prgontik oloklrwsh qoumeX

e3 e3
log x dx =
e e
(x) log x dx = x log x|e e

e
e3
dx = 3e3 e (e3 e) = 2e3 ,
ki sunduzont t nw prokptei telikX

e3
(log x)2 dx = 5e3 e.

e
UF
(Isthtec oloklhrwmtwn)
x podexete thn istht twn kloujwn oloklhrwmtwnX

1 x
@A
dt = 1 + t2
1/x 1
dt , 1 + t2
pou x > 0F @A
1 1 m n
x (1 x) dx =
0 0
xn (1 x)m dx,
pou mD n jetiko krioiF @gA

0
xf (sin x) dx =
@dA
0
f (sin x) dx.
0
x sin x dx = 1 + cos2 x
1 0
dx . 1 + x2
A.7.
QIS
(Updeixh: qreiz etai
gia
to
teleutao
skloc,
mporete
na
qrhsimopoisete
to
proteleutao.
Epshc,
den
na upologsete
ta oloklhrmata, arke na dexete
thn istht touc.)
Lsh:
@A rhsimopoiome thn llg metlht u = 1 D gi thn opo qoume t 1 t = x u = x D ki t = 1 u = 1F unepD

1 x
du dt
= t1 F ipshD 2
dt = 1 + t2
1 1/x
t2 du = 1 + u2
1/x 1
du = 1 + u2
1/x 1
dt . 1 + t2
r teleut istht prokuye llzont pl th metlht oloklrwshF @A iisgw thn llg metlht t = 1 xD gi thn opo qoume t = 1D ki x = 1 t = 0F unepD
1 0 1 dt dx
= 1F ipshD x = 0
1
xm (1 x)n dx =
0 1
(1 t)m tn dt =
0
tn (1 t)m dt =
0
xn (1 x)m dx.
du dx
@gA iisgw thn llg metlht u = xD gi thn opo qoume x = 0 u = D ki x = u = 0F entikjistntD

0
= 1F ipshD
xf (sin x) dx =
0
( u)f (sin( u)) du =

0
f (sin u) du
0
uf (sin u) du f (sin x) dx.

0
xf (sin t) dx = 2
rthrste ti me thn llg metlht emfnsthke xn to dio oloklrwmD ki epiE plon n no roF rthrste epsh ti sthn teleut sqsh llxe h metlht oloklrwsh do oloklhrwmtwn p u se xF
sin x sin @dA utrqn prthrome ti 1+cos2 x = 2sinx x D pou eni pokleistik sunrthsh tou sin xD 2 r mporome n efrmsoume to prohgomeno skloD ki qoumeX 0
x sin x dx = 2x 1 + cos 2
sin x dx. 1 + cos2 x

du dx
unoume thn llg metlht u = cos xD p thn opo qoume x = 0 u = 1D ki x = u = 1F 9erX
= sin xF ipshD
1 0
sin x dx = 2x 1 + cos 2
1 1
du = 2 1+u 2
1 1
dx = 1 + x2
dx . 1 + x2
thn proteleut isthtD llxme thn metlht oloklrwsh p u se xF thn teleuE 1 tD qrhsimopoisme to gegon ti h 1+x2 eni rtiD r j prpei
1 1
dx =2 1 + x2
1 0
dx . 1 + x2
QIT
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
A.8
Askseic Kefalaou 8
IF
x sqedisete to qwro pou perikleeti metx twn grfhmtwn twn sunrtsewn f (x) ki g(x) me a x bD ki n upologsete thn epifnei touD gi ti klouje periptseiX
(Upologismc epifanein me oloklhrmata)
@A f (x) = 4 x2 , @A f (x) = 4 x ,
2
g(x) = 0,
a = 2,
2
b = 2. b = 2. b = 1. b = 2.
g(x) = 8 2x , g(x) = x3 + 1, g(x) = 0,
a = 2, a = 1, a = 1,
@gA f (x) = x3 + x2 ,
@dA f (x) = |x| + |x 1|,

Lsh:
grfmt twn f (x)D g(x) emfnzonti sto qm eFVD me to qwro pou perikleoun skismnoF e kje perptwshD qrhsimopoiome ton genik tpo gi to emd A tou qwrou
b
A=
a
|f (x) g(x)| dx.
@A ipeid f (x) 0 sto [2, 2]D qoumeX

2 2 2
A=
2
f (x) dx =
2
4 dx
2
x2 dx = 16
x3 3
=
2
32 . 3
@A utrqn prthrome pw g(x) f (x) 8 2x2 4 x2 4 x2 0D pou isqei sto [2, 2]D rX 2 2 2 32 A= [g(x) f (x)] dx = 4 dx x2 dx = . 3 2 2 2 @gA rthrste ti x [1, 1] x2 1 x3 + x2 x3 + 1 f (x) g(x)D rX
1 1 1
A=
1
[g(x) f (x)] dx =
1
(1 x2 ) dx = 2
1
x2 dx = 2
x3 3
=2
1
4 2 = . 3 3
@dA rofn f (x) 0D rX

2
A =
1 0
(|x| + |x 1|) dx
1 2
=
1 0
(|x| + |x 1|) dx +
0 1
(|x| + |x 1|) dx +
1 2
(|x| + |x 1|) dx
=
1
(2x + 1) dx +
0 0
(x + 1 x) dx +
1 2
(2x 1) dx
12
x dx + 1 + 2
1 2 0 1 2 1
x dx 1
x = 12 2 = 5.
x2 +2 2 1
A.8.
QIU
y 4 3 2 1 0 2 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 x 1 y 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1 0 1 2 x
y 8 6 4 2 0 2 y 0 2 x
x 0 1 2
qm eFVX qwr th 9eskhsh IF
QIV
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
PF
x sqediston t qwr twn opown t shme qoun polik suntetgmne pou iknopoion ti sqseiX
(Upologismc embado me polikc suntetagmnec)
@A 0 2, erqimdhAF @A , 2 2 @gA 0 2, @dA 0 2,
0 r f () = @rtrhshX h exswsh r = orzei thn per tou 0 r f () = 2 cos F 0 r f () = | sin 2|F 0 r f () = 1 + cos F
e le ti periptseiD n upologsete thn epifnei tou qwrouF qwr sqedizonti sto qm eFWF qi ton upologism th epifnei tou qrhsimopoiome to gnwst tpo gi to emd A(R) qwrou R pou dneti p th sqsei 0 r f (), a bX 1 b 2 A(R) = f () d. 2 a unepX
Lsh:
@A
1 A(R) = 2
@A
2 2
2 0
1 3 d = 2 3
2
2
2 0
4 = 3. 3
2
1 A(R) = 2
@gA
4 cos d = 2
2 2
1 + cos 2 =2 2
1 d + 2
cos 2 d = + 0 = .
2
A(R) =
@dA
1 2
sin2 2 d =
0
1 2
2 0
1 cos 4 1 d = 2 4
d
0
1 4
cos 4 d =
0
0 = . 2 2
A(R) =
1 2
(1 + cos )2 d =
0 2 0
1 2
d +
0 2 0 0
cos d + 1 d + 4
2
1 2
cos2 d
0
1 =+0+ 2
1 + cos 2 1 d = + 2 4
cos 2 d = +
0
3 +0= . 2 2
tou nw upologismo qrhsimopoisme ti gnwst idithte th trigwnometrX
cos2 =
ki tou tpou
1 + cos 2 , 2
sin2 =
1 cos 2 , 2
cos d = 0,
0 0
cos 2 d = 0,
0
cos 4 d = 0,
pou prokptoun plF
A.8.
QIW
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0 5 10 1.5 1 0.5 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 0 1 2 0 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
4 2 0 2 4 6 5 1
qm eFWX qwr th 9eskhsh PF
QPH
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
QF
x) x sqediseteD kt to duntn me meglterh kreiD to stere pou dhmiourgeti me thn peristrof tou grfmto th sunrthsh f (x) sto disthm [a, b] grw p ton xon twn xD gi ti klouje periptseiX
(Stere ek peristrofc per ton xona twn
@A f (x) = cxD pou c > 0D ki a = 0D b > 0F @A f (x) = xD a = 0D b = 1F @gA f (x) = sin xD a = 0D b = F @dA f (x) = | sin x cos x|D a = 0D b = F e kje perptwshD n upologsete ton gko tou stereo pou sqhmtzetiF stere pou dhmiourgonti qoun sqediste sto qm eFIHF qi ton upologism tou gkou tou V D se le ti periptsei qrhsimopoiome ton tpoX
Lsh:
V (S) =
a
f 2 (x) dx.
@A
b
V (S) =
0
(cx)2 dx = c2
x 3
=
0
c2 b3 . 3
rthrste ti to stere eni kno you b ki sh me ktn cbF y gko ut 1 isoti me to 3 tou gkou me dio yo ki ktn shF
kulndrou
@A
1
V (S) =
0
( x)2 dx =
0
x dx =
x2 2
=
0
. 2
@gA
V (S) =
1 cos 2x dx 2 0 0 2 2 = cos 2x dx = [sin 2x]2 0 2 2 0 2 4 2 = . 2 sin x dx =

2
@dA
V (S) =
0
[sin x cos x]2 dx =
sin2 2x dx
0
1 cos 4x 1 cos 4x = dx = dx dx 4 0 2 4 0 2 4 0 2 2 2 2 = (sin 4x) dx = [sin 4x] = . 0 8 32 0 8 32 8
A.8.
QPI
1 1 y 1 1 x 2 1 0 z 0 1 x 0 2 1 z 0 0 1 0 1 y 1 0 y 1 0 1 1 2 x 3 0 1 z 0.5 0 0.5 0 1 y
2 x
0 0.5
0.5 z
qm eFIHX stere ek peristrof th 9eskhsh QF
QPP
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
RF
y ) x sqediseteD me kt to duntn klterh kreiD t stere pou dhmiourgonti p thn peristrof per ton xon twn y tou qwrou pou rsketi metx tou grfmto th f D tou xon twn xD ki twn eujein x = aD x = bD gi ti klouje periptseiX
(Stere ek peristrofc per ton xona twn
@A f (x) = x1 D a = 1 D b = 5 F @rfsteioA 2 2 @A f (x) = x 2D a = 2D b = 5F @ttroA @gA f (x) = 2[1 (x 1)2 ]D a = 0D b = 2F @oluwnumik khkA @dA f (x) = 3 sin xD a = 0D b = F @rmitonik khkA @eA f (x) = 5 exp(x2 )D a = 0D b = 3F @uplo wgissA stere qoun sqediste sto qm eFIIF e le ti periptseiD o gko tou j dneti p thn exswsh
Lsh:
V (S) = 2
a
xf (x) dx.
9iqoume gi kje perptwsh qwristX @A

5 2
V (S) = 2
1 2
xx
5 2
dx =
1 2
dx = 4.
@A
5 5
V (S) = 2
2
x(x 2) dx = 2
2
(x2 2x) dx
5
= 2
2
x3 x2 3
x dx = 2
53 23 52 + 4 = 36. 3 3
@gA
2 2 2
V (S) = 2
0
2x(1 (x 1)2 ) dx = 4
0 2
x(1 x2 1 + 2x) dx = 4
0 2
x(2x x2 ) dx = 16 . 3
= 4
0
(2x2 x3 ) dx = 4
0
2 x4 ( x3 ) dx = 4 3 4
2 3 24 2 3 4
@dA

V (S) = 2
0
3x sin x dx = 6
0
x(cos x) dx = 6
(x cos x)| 0
+ 6
0
cos x dx
= 6( 0) + 6 (sin x)| = 6 2 . 0
A.8.
QPQ
@eA
3 3
V (S) = 2
0
5x exp[x ] dx = 10
0
x exp[x2 ] dx.
ttw u = x2 D opte du = 2xdxD ki x = 0 u = 0D x = 3 u = 9F o oloklrwm gnetiX

9 9
V (S) = 5
0
exp(u) du = 5
0
[ exp(u)] du = (5) exp(u)|9 0 = 5 [exp(9) 1] = 5(1 exp(9)).
SF
(Upologismc mkouc kamplhc)
thn kmplh
x sqediseteD me kt to duntn klterh krei
x = f (t), y = g(t), a t b,
ki met n upologsete to mko thD gi ti klouje periptseiX @A f (t) = R cos t, g(t) = R sin t, t0 t t1 F @xo kklouA @A f (t) = x0 + (x1 x0 )t, g(t) = y0 + (y1 y0 )t, 0 t 1F @iujgrmmo tmmA @gA f (t) = a(t sin t), g(t) = a(1 cos t), 0 t 2 F @uukloeidA @dA f (t) = a sin3 t, g(t) = a cos3 t, 0 t 2 F @pokukloeidA yi kmple emfnzonti sto qm eFIPF e le ti periptseiD j qrhsimopoiE soume ton gnwst tpo gi to mko kmplh
Lsh:
l(C) =
a
(f )2 + (g )2 .
@A
t1 t1
l(C) =
t0
(R
sin t)2
+ (R
cos t)2
dt =
t0
sin2 t + cos2 t dt
t1
=
t0
R dt = R(t1 t0 ).
thn eidik perptwsh = 1 prnoume to mko txou metx twn gwnin t0 , t1 F qi prdeigmD gi t0 = 0D t1 = 2 D prnoume to mko th perifrei kklouD l(C) = 2RF @A rthrste ti h kmplh eni to eujgrmmo tmm pou sundei t shme (x0 , y0 )D (x1 , y1 )F
1
l(C) =
0
(x1 x0 )2 + (y1 y0 )2 dt =
(x1 x0 )2 + (y1 y0 )2 .
enktome dhld th gnwst exswsh gi thn pstsh metx do shmewnF
QPR
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
2 0 2 0 x 0 2 2 z y 1 2 2 0 5 0 x 5 5 5 0 z y
2 1 0 2 0 x 2 2 2 0 z y y 2 0 2 0 x 2 2 0 z 2
4 y 2 0 2 0 x 0 2 2 z 2
qm eFIIX 9eskhsh RF
A.8.
QPS
@gA
2 2
l(C) =
0
(a a cos t)2 + (a sin t)2 dt =

0 2 0
a2 + a2 cos t 2a2 cos t + a2 sin2 t dt

2 t t ( cos ) dt dt = 4a 2 2 0 0 0 t = 4a cos = 4a[1 (1)] = 8a. 2 2 2
=
0
a 2 2 cos t dt = 2a
1 cos t = 2a 2
sin
@dA
2
l(C) =
0
(3a sin2 t cos t)2 + (3a cos2 t sin t)2 dt = 3a

0 2
sin2 t cos2 t(sin2 + cos2 ) dt

2
= 3a
0
sin
2
t cos2
t dt = 12a
0
2
sin
t cos2
t dt = 12a
0
sin t cos t dt
= 6a
0
sin 2t dt = 3a
0
( cos 2t) dt = 3a cos 2t|0 = 3a[1 (1)] = 6a.

2
thn ttrth istht qrhsimopoisme to gegon ti h oloklhrwt eni periodik me perodo F 2
QPT
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
t=t0, 0= t0
(x1,y1), t=1
R x
t=t1, 1= t1
(x0,y0), t=0 y (0,a) t= /2
y 2a
t= (a,0)
t=0,2 x (a,0)
t=0
t=2 x 2 a
qm eFIPX 9eskhsh SF
(0,a) t=3 /2
A.9.
QPU
A.9
Askseic Kefalaou 9
IF
(Grammikc DE)
frete th genik lsh th exswsh
y + 4y = 2
kj ki thn merik lsh pou dirqeti p to shmeo x0 = 1, y0 = 1F ipnlete gi ti klouje periptseiX
1 @A y + x y = cos xD pou x > 0D me rqik sunjkh x0 = , y0 = 0F
@A y + x2 y = x2 D me rqik sunjkh x0 = 0, y0 = 0F
Lsh:
@A wi ntiprgwgo tou 4 eni profn h 4xD ki koloujnt th jewr qoumeX
y + 4y = 2 e4x y + 4ye4x = 2e4x e4x y
1 4x e 2 1 1 e4x y e4x = C y(x) = + Ce4x . 2 2 =
en h y(x) dirqeti p to shmeo x0 = 1, y0 = 1D tte qoume
1=
ki me ntiktstsh prokpteiX
1 1 + Ce4 C = e4 , 2 2
y(x) =
1 1 + e4(1x) . 2
1 @A wi ntiprgwgo tou x eni h log xF @rosoqD n eqme x < 0 tte j tn h log(x)FAF 9erD prpei n pollplsisoume thn exswsh me ton prgont elog x = xD dhldX
1 y + y = cos x xy + y = x cos x (xy) = x cos x x (xy) = [x sin x + cos x] xy = x sin x + cos x + C y = sin x +
hn prgous tou x cos x thn rkme w exX
cos x C + . x x
x cos x =
x(sin x) = x sin x
x sin x = x sin x
sin x = x sin x + cos x + C.
qi n rome th merik lshD ntikjistome ti x0 = , y0 = 0 sthn genik lshD ki lmnoume cos C 0 = sin + + C = 1, r h merik lsh eni h cos x + 1 y(x) = sin x + . x
QPV
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
@gA wi ntiprgwgo tou x2 eni h prgont exp

2 2 x3 3
x3 F 3
9erD prpei n pollplsisoume thn exswsh me ton
D dhldX
x3 x3 2 x3 2 y + x y = x exp y + exp x y = x exp 3 3 3 3 3 3 x x x3 x3 x y = exp exp y = exp +C y(x) = 1+C exp . exp 3 3 3 3 3
qi n rome th merik lshD ntikjistome ti x0 = 0, y0 = 0 sthn genik lshD ki lmnoume C = 1D r h merik lsh eni h
y(x) = 1 exp
PF
(Diaqwrsimec DE)
x3 . 3
frete th genik lsh th exswsh
dy = 1, x, y > 0. 2 xy dx ekolojwD rete mi merik lsh pou n ntistoiqe sti rqik sunjke x0 = 1, y0 = 1F ipnlete gi ti klouje periptseiX
@A @A
dy dx dy dx
= exy , x0 = 0, y0 = 2F = 3x2 ey , x0 = 2, y0 = 1F
Lsh:
@A
1 dy 2 xy = 1 2 ydy = dx dx x 2 2 3 y2 3
1 2
2 y dy =
1 dx x 3 1 3C x2 + 2 4
2 3
= 2x + C y =
y=
3 1 x2 + C 2
2 3
pou C RF r teleut isodunm prokptei git to C eni ujretoF en jsoume x0 = 1, y0 = 1D ekol prokptei C = 1 D r h merik lsh eni h 2
y=
3 1 1 x2 2 2
2 3
@A 9ypw ki sthn prohgomenh perptwshD qoumeX
dy = exy ey dy = ex dx dx
ey dy =
ex dx ey = ex + C y = log(ex + C),
pou C RF en jsoume sthn nw x0 = 0, y0 = 2D lmnoumeX
2 = log(1 + C) e2 = 1 + C C = e2 1,
r h merik lsh pou zhtete eni h
y(x) = log(ex + e2 1).
A.9.
QPW
@gA rmoiD
dy = 3x2 ey ey dy = 3x2 dx dx
ey dy =
3x2 dx ey = x3 + C y = log(x3 + C),
pou C RF en jsoume sthn nw x0 = 2, y0 = 1D lmnoumeX
1 = log(23 + C) e = 8 + C C = e 8,
r h merik lsh pou zhtete eni h
y(x) = log(x3 + e 8).

QF
Euler) x meletseteD me th ojei th mejdou EulerD thn merik lsh th mh grmmik hi prth txh y = y(1 y),
(Mjodoc
me rqik sunjke x0 = 0D y0 = 0.1F ugkekrimnX @A ipilxte x = 0.4D ki ektelste ti prte trei epnlyei me th ojei mno upoloE gist qeirF @A ekolojwD ulopoiste th mjodo Euler se glss progrmmtismo th protmhs sD ki ektelste PH epnlyeiD pli gi x = 0.4F
(Paratrhsh: h nw DE enai eidik perptwsh tou Logistiko Montlou Axhshc, pou peri-
grfei thn metabol
plhjusmn
up sugkekrimnec propojseic)
ton nk eFP qoume ktgryei thn xodo tou lgrijmou gi ti prte PH epE nlyeiF qrfikD h lsh peikonzeti sto qm eFIQF
Lsh:
RF
(Merikc Merikc DE)
penjumzoume thn exswsh tou Laplace sti do distsei
2f 2f + 2 = 0, x2 y
thn kumtik exswsh
@eFWA
c2
ki thn exswsh didosh th jermtht
2f 2f = , x2 y 2
@eFIHA
2f f = . 2 x y
@eFIIA
x rete poie p ti exissei @eFWAD @eFIHAD @eFIIA iknopoionti p ti prktw suE nrtsei do metlhtnD pnto sto pedo orismo touX @A f (x, y) = x3 y xy 3 F @A f (x, y) =
1 2
log(4x2 + 4y 2 )F
@gA f (x, y) = ax + by F
QQH
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
i H I P Q R S T U V W IH II IP IQ IR IS IT IU IV IW PH
xi H HFRHHH HFVHHH IFPHHH IFTHHH PFHHHH PFRHHH PFVHHH QFPHHH QFTHHH RFHHHH RFRHHH RFVHHH SFPHHH SFTHHH TFHHHH TFRHHH TFVHHH UFPHHH UFTHHH VFHHHH
yi HFIHHH HFIQTH HFIVQH HFPRPV HFQITQ HFRHPW HFRWWI HFSWWI HFTWSP HFUUWW HFVRVT HFWHHH HFWQTH HFWTHH HFWUSQ HFWVSH HFWWHW HFWWRS HFWWTU HFWWVH HFWWVV
yi HFHWHH HFIIUS HFIRWS HFIVQW HFPITQ HFPRHT HFPSHH HFPRHP HFPIIW HFIUIT HFIPVS HFHWHH HFHSWW HFHQVR HFHPRI HFHIRV HFHHWH HFHHSS HFHHQQ HFHHPH HFHHIP
nk eFPX erijmhtik eplush tou prolmto rqikn sunjhkn y = y(1 y)D y(0) = 0.1F
A.9.
QQI
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
y 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 12
13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20
0.1 1 0 0 0
x 2 4 6 8
qm eFIQX erijmhtik eplush tou prolmto rqikn sunjhkn y = y(1 y)D y(0) = 0.1F
QQP
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
@dA f (x, y) = cos x cos cy F @eA f (x, y) = ex e

cy +ecy
@A f (x, y) = ecy sin xF @zA f (x, y) = y 2 e 4cy F 9yle oi sunrtsei qoun pedo orismo to R2 D me exresh thn f (x, y) = log(4x2 + 4y 2 )
(Paratrhsh:
x2
pou orzeti sto R2 (0, 0)D ki thn f (x, y) = y 2 e 4cy pou orzeti sto {(x, y) : y = 0}F 3 7 = 21
Prpei na exetsete periptseic.)
x2
qi kje mi p ti sunrtseiD j upologsoume ti prggou mqri ki deterh txhD ki j elgxoume n iknopoion ti @eFWAD @eFIHAD @eFIIA pnto sto pedo orismo touF
Lsh:
@A yi merik prgwgoi th f (x, y) = x3 y xy 3 eni oi exX
f = 3x2 y y 3 , x
unepD
2f = 6xy, x2
f = x3 3xy 2 , y
2f = 6xy. y 2
2f 2f + 2 x2 y 2 2f f c2 2 2 x y 2 f f c 2 x y
= 6xy 6xy = 0, = c2 6xy + 6xy = 6(c2 + 1)xy, = 6cxy + 3xy 2 x3 .
9er h f (x, y) iknopoie mno thn @eFWA sto pedo orismo thF @A yi merik prgwgoi th f (x, y) =
1 2
log(4x2 + 4y 2 ) eni oi exX f y , = 2 y x + y2 2f x2 y 2 = 2 . y 2 (x + y 2 )2
f x , = 2 x x + y2
unepD
2f y 2 x2 = 2 , x2 (x + y 2 )2
2f 2f + 2 x2 y 2 f 2f c2 2 2 x y 2 f f c 2 x y
y 2 x2 x2 y 2 + 2 = 0, (x2 + y 2 )2 (x + y 2 )2 y 2 x2 x2 y 2 y 2 x2 = c2 2 2 = (c2 + 1) 2 , (x + y 2 )2 (x + y 2 )2 (x + y 2 )2 y 2 x2 y = c 2 2 . 2 )2 (x + y x + y2 =
9er h f (x, y) iknopoie mno thn @eFWA sto pedo orismo thF
A.9.
QQQ
@gA yi merik prgwgoi th f (x, y) = ax + by eni oi exX
f = a, x
unepD
2f = 0, x2
f = b, y
2f = 0. 2y
2f 2f + 2 x2 y 2 f 2f c2 2 2 x y 2 f f c 2 x y
= 0 + 0 = 0, = 0 0 = 0. = 0 b = b.
9er h f (x, y) iknopoie ti @eFWAD @eFIHA sto pedo orismo thD kj ki thn @eFIIAD sthn eidik perptwsh pou b = 0F @dA yi merik prgwgoi th f (x, y) = cos x cos cy eni oi exX
2f f 2f f = sin x cos cy, = cos x cos cy, = c cos x sin cy, = c2 cos x cos cy. x x2 y y 2
unepD
2f 2f + 2 x2 y 2 f 2f c2 2 2 x y 2 f f c 2 x y
= cos x cos cy c2 cos x cos cy = (1 + c2 ) cos x cos cy, = c2 cos x cos cy + c2 cos x cos cy = 0, = c cos x cos cy + c cos x sin cy.
9er h f (x, y) iknopoie mno thn @eFIHA sto pedo orismo thF @eA yi merik prgwgoi th f (x, y) = ex e
cy +ecy
eni oi exX
f ecy + ecy 2 f ecy + ecy f ecy ecy 2 f ecy + ecy = ex , = ex , = cex , = c2 e x . x 2 x2 2 y 2 2y 2

unepD
2f 2f + 2 x2 y 2 f 2f c2 2 2 x y 2 f f c 2 x y
ecy + ecy ecy + ecy ecy + ecy + c2 e x = (1 + c2 )ex , 2 2 2 ecy + ecy ecy + ecy = c2 e x c2 e x = 0, 2 2 ecy + ecy ecy ecy = cex cex = cexcy . 2 2 = ex
9er h f (x, y) iknopoie mno thn @eFIHA sto pedo orismo thF
QQR
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
@A yi merik prgwgoi th f (x, y) = ecy sin x eni oi exX
2f 2f f f = ecy cos x, = cecy sin x, = ecy sin x, = c2 ecy sin x. x x2 y y 2

unepD
2f 2f + 2 x2 y 2 f 2f c2 2 2 x y 2 f f c 2 x y
= ecy sin x + c2 ecy sin x = (c2 1)ecy sin x, = c2 ecy sin x c2 ecy sin x = 2c2 ecy sin x, = cecy sin x + cecy sin x = 0.
9er h f (x, y) iknopoie thn @eFIIA sto pedo orismo thD kj ki thn @eFWA sthn eidik perptwsh c = 1F @zA yi merik prgwgoi th f (x, y) = y 2 e 4cy eni oi exX
1 x2
x x2 1 x2 x2 f 2f = exp = 1 exp , , 3 3 x 4cy x2 4cy 2cy 2 2cy 2 2cy x2 1 2f x2 3x2 3 x2 x4 f = exp , = exp . 5 3 9 7 + 5 2 2y 2 y 4cy 4cy 2 y 4cy 16c 2y 2 4cy 2 4y 2
unepD
2f 2f + 2 x2 y
c2
2f 2f 2 x2 y
2f f 2 x y
x2 x2 1 exp 3 4cy 2cy 2 2cy x2 x4 3x2 3 + exp , 9 7 + 5 2y 2 4cy 16c 4cy 2 4y 2 1 x2 x2 = c2 1 exp 3 4cy 2cy 2 2cy x2 x4 3x2 3 exp , 9 7 + 5 2y 2 4cy 16c 4cy 2 4y 2 1 x2 x2 = c 1 exp 3 4cy 2cy 2 2cy x2 x2 1 exp . 5 3 4cy 4cy 2 2y 2 = 1
9er h f (x, y) iknopoie mno thn @eFIIA sto pedo orismo thF SF
(Sunrthsh trin metablhtn)
txh th sunrthsh trin metlhtn
frete le ti merik prggou mqri ki deterh
f (x, y, z) = 3x2 y xyz + y 2 z 2 .
A.9.
QQS
rthrste ti oi mikt merik prgwgoi pou dhmiourgonti p didoqik prgwgsei w pro ti die metlhtD ll me diforetik seirD tutzontiF
Lsh:
we didoqik prgwgseiD ekol prokptei tiX
fx = 6xy yz, fxx = 6y, fy = 3x2 xz + 2yz 2 , fyy = 2z 2 , fz = xy + 2zy 2 , fzz = 2y 2 , fxy = 6x z, fxz = y, fyx = 6x z, fyz = x + 4yz, fzy = x + 4yz.
rthrome ti prgmti oi mikt merik prgwgoi pou dhmiourgonti p didoqik prE gwgsei w pro ti die metlhtD ll me diforetik seirD tutzontiF TF 9istw h sunrthsh f ( x+y )D me pedo oE xy rismo to {(x, y) : x, y = 0}F pojtoume pw oi merik prgwgoi f D f uprqounF x x y podeiqje ti x2 f = y 2 f F x y
(Merik pargwgoc snjethc sunrthshc)
(Paratrhsh: Telik extash akadhmako touc 2006-2007, 1.5 monda.)
yrzw thn sunrthsh t(x, y) = x+y F ipeid h merik prgwgo tutzeti me thn xy prgwgo tn h deterh metlht prmnei stjerD mporome n qrhsimopoisoume ton knn th lusdD gi thn snjeth sunrthsh f (t(x, y))X
Lsh:
t f t f = f (t) , = f (t) . x x y y
yi nw exissei tutzonti me ton knn th lusdD n sthn prth jewrsoume to y prmetroD ki sth deterh to x prmetroF 9ymwD qoumeX
t (x + y) xy (x + y)(xy) 1 = = 2, x (xy)2 x (x + y) xy (x + y)(xy) 1 t = = 2. 2 y (xy) y

rthrste ti sthn prth exswshD h prggish () eni w pro xD ki sthn deterh exswsh w pro y F 9itsi qoumeX
x2
f 1 = x2 f (t) 2 x x f 1 y2 = y 2 f (t) 2 y y
= f (t), = f (t),
ki prokptei to zhtomenoF
QQT
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
A.10
Askseic Kefalaou 10
IF
(Polunuma
Taylor koinn sunartsewn) x dexete ti t polunum Taylor twn 1 sunrtsewn exp xD log(x + 1)D 1x D sin xD ki cos xD sth jsh a = 0D eniX Pn,0,exp x (x) = 1 + x + Pn,0,log(x+1) (x) = Pn,0,(1x)1 (x) = P2n+1,0,sin x (x) = P2n+2,0,sin x (x) = P2n,0,cos x (x)(x) = P2n+1,0,cos x (x) = x2 x3 xn + + ... + , 2! 3! n! xn x2 x3 x4 x + + . . . + (1)n+1 , 2 3 4 n 2 3 n 1 + x + x + x + ... + x , x2n+1 x3 x5 x7 + + . . . + (1)n , x 3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)! P2n+1,0,sin x , x2 x 4 x6 x2n 1 + + . . . + (1)n , 2! 4! 6! (2n)! P2n,0,cos x (x).
Lsh:
ep th jewr twn poluwnmwn Taylor gnwrzoume ti to polunumo Taylor txh n sto a eni to n f (k) (a) f (x) = (x a)k @eFIPA k!
k=0
pou f (k) (a) eni h prgwgo k txew th sunrthsh sth jsh aF @A qi thn f (x) = exp x profn qoume f (n) (x) = exp x f (n) (0) = 1D r ekol prokptei to zhtomenoF @A qi n upologsoume to polunumo th f (x) = log(x + 1) prthrome ti gi n 1D
(n)
(1)n+1 (n 1)! f (n) (0) = (1)n+1 (n 1)!. (x) = n (1 + x)
r nw sqsh mpore epsh n podeiqje me epgwgF rgmtiD isqei gi n = 1D fo qrhsimopoiome thn smsh 0! = 1D en n upojsoume ti isqei gi nD me prggish prokptei mes ti j isqei gi n + 1F ifrmzont thn nw sthn @eFIPAD prokptei telik to zhtomenoF @gA qi n upologsoume to polunumo Taylor th f (x) =
1 1x
prthrome ti gi n 0D
f (n) (x) =
n! f (n) (0) = n!. (1 x)n+1
r nw sqsh mpore n podeiqje me epgwgF rgmtiD isqei gi n = 0D en n upojsoume ti isqei gi nD me prggish prokptei mes ti j isqei gi n + 1F ifrmzont thn nw sthn @eFIPAD prokptei to zhtomeno
A.10.
QQU
@dA thn perptwsh tou hmitnouD me epgwg mporome n dexoume ti isqeiD gi k 0D
sin(2k) x = (1)k sin x sin(2k) 0 = 0, sin(2k+1) x = (1)k cos x sin(2k+1) 0 = (1)k .

ifrmzont ti nw exissei sthn @eFIPAD prokptei to zhtomenoF
@eFIQA @eFIRA
@eA qi n upologsoume to polunumo th cos x prthrome tiD me epgwgD mporome n dexoume ti isqeiD gi k 0D
cos(2k) x = (1)k cos x cos(2k) 0 = 1, cos(2k+1) x = (1)k+1 sin x cos(2k+1) 0 = 0,

r ekol prokptei to zhtomenoF PF
Taylor hmitnou) e ut thn skhsh j meletsoume pso kl prosggish tou hmitnou eni to ntstoiqo polunumo Taylor sto 0F
(Polunumo
@A qediste sto dio sqmD n protimte me th qrsh upologistD ki me thn klterh dunt prosggishD thn sunrthsh tou hmtonou ki l t polunum Taylor mqri Vh txhF ipilxte to disthm [0, ]F i prthretec
(Updeixh: merik polunuma ja tautz ontai.)
@A pologste to sflm pou knoume n upologsoume to hmtono sth jsh x = point polunumo Taylor txh nD gi n = 1, 2, . . . , 9, 10F
(Paratrhsh: mpore na deiqje Ap ti to mgisto gia na sflma thc prosggishc
qrhsimoE
disthma hmtono
sto
[0,
gia
] 2
enai ektc
gia tou
x = [0, ] 2
. 2
thn
llh,
upologsoume pnta
proseggistik mia tim entc
to tou
mporome
na
qrhsimopoisoume
[0,
], 2
ekmetalleumenoi tic summetrec pou emfanz ei h sunrthsh tou hmitnou. sto
' Ara, to sflma
x=
antiproswpeei to mgisto sflma
gia opoiadpote tim
tou
.)
Lsh:
9iqoumeX
o polunumo Taylor txh n tou hmitnou sto 0 qei upologiste sthn 9eskhsh IF
Pn=1,a=0 (x) = Pn=2,a=0 (x) = x, x3 Pn=3,a=0 (x) = Pn=4,a=0 (x) = x , 3! x3 x 5 Pn=5,a=0 (x) = Pn=6,a=0 (x) = x + , 3! 5! x3 x5 x7 Pn=7,a=0 (x) = Pn=8,a=0 (x) = x + , 3! 5! 7! x3 x5 x7 x9 Pn=9,a=0 (x) = Pn=10,a=0 (x) = x + + . 3! 5! 7! 9!
rthrste ti orismn polunum tutzonti metx touD git oi prgwgoi rti txh tou hmitnou sto 0 eni mhdenikF fsei twn nwD sto qm P qoume sqedisei t polunum txewn n = 1, 2D n = 3, 4D n = 5, 6 ki n = 7, 8F ipshD qoume sqedisei to sflm sto x = w sunrthsh tou nF rthrome ti h krei th prosggish meglnei kj to n 2 meglneiD ki epiplon to sflm uxnei kj uxnei to xF
QQV
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
3 2.5 n=1,2 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 n=3,4 0.5 1 n=5,6 sin x
1.6 /2~ 1.5708 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 n=7,8 1.1 1 ~1.0045 ~0.9248 0.5 1 1.5 x 2 2.5 3 0.9 1 2 3 4 5 n 6 ~0.9998 7 8 9 10 ~1.0000035425
1.5 2 0
qm eFIRX 9eskhsh P QF
Taylor) frete to polunumo Taylor ttrth txh th sunrthsh f (x) = (1 + x) grw p to 0F oio eni to uploipo gi x = 0.1c x prosdiorsete n nw frgm sto uploipo metx th sunrthsh f (x) ki tou polunumouD pou n isqei gi opoiodpote x sto disthm [0.5, 0.5]F
(Uploipo
1 2
Lsh:
ut t gnwst p th jewrD to polunumo Taylor eni to

n
Pn,a (x) =
k=0
f (k) (a) (x a)k . k!
yi prgwgoi txew n = 1, 2, 3, 4 th f (x) eni oi

1 3 5 7 1 1 3 15 f (1) (x) = (1 + x) 2 , f (2) (x) = (1 + x) 2 , f (3) (x) = (1 + x) 2 , f (4) (x) = (1 + x) 2 . 2 4 8 16
pologzont th sunrthsh ki ti prggou th sto 0D qoume
1 1 3 15 f (0) (0) = 1, f (1) (0) = , f (2) (0) = , f (3) (0) = , f (4) (0) = . 2 4 8 16
r to polunumo eni to
1 Pn,a (x) = 1 + x 2 1 = 1+ x 2
1 1 2 1 3 1 15 x + x3 x4 2 4 3! 8 4! 16 1 2 1 3 1 5 4 x + x x, 8 16 4! 128
ki telik me rijmhtik ntiktstsh prokptei pwX
Pn,a (0.1)
1.0488085937,
f (0.1)
1.0488088481,
f (0.1) Pn,a (0.1)
2.544 107 .
A.10.
QQW
qi n upologsoume n frgm sto uploipo pou n isqei pnto sto disthm [0.5, 0.5]D prthrome pw h prgwgo pmpth txh isoti me
f (5) (x) =
9 105 (1 + x) 2 , 32
kiD sto disthm [0.5, 0.5] lmnei th mgisth tim th sto x = 0.5D pou
105 f (5) (0.5) = . 2

9erD gi opoiodpote x [0.5, 0.5]D p to terhm Taylor prokptei pw epeid gi kje t sto disthm me kr x, 0D 105 f (5) (t) , 2 j qoumeX 105 |x 0|5 |En (x)| 0.01933. 5! 2
QRH
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
A.11
Askseic Kefalaou 11
IF
(H Armonik Seir)
9istw h rmonik seir

+
n=1
1 1 1 1 = 1 + + + + ... n 2 3 4
x deiqjeD me ktllhlh omdopohsh rwnD ti h rmonik seir poklneiF

Lsh:
rthrome pwX
+
n=1
1 = 1 n 1 2 1 + + 3 1 + + 5 1 + + 9 +... +
1 4 1 1 1 + + 6 7 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + + + + + 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
rthrste ti kje grmm qei jroism toulqiston 1 D ki mpor n dhmiourgsw peire 2 ttoie grmmD diplsizont se kje epnlhyh ton rijm twn rwn pou qrhsimopoiF 9erD profn to jroism eni +F PF
(Mia Thleskopik Seir)
x upologsete thn tim th
1 n=1 n2 +n F
Lsh:
rthrome pwX
n2
1 1 1 1 = = . +n n(n + 1) n n+1
en den mporome n mntyoume to nwD mporome n gryoumeX
1 a b = + 1 = a(n + 1) + bn n(a + b) + (a 1) = 0, n(n + 1) n n+1

pou prpei n isqei gi kje nD r prpei a = 1, b = 1F 9erD telik prokptei pw h seir mpore n grfe w thleskopikD ki kt t gnwst p th jewr qoumeX
i=1
n2
1 1 1 = lim = 1. n+ n +n 1
QF
x pofnjeteD qrhsimopoint gnwst kritriD kt pso oi kE louje seir sugklnoun poklnounX

(Sgklish Seirn)
A.11.
QRI
@A @A @gA @dA @eA @A @zA @hA @jA @iA @iA @iA @igA @idA
Lsh:
n n=1 n2 +2n+3 D (n!)2 D (2n)!
(Epanalhptik Telik Extash 2008-2009, 0.9 mondec)
(n!)2 D 2n2 n n! 2 D nn n n! 3 D nn + 5n n=1 n5 D (Epanalhptik n! D (Telik Extash 22n 1 D s RF ns + 1 n=2 n(log n)s D s RF n 1
Telik Extash 2008-2009, 0.7
mondec)
2008-2009, 0.5 monda)
nn 1
2
en D n n3 [ 2+(1)n ]
3n 1 n
(Telik Extash
2008-2009, 1 monda)
en D
1 (1)n n D
@A en dokimsoume to kritrio tou lgou eni profn ti den j rome th sgklishD kj o sqetik lgo j sugklnei sto 1F ipshD to kritrio th rz den fneti n eni ktllhloF rthrome mw ti oi roi an th sugkekrimnh koloujD gi megl 1 nD eni perpou soi me n F r ntstoiqh seir eni h rmonikD pou poklneiF 9er h seir nmnoume n poklneiF qi n to dexoume usthrD qrhsimopoiome to kritrio sgklish 1 sto rioF 9istw bn = n F te
an = bn
ki me dedomno ti poklnei h n h n2 +2n+3 F n=1
n n2 +2n+3 1 n + n=1 bn D
n2 1, n2 + 2n + 3
p to kritrio sgklish sto rio poklnei ki
@A rthrste ti loi oi roi an > 0D r mpor n qrhsimopoisw to kritrio tou lgouF 9iqoumeX
an+1 [(n + 1)!]2 = an (2(n + 1))!
[n!]2 (2n)!
(n + 1)!(n + 1)!(2n)! [2(n + 1)]!n!n! 1+ (n + 1)(n + 1) n2 + 2n + 1 = = 2 = (2n + 1)(2n + 2) 4n + 6n + 2 4+ =
2 n 6 n
+ +
1 n2 2 n2
1 , 4
r sei tou krithrou tou lgou h seir sugklneiF
QRP
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
@gA 9yloi oi roi an =
(n!)2 2n2
eni jetikoD r mpor n qrhsimopoisw to kritrio tou lgouX
[(n + 1)!]2 2(n+1)2
[n!]2 2n2
2n (n + 1)!(n + 1)! (n + 1)2 = = 2n+1 . 2 +2n+1 2 2n n!n!
r nw kolouj sugklnei sto 0D git oi ekjetik sunrtsei uxnonti pol pio grgor p ti poluwnumikF eusthrD qoume thn ex pdeixhX yrzw thn sunrthsh
f (x) =
(x + 1)2 (x + 1)2 . = 22x+1 2 exp [(2 log 2)x]
ep gnwst kritrio sgklish gi koloujeD n h sunrthsh f (x) tenei sto 0 gi x D tte j tenei sto 0 ki h a(n) = f (n) gi n F thn pros morf th f (x)D o upologism tou orou emfnzei prosdiorist F we dipl efrmog tou knn De LHospital qoumeX
(x + 1)2 2(x + 1) 2 = lim = = 0, 2 exp [(2 log 2)x] x 2 exp [(2 log 2)x] x (4 log 2) exp [(2 log 2)x] 8(log 2) lim
ki telik h seir sugklneiF @dA ui pli qrhsimopoiome to kritrio tou lgouX
2n+1 (n + 1)! an+1 = an (n + 1)n+1
2n n! nn
2n+1 (n + 1)!nn 2 = 1 n+1 2n n! (n + 1) 1+ n
2 < 1. e
ipeid to rio eni mikrtero th mondD h seir sugklneiF @eA e ut thn perptwshD epnlmnont thn di didiksD prokpteiX
an+1 3 = > 1, an e
r me ut th mikr llg sthn morf twn rwnD h seir poklneiF @A ini profn ti prpei n qrhsimopoisoume to kritrio tou lgouX
an+1 = an
r h seir poklneiF
5n+1 (n+1)5 5n n5
=5
n n+1
5,
@zA rthrome ti oi roi an = 2n! th seir eni loi jetikoF ipshD qoun ttoi morfD 2n ste h efrmog tou krithrou tou lgou n eni plF rgmtiX
an+1 (n + 1)! = an 22(n+1)
n! 22n
(n + 1)!22n n = , 2n+2 n!2 4
r p to kritrio tou lgouD h seir poklneiF
A.11.
QRQ
@hA t efrmsoume to kritrio tou oloklhrmto gi th sunrthsh f (x) = xs F yi kolouE je gnontiX n n n1s 1 , s = 1, 1 1 1s sn = , tn = dx = s s k log n, s = 1. 1 x k=1 9erD n s > 1D h n1s tenei sto 0D r h tn sugklneiD ki p to kritrio sugklnei ki h sn F en s = 1D log n +D r h tn poklneiD ki mz th poklnei ki h sn F loD n s < 1D h n1s tenei sto +D r ki pli h tn poklneiD ki mz th poklnei ki h sn F
1 @jA t efrmsoume to kritrio tou oloklhrmto gi th sunrthsh f (x) = x(log x)s F ekinme mw p to k = x = 2D nt tou 1 gi n pofgoume to mhdenism tou pronomst gi k = x = 2F r isq tou krithrou profn den ephrezetiF yi kolouje eni oiX n
sn =
k=2
1 , k(log k)s
tn =
2
1 dx = x(log x)s
s = 1, log(log n) log(log(2)), s = 1.
(log n)1s (log 2)1s , 1s
9erD n s > 1D h (log n)1s tenei sto 0D r h tn sugklneiD ki p to kritrio sugklnei ki h sn F en s = 1D log(log n) +D r h tn poklneiD ki mz th poklnei ki h sn F loD n s < 1D h (log n)1s tenei sto +D r ki pli h tn poklneiD ki mz th poklnei ki h sn F @iA vgw th morf twn rwn th seirD eni profn ti prpei n qrhsimopoisoume to kritrio th rzF rgmtiX 1 1 (an ) n = n n 1. t dexoume ti h f (x) = x x tenei sto 1 gi x D opte j qoume ti h f (n) = n n 1 tenei sto 0 gi n D ki h seir sugklneiF o rio th f (x) gi x emfnzei thn prosdiorist 0 D h opo mpore n ntimetwpiste w exX
1 1
lim x x = lim exp

x
log x log x 1/x = exp lim = exp lim = exp(0) = 1. x x x 1 x
r deterh istht prokptei lgw th sunqei th sunrthsh exp(x)D en h trth isE tht prokptei me qrsh tou jewrmto tou De LHospitalF @iA vgw th morf twn rwn th seirD eni ki pli profn ti prpei n qrhsimopoiE soume to kritrio th rzF rgmtiX
n an = en 1 2 1 n
= en 0,
ki h seir sugklneiF
n3 [ 2+(1)n ] oi roi th seirF vgw th morf touD eni logik n @iA 9istw an = 3n prospjsoume n efrmsoume to kritrio th rzF en to knoumeD j dipistsoume ti den uprqei rioD lgw tou rou (1)n F eut mpore n ntimetwpiste n orsoume thn n n3 [ 2+1] kolouj bn = F rthrome pw 3n
n
0 an b n .
QRR
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
mfwn me to kritrio th sgkrishD h an j sugklnei n sugklnei ki h bn mw sugklneiD git p to kritrio th rz qoumeX
bn F r
(bn ) = n
1 n 3 n
2+1 3
2+1 3
< 1.
@igA r seir poteleti p do seirD ek twn opown h prth eni h rmonikD ki poklneiD en h deterh sugklneiD smfwn me prohgomeno skloF unepD h seir prpei n 2 poklneiF rgmtiD stw pw sunklineF teD fo sugklnei ki h en D p gnwst 1 D ki qoume topoF jerhm j prpei n sugklnei ki to jroism touD pou eni h n @idA r seir eni enllssousD ki epiplon an 0 gi n 0F 9erD p gnwst jerhmD h seir j sugklneiF rthrste ti sth sugkekrimnh perptwshD h seir |an | eni h rmonik seir ki poklneiF RF
(Apotuqa krithrwn sgklishc)
x dexete ti t kritri lgou ki rz den mporon 1 n qrhsimopoihjon gi n prosdiorisje h sgklish th seir F ns ifrmzont to kritrio tou lgouD qoumeX
1
Lsh:
an+1 1 = an (n + 1)s
1 ns
n = n+1
1 = 1+
s 1 n
1.
9er riskmste sthn perptwsh pou den mporome n pofnjomeF ifrmzont to kritrio th rzD qoumeX 1 1 n 1 = 1 1, ns (n n )s r ki pli den mporome n pofnjomeF @rhsimopoisme to gnwst rio lim n n = 1FA
n+
1
A.12.
QRS
A.12
Askseic Kefalaou 12
IF
(Anisthta
Cauchy-Schwarz) epodexte thn nistht Cauchy-SchwarzX X, Y Rn , |X Y | X Y .

tou
@eFISA
. Epeid to trinumo den enai
(Updeixh: pot
gryte
thn
posthta
X Y
wc
trinumo
arnhtik, h
diakrnousa
den mpore na enai jetik.)
ipshD dexte ti tn X, Y = 0 isqei ti
X Y = X
ki
Y X, Y omrrop, Y X, Y ntrrop,
Gia na apodexete thn
X Y = X
(Updeixh:
h antstrofh katejunsh enai apl, kai stic do periptseic.
eujea katejunsh,
meletste ta
X Y
.)
Lsh:
rthrome pw gi opoiodpote R qoumeX
X Y 2 (X Y ) (X Y ) X X + 2 Y Y 2X Y Y 2 2 + (2X Y ) + X 2
0 0 0 0.
ipeid to nw trinumo den eni pot rnhtikD den mpore h dikrnous n eni jetikF 9erX
4(X Y )2 4 X
0 |X Y | X
Y .
9istw tr ti t X, Y = 0 eni omrropD dhld X = Y gi kpoio > 0F teX
X Y = X (X) = (X X) = X
entistrfwD stw pw X Y = X
= X
X = X
Y .
Y F rthr pw X X Y = X Y > 0F
2 2
X Y Y
= X X +
X Y
2 2
Y Y 2
X Y
+ X
2 X
=0X=
X Y, Y
dhld t X, Y eni omrropD fo
9istw tr ti t X D Y eni ntrropD dhld X = Y gi kpoio < 0F teX
X Y = X (X) = (X X) = X
entistrfwD stw pw X Y = X
= X
X = X
Y .
Y F rthr pw X X Y = X Y
2
X+
X Y Y
= X X +
X Y
2 2
Y Y +2
+ X
2 X
=0X=
X Y, Y
dhld t X, Y eni ntrropF
QRT
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
||X||
||X Y| |
X+Y
||Y ||
|| +Y ||X ||X||
0 X-Y
qm eFISX qewmetrik ermhne th trigwnik nistht ki tou nmou tou sunhmitnouF PF
(Trigwnik anisthta)
epodexte thn trigwnik nisthtX
||Y ||
X, Y Rn ,
X +Y X + Y ,
@eFITA
ki dste mi gewmetrik ermhneF ipiplonD tn X, Y = 0D h istht isqei nn t X D Y D eni omrropF X +Y 2 Cauchy-Schwarz

(Updeixh: .) anaptxte thn posthta kai qrhsimopoiste thn anisthta
Lsh:
rhsimopoiome thn updeixhX
X +Y
= (X + Y ) (X + Y ) = X X + Y Y + 2X Y = X 2 + Y 2 + 2X Y X 2+ Y 2+2 X Y = ( X + Y )2 .
r nistht prokptei p thn nistht Cauchy-SchwarzF 9ypw fneti ki sto qm PD tn n = 2 n = 3D t X , Y , X + Y eni oi trei pleur en trignouD uto me km t shme 0D X D ki X + Y D ki oi nistht lei ti to jroism twn do pleurn eni pntote megltero so p thn trthF 9istw tr pw t X, Y = 0 eni omrropD dhld uprqei > 0 ttoio ste Y = X F 9iqoumeX
X + X
= |1 + | X = X + X = X + X = X + Y .
A.12.
QRU
rhsimopoisme gnwst idithte tou mkouF ipiplonD sth deterh istht qrhsimopoisme to gegon ti > 0F 9istw tr pw isqei h @eFITA me isthtF rthrnt thn pdeixh th nisthtD lE poume pw ut sunepgeti ti X Y = X Y D dhldD p to prohgomeno skloD ti t X, Y eni omrropF QF
(Nmoc tou parallhlogrmmou)
x deiqje tiD gi opoidpote X, Y Rn D isqei tiX

2
X +Y
+ X Y
=2 X
+2 Y
x ermhneute gewmetrik to potlesmF

Lsh:
rthrste pwX
X +Y
+ X Y
= = = =
(X + Y ) (X + Y ) + (X Y ) (X Y ) X X + Y Y + 2X Y + X X + Y Y 2X Y 2X X + 2Y Y 2 X 2 + 2 Y 2.
rthrste pw X ki Y eni t mkh twn pleurn tou prllhlgrmmou tou qmto P pou sqhmtzeti p t shme X D Y D 0D ki X + Y F ipiplonD X + Y ki X Y eni t mkh twn do digwnwnF 9erD h istht shmnei ti { me to jroism twn tetrgnwn twn mhkn twn P digwnwn isoti me to jroism twn tetrgnwn twn mhkn twn R pleurn}F RF
(Apstash shmeou ap eujea)
hneti h euje Ax + By = C ki shmeo (x0 , y0 ) ekt utF x upologsete thn pstsh nmes sthn euje ki to shmeoD kj ki to shmeo (x1 , y1 ) pnw sthn euje pou rsketi pio kont sto (x0 , y0 ) me tou ex trpouX @A utstrnont thn euje pou dirqeti p to (x0 , y0 ) ki eni kjeth sthn Ax+By = C D ki rskont to shmeo tom (x1 , y1 ) twn do eujeinF @A utstrnont exswsh gi thn pstsh nmes sto (x0 , y0 ) ki n ujreto shmeo ep th eujeD ki elqistopoint thn pstsh utF @gA rhsimopoint to eswterik ginmeno nmes sto dinusm (A, B) ki to dinusm (x0 x1 , y0 y1 )F
(Paratrhsh: h teleutaa mjodoc enai h duskolterh sthn katanhsh, all h ta qterh kai
epiplon mpore
na tropopoihje
pio ekola
gia aujareto arijm diastsewn.)
r gewmetr tou prolmto qei sqediste sto qm eFITF rthrste ti to dinusm (x1 x0 , y1 y0 ) eni kjeto sthn eujeF
Lsh:
@A o dinusm (A, B) eni kjeto sthn euje Ax + By = C D sunep kje euje pou eni kjeth se ut eni prllhlh sto (A, B)F r euje pouD epiplonD dirqeti p to (x0 , y0 ) qei exswsh Bx Ay = Bx0 Ay0 .
QRV
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
o shmeo tom twn do eujein (x1 , y1 ) iknopoie to ssthm exissewn
C B A C Bx0 Ay0 A B Bx0 Ay0 Ax1 + By1 = C x1 = , y1 = Bx1 Ay1 = Bx0 Ay0 A B A B B A B A 2 2 AC + B x0 ABy0 BC + A y0 ABx0 x1 = , y1 = . @eFIUA 2 + B2 A A2 + B 2
r pstsh D nmes st shme (x0 , y0 )D (x1 , y1 )D pou eni ki h pstsh nmes sto (x0 , y0 ) ki thn euje Ax + By = C D isoti meX
D=
(x1 x0 )2 + (y1 y0 )2 =
|C Ax0 By0 | , A2 + B 2
@eFIVA
pw prokptei met p prxeiF @A ut t gnwst p th jewrD h euje Ax + By = C eni o gewmetrik tpo twn shmewn pou mporon n grfon sth morf (x, y) + (p1 , p2 )D pou (x, y) n opoiodpote shmeo th eujeD ki (p1 , p2 ) n opoiodpote dinusm pou eni prllhlo sthn eujeF BC AC ipilgoume (x, y) = ( A2 +B 2 , A2 +B 2 ) @pou ekol lpoume ti eplhjeei thn exswsh th eujeA ki (p1 , p2 ) = (B, A)D pou eni kjeto sto (A, B)D r prllhlo sthn eujeF fsei twn sugkekrimnwn epilognD t shme pnw sthn euje eni th morf
A2
BC AC , ) + (B, A). 2 A2 + B 2 +B
@eFIWA
uj to llzeiD to nw shmeo ditrqei lh thn eujeF r pstsh en shmeou ep th euje p to (x0 , y0 ) eni
D=
BC AC + B x0 )2 + ( 2 A y0 )2 , A2 + B 2 A + B2
@eFPHA
ki prgwgzont w pro D prokpteiX

AC BC 2B A2 +B 2 + B x0 2A A2 +B 2 A x0 dD = . d AC BC 2 ( A2 +B 2 + B x0 )2 + ( A2 +B 2 A y0 )2
0 Ay whdenzont thn prgwgoD rskoume = Bx2 +B 2 0 F r tim ut dnei topik elqistoD A pw prokptei n upologsoume thn deterh prgwgoD prthrsoume ti prpei n uprqei elqistoD sei th gewmetr tou prolmtoD n prthrsoume ti to teE trgwno th pstsh D eni mi prol strmmnh pro t pnwD pou profn qei n elqistoF we ntiktstsh th tim ut tou sti exissei @eFIWAD @eFPHAD nktome ti exissei @eFIUAD @eFIVAF
@gA 9istw to eswterik ginmeno tou dinsmto (A, B) me to dinusm (x0 x1 , y0 y1 )X A2 + B 2 (x0 x1 )2 + (y0 y1 )2 cos = A(x0 x1 ) + B(y0 y1 ) = Ax0 + B0 y Ax1 By1 = Ax0 + By0 C,
A.12.
QRW
(x ,y ) 0 0 (x1,y1)
(A,B)
A
y= x+B
Bx A Bx 0 Ay= y0
x
qm eFITX 9eskhsh RF pou eni h gwn nmes st do dinsmtD h opo mpore n eni mno 0 D fo ki t do eni kjet sthn eujeF 9ymwD prthrste ti h zhtomenh pstsh isoti me D = (x0 x1 )2 + (y0 y1 )2 D ki prnont plute timD ste n fgei to cos = 1D prokptei telik h exswsh @eFIVAF qi n upologsoume to shmeo (x1 , y1 )D dikrnoume do periptseiX en to (x0 , y0 ) eni sto hmieppedo pou deqnei to (A, B)D tte prpei n qoume
(x1 , y1 ) = (x0 , y0 ) D
(A, B) . |(A, B)|
eut eni h perptwsh pou eikonzeti sto qm eFITF en mw to (x0 , y0 ) eni sto llo hmieppedoD tte prpei n qoume
(x1 , y1 ) = (x0 , y0 ) + D
(A, B) . |(A, B)|
ipeid sthn prth perptwsh qoume Ax0 + By0 > C ki sthn deterh Ax0 + By0 < C D prokptei ti ki sthn do periptseiD prpei n qoume
(x1 , y1 ) = (x0 , y0 ) +
C Ax0 By0 (A, B), A2 + B 2
ki met p prxei prokptei telik h @eFIUAF SF

(Sustmata anissewn)
@A x reje to ssthm nissewn pou orzei thn trigwnik perioq me koruf t shme P1 = (1, 1)D P2 = (2, 1)D P3 = (2, 2)F
(Paratrhsh: Jma epanalhptikc telikc extashc akadhmako touc 2006-2007, 1.5 monda)
QSH
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
qm eFIUX 9eskhsh SF @A x reje n ssthm do nissewn pou n perigrfei thn prth perioq tou qmE to eFIUF
(Updeixh: tom duo hmiepipdwn.)
Parathrste pwc h perio q den enai fra gmnh, kai pwc apotele thn
@gA x perigryete me nissei th deterh perioq tou qmto eFIUF

thc poluplokthtac thc perio qc, enai ana gkao na spsete thn kje mia ap tic opoec ja ikanopoie to dik thc ssthma anissewn. exetsete 4 upoperio qc, mia gia kje tetarthmrio.)
(Updeixh: se
lgw
perio q
upoperio qc,
Mia epilog enai na
e le ti periptseiD n upojsete ti t snor twn perioqn nkoun sti perioqD dhld oi zhtomene perioq eni kleistF
Lsh:
@A ut t gnwst p th jewrD mi euje pou dirqeti p t shme (x0 , y0 ) ki (x1 , y1 ) dneti p thn exswsh
(y y0 )(x1 x0 ) = (x x0 )(y1 y0 ).
we ntiktstsh twn suntetgmnwn gi t tr zegh shmewn @P1 ki P2 D P1 ki P3 D P1 ki P3 A prokptoun oi exisseiX
P1 , P2 : 2x y 3 = 0,
P1 , P3 : x 2 = 0,
P2 , P3 : 3x y 4 = 0.
ipsh kt t gnwst p th jewrD h exswsh ax + by + c 0 perigrfei to hmieppedo pou orzeti p thn euje ax + by + c = 0 ki perilmnei t shme pou eni @se sqsh me thn eujeA pro thn ktejunsh pou deqnei to dinusm (a, b)F @rofnD h exswsh ax + by + c 0 perigrfei to hmieppedo pou orzeti p thn euje ax + by + c = 0 ki perilmnei t shme pou eni @se sqsh me thn eujeA pro thn ktejunsh pou deqnei
A.12.
QSI
y4 =
2 1 0 1 2 y
(3,1) (2,1) x2=0 (1,0) 2
3 0
2x
y 3= 0
3x
qm eFIVX 9eskhsh SF to dinusm (a, b)FA yi eujee ki t dinsmt qoun sqediste sto qm eFIVD p to opoo prokptei pw to zhtomeno ssthm nissewn eni toX
2x y 3 0,
x 2 0,
anoikt
3x y 4 0.
perioq pou dhmiourgeti p t di
en m eqe zhthje n perigryoume thn shmeD h pnths m j tnX
2x y 3 < 0,
x 2 < 0,
3x y 4 < 0.
@A irgzmste pw ki sthn prohgomenh perptwshF r prth euje dirqeti p t shme (0, 0) ki (0.5, 1)D r qei exswsh thn y = 2x 2x y = 0D en h deterh exswsh 3 dirqeti p t shme (0.5, 1) ki (2, 0)D r j qei exswsh (y 1) 2 = (x 1 ) 2 2x + 3y 4 = 0F vmnont up9 yin thn ktejunsh twn kjtwn dinusmtwn (2, 1) ki (2, 3)D prokptei to ssthmX
2x + 3y 4,
2x + y 0.
yi nw nissei ki exissei emfnzonti sto qm eFIWF @gA e ut thn perptwshD h perioq den eni tom hmiepipdwnD sunep den mpore n periE grfe p n mno ssthm nissewnF wporome mw n spsoume thn perioq sti tsseri upoperioq E1 D E2 D E3 D ki E4 tou qmto eFIWD ki n ktskeusoume suE stmt nissewn gi kje mi p utF irgzmenoi pw st prohgomen sklhD
QSP
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
prokptei telik ti n shmeo j nkei sthn perioqD n ki mno n iknopoie n p t klouj sustmtX x 0, x 0, x 0, x 0, y0 y0 y0 y0 , , , . x + y 1 x + y 1 x + y 1 x + y 1 x+y 2 x + y 2 x + y 2 x + y 2 TF
(Eujea parllhlh se eppedo)
x podeiqje ti h euje x = 1 + 2t, y = 1 + 3t, z = 2 + 4t eni prllhlh sto eppedo x 2y + z = 6F

(Paratrhsh: Jma telikc extashc akadhmako touc 2005-2006, 2 mondec.)
prqoun pollo trpoi n luje h skhshF y pio pl eni o exX stw ti h euje den eni prllhlhF 9er uprqei kpoio t ttoio ste to ntstoiqo shmeo th euje n nkei sto eppedoF unepD j prpei n iknopoie thn exswshD ki me ntiktstsh prokptei ti
Lsh:
(1 + 2t) 2(1 + 3t) + (2 + 4t) = 6 1 + 2 + 2 + (2 6 + 4)t = 6 5 = 6.

ptnoume se topoD r den uprqei t gi to opoo h euje n pern p to eppedoD ki telik h euje eni prllhlhF 9in llo trpo eni o exX utrqnD prthrome ti h euje eni prllhlh sto diE nusm (2, 3, 4)F ipshD to shmeo (3, 0, 3) nkei sto eppedoD en h euje pou dirqeti p ekeno to shmeo ki prokptei p thn rqik me mi pl mettpish eni h x = 3 + 2t, y = 0 + 3, z = 3 + 4tF we ntiktstsh ston tpo tou epipdouD prokptei ti h sugkekrimnh euje nkei sto eppedo gi kje tF 9erD h rqik eujeD p thn opo h n euje qei prokyei me mettpishD eni prllhlh sto eppedoF 9ello trpo eplush @pou prlepoume n dexoume nlutikA eni n upologsoume thn pstsh kje shmeou th euje p to eppedo ki n dome ti h pstsh prmnei stjer kj kinomste ep th eujeF UF
(Exisseic epipdwn)
@A x reje h exswsh tou epipdou to opoo periqei to shmeo (2, 1, 3) ki eni kjeto pro thn euje x+1 = y1 = z F 2 3 4
(Paratrhsh: Jma epanalhptikc telikc akadhmako touc 2006-2007, 2 mondec.)
extashc
1 @A x reje h exswsh tou epipdou to opoo periqei to shmeo (2, 1 , 3 ) ki to opoo eni 2 kjeto pro thn euje me prmetrik exissei x = + 2t, y = 2 + 5t, z = 9tF
(Paratrhsh: Jma telikc extashc akadhmako touc 2007-8, 1,5 monda.)
Lsh:
@A ut t gnwst p th jewrD h dosmnh euje eni prllhlh sto dinusm (2, 3, 4)F (2, 3, 4) z z F 9erD yqnoume n eppedo pou n eni kjeto sto dinusm (A, B, C) = (2, 3, 4) ki n dirqeti p to shmeo (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = (2, 1, 3)F ut t gnwst p th jewrD h exswsh tou epipdou eni h
(Proso q, kai qi to qi .) sto , giat ston arijmht tou teleutaou klsmatoc q oume to
A(xx0 )+B(yy0 )+C(zz0 ) = 0 2(x2)+3(y1)4(z+3) = 0 2x+3y4z = 19.
A.12.
QSQ
qm eFIWX 9eskhsh SF
QSR
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
@A ut t gnwst p th jewrD h exswsh en epipdou kjetou sto dinusm (A, B, C) ki dierqmenou p shmeo (x0 , y0 , z0 ) eni hX
A(x x0 ) + B(y y0 ) + C(z z0 ) = 0.

th sugkekrimnh perptwshD to eppedo eni kjeto sthn euje x = + 2t, y = 2 + 5t, z = 9tD r kjeto sto dinusm (2, 5, 9)F 9erD h exsws tou eni h
1 1 19 2(x 2) + 5(y ) + 9(z ) = 0 2x + 5y + 9z = . 2 3 2
A.13.
QSS
A.13
Askseic Kefalaou 13
IF
x sqediseteD me kt to dunt klterh E kreiD ton gewmetrik tpo twn shmewn (x, y) pou iknopoion kje mi p ti exisseiX
(Qarakthrismc gewmetrikn tpwn)
@A 4x2 + 9y 2 + 8x 90y + k = 0D gi k = 193, 229, 230F @A x2 2xy +y 2 +x+y = 0F

touc 2006-2007, 1.5 (Paratrhsh: jma epanalhptikc telikc extashc akadhmako monda.)
@gA 3x2 + 10xy + 3y 2 2x 14y 13 = 0F e perptwsh pou o gewmetrik tpo eni kwnik tomD n dexete thn jsh twn qrkthE ristikn th stoiqewnD dhld @pou uprqounA tou kntrouD twn korufnD twn estinD th dieujetosD ki twn xnwnF
Lsh:
@A yloklhrnont t tetrgwnD qoumeX
4x2 + 9y 2 + 8x 90y + k 4(x2 + 2x + 1) + 9(y 2 10y + 25) 4(x + 1)2 + 9(y 5)2 (x + 1)2 (y 5)2 + 32 22 en k = 193D h nw exswsh gneti
= 0 = k + 4 + 225 = 229 k 229 k = . 36
(x + 1)2 (y 5)2 u2 v 2 + = 1 2 + 2 = 1. 32 22 3 2 pou qoume knei thn llg suntetgmnwn u = x + 1, v = y 5F 9erD qoume thn exswsh mi lleiyhD me kntro to (1, 5)D ki prmtrou a = 3D b = 2D =
b 1 a = 5 F y meglo xon eni kt mko tou xon x ki qei mko 2a = 9 6D o mikr xon eni kt mko tou xon y ki qei mko 2b = 4F yi koruf eni oi (1, 5) + (3, 0) = (4, 5)D (1, 5) + (3, 0) = (2, 5)D (1, 5) + 2) = (1, 7)D (0, (1, 5) + (0, 2) = 3)D ki oi este eni oi (1, 5) + ( 5, 0) = (1 + 5, 5)D (1, 5) + (1, ( 5, 0) = (1 5, 5)F r lleiyh qei sqediste sto qm eFPHF
(Paratrhsh: touc aut kai sta epmena tomc, sqmata, me diakekommnec grammc q oume sqedisei .)
se
xonec
uv thn perptwsh pou k = 229D h exswsh pou dneti eni isodnmh me thn
thc kwnikc kai qi touc xonec tou sustmatoc sunteta gmnwn
(x + 1)2 (y 5)2 + = 0, 32 22 h opo qei mondik lsh to shmeo x = 1, y = 5F thn perptwsh pou k = 230D h exswsh pou dneti eni isodnmh me thn (x + 1)2 (y 5)2 1 + = , 2 2 3 2 36
pou profn den qei lshF
QST
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
0.5
x+
(0,0) (1,7) (3.2,5.0) (4,5) (1,5) (1,3) (1.2,5.0) (2,5)
y= 1/ 4
8 6 4 2 6 4
0
(0.125,0.125)
0.5
1 1
0.5
0.5
qm eFPHX 9eskhsh IF @A y gewmetrik tpo eni th morf Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0F 9erD gi n pofnjome gi th morf touD prpei kt9 rqn n pleyoume ton ro Bxy F eut j gneiD kt t gnwst p th jewrD eisgont mi peristrof twn xnwn kt mi gwn pou 11 AC = = 0 2 = = . cot 2 = B 2 2 4 9er qrhsimopoiome ton metsqhmtismX
x = u cos v sin = y = u sin + v cos =
2 (u 2 2 (u 2
v) + v)
u = x cos + y sin = v = x sin + y cos =
2 (x + y) 2 2 (x + y) 2
ki me ntiktstsh tou prtou zegou sthn rqik exswsh qoumeX
@eFPIA
1 1 2 2 2 (u v)2 (u2 v 2 ) + (u + v)2 + (u v) + (u + v) = 0 v 2 = 4( )u. 2 2 2 2 8

unepD sto no ssthm xnwnD qoume mi prolD me kntro to (0, 0)D est thn ( 82 , 0)D ki dieujetos euje thn u = 82 . to rqik ssthm xnwn rskoumeD qrhE simopoint ton metsqhmtism @eFPIAD ti oi ntstoiqe suntetgmne eni oi (0, 0)D 1 ( 8 , 1 )D x + y = 1 F r prol qei sqediste sto qm eFPHF 8 4 @gA ut9 rqn plefoume ton ro Bxy D eisgont mi peristrof twn xnwn kt mi gwn pou AC 33 cot 2 = = = 0 2 = = . B 10 2 4
A.13.
QSU
2
x+
1 0 1 2 3 4
(3.6,0.6) (2.7,0.3)
(1.3,1.7) (0.4,2.6)
y= 1
(2,1)
qm eFPIX 9eskhsh IF 9er qoume xn ton metsqhmtism @eFPIA pou emfnsthke se prohgomeno skloD ki me ntiktstsh sthn rqik exswsh qoumeX
3 3 (u v)2 + 5(u2 v 2 ) + (u + v)2 2(u v) 7 2(u + v) 13 = 0 2 2 8u2 2v 2 8 2u 6 2v 13 = 0 (u 22 )2 (v + 3 2 2 )2 = 1. 1 4

9er qoume uperolD me xon ton xon twn uD prmtrou a = 1D b = 4 = 2D b2 = 1 + a2 = 5D kntro to ( 22 , 3 2 2 )D koruf t shme ( 22 , 3 2 2 ) + (1, 0) =
2 (1 + 22 , 3 2 2 )D ( 22 , 3 2 ) + (1, 0) (1 + 22 , 3 2 2 )D ki este t shme ( 22 , 3 2 2 ) + = 2 2 3 2 3 2 ( 5, 0) = ( 5 + 2 , 2 )D ( 2 , 2 ) + ( 5, 0) = ( 5 + 22 , 3 2 2 )F yi nw sunteE tgmne eni sto ssthm xnwn uv F rhsimopoint ton metsqhmtism @eFPIAD prokpteiX
x = y
gi ti suntetgmne tou kntrouD
2 2 2 2
22
2 2
2 2 322
2 1
x y x y
= =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
22 22
2 2 2 2
1 + 22 2 + 22 = , 322 1 + 22 1 + 22 2 22 = 322 1 22

QSV
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
gi ti suntetgmne twn korufnD ki
x y x y
= =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
22 22
2 2 2 2
10 5 + 22 2+ 2 = , 10 322 1 + 2 10 5 22 + 2 2 = 10 322 1 2
gi ti suntetgmne twn estinF r uperol qei sqediste sto qm eFPIF PF

(Eresh exswshc kwnikn tomn)
tomnX
x rejon oi exissei twn prktw kwnikn
@A 9illeiyh me kntro sto (2, 3)D meglo xon prllhlo pro ton xon y mkou 10 ki mikr xon mkou 6F @A rol me est sto (4, 3) ki dieujetos thn y + 1 = 0F @gA perol me kntro sto (1, 1)D est sto (6, 1)D ki koruf sto (4, 1)F e le ti periptseiD sqediste ti kwnik tom me thn klterh dunt kreiD ki dexte th jsh twn qrkthristikn tou stoiqewn @dhld xoneD korufD esteD kokFA
Lsh:
@A hneti ti 2a = 10 a = 5D 2b = 6 b = 3D en o meglo xon eni prllhlo tou xon tou y F 9er h exswsh eni h
(x + 2)2 (y 3)2 + = 1. 9 25 r lleiyh qei sqediste sto qm eFPPF

@A r koruf th prol rsketi sto mis th pstsh th est p thn dieujetosD dhld sto shmeo (4, 1)F efo h dieujetos eni prllhlh ston xon twn xD ki h est rsketi pnw p thn dieujetosD h prol eni th morf 4p(y 1) = (x 4)2 F wnei o prosdiorism tou pF rthrome pw p eni h pstsh nmes sthn koruf ki thn estD r p = 2 ki telik h exswsh eni h
8(y 1) = (x 4)2 .
r prol qei sqediste sto qm eFPPF @gA o kntroD h est ki h koruf rskonti l sthn euje y = 1F 9erD h exswsh eni 2 2 th morf (x1) (y1) = 1D ki rke n prosdiorzoume t aD bF utrqn prthrome a2 b2 ti to a eni h pstsh th koruf p to kntroD r a = F ipiplonD h pstsh 3 th est p to kntro eni a D sunep = 5 F 9ymw b = a 2 1 = 4D ki telik h 3 zhtomenh exswsh eni h (x 1)2 (y 1)2 = 1. 9 16 r uperol qei sqediste sto qm eFPPF
A.13.
QSW
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6
(2,1) (2,2) (5,3) (2,3) (1,3) (2,8) (2,7)
4 2 0
(4,3) (4,1)
y+1=0 0 5 10
2 6 4
2 (4,1) 0 2 4 6 5 0
(2,1)
(1,1) (4,1)
(6,1)
qm eFPPX 9eskhsh PF
QTH
PARARTHMA A.
LUSEIS ASKHSEWN
Parrthma B
Pali Jmata
QTI
QTP
PARARTHMA B.
PALIA JEMATA
Febrourioc 2010 - OMADA A
IF
(Melth troqic)
9in ntikemeno kineti pnw sto eppedo xy tsi ste th qronik stigm t n rsketi sth jsh (x(t), y(t)) pou dneti p ti exissei
(Mondec: 2)
x(t) = cos t + t sin t,
y(t) = sin t t cos t.
r knhsh sumnei metx twn qronikn stigmn t0 = 0 ki t1 = 2 F x pntsete st kloujX @A @A @gA @dA @eA PF
(Mondec: 1)
oio eni to sunolik mko th troqi tou ntikeimnouc
oi qronik stigmD ms sto disthm (0, 2)D to ntikemeno j qei klyei to mis mkoc
(Mondec: 0.2) (Mondec:
oi qronik stigmD ms sto disthm (0, 2)D j qei th mgisth stigmi tqtht @kt mtroAc
0.2) (Mondec:
oi qronik stigmD ms sto disthm (0, 2)D j rsketi sthn elqisth dunt pstsh p to shmeo (1, 1)c
0.4) 0.2)
qedisteD pol proseggistikD thn kmplhD upologzont merik shme p t opo dirqeti ki ennont tF
(Mondec: (Mondec: 2)
(Kataqrhstik Oloklhrmata)
hneti h sunrthsh
f (x) =
(Paratrhsh: me
log x , x > 0. x2
logrijmo.)
log x
sumbolz oume ton fusik
@A @A @gA
(Mondec:
0.6)
frete to risto oloklrwm th f F oi prgous th f dirqeti p to shmeo x = 1, y = 1c pologste t klouj ktqrhstik oloklhrmtX
1 + +
(Mondec:
0.2)
(Mondec:
1.2)
f (x) dx,
0 1
1.5)
f (x) dx,
0
f (x) dx.
QF
(Idithtec Orwn)
(Mondec:
@A
(Mondec:
1)
9istw sunrthsh f (x) ttoi ste lim f (x) = +D ki stw sunrthsh g(x)
xx0
suneq sto x0 D me g(x0 ) = c > 0F oio eni to rio th f (x)g(x) sto x0 c epodexte to qrhsimopoint ton orism tou ktllhlou orouD ton orism th sunqeiD ki gnwst jewrmtGlmmtGktlF @A @gA oio eni to rio th f (x)g(x) sto x0 n isqoun t nw me th difor ti g(x0 ) < 0c ixhgste me lgiD qwr pdeixhF
(Mondec: 0.2)
en isqoun oi upojsei tou prtou sklouD ll g(x0 ) = 0D ti mporome n pome gi to rio lim f (x)g(x)c ixhgste me lgiD qwr pdeixhF
(Mondec: 0.3)
xx0
QTQ
RF
(Diaforik Exswsh)
(Mondec:
1.5)
x reje h genik lsh th diforik exswsh
ex 1 . y + ( + 1)y = x x
sto disthm x > 0D kj ki h merik lsh gi thn opo y(1) = 0F SF
(Kwnik Tom)
(Mondec: 1.5)
hneti o gewmetrik tpo
4x2 + xy + 4y 2 = 56.
@A @A
(Mondec:
wetsqhmtste thn nw exswsh se exswsh th morf Ax2 +Cy 2 +Dx+ Ey + F = 0D me th ojei ktllhlou metsqhmtismo suntetgmnwnF
0.6)
engnwrste to edo th kwnik tomD ki prosdiorste ti exissei twn eujein ep twn opown rskonti oi xnwn th @n prkeiti gi lleiyhA o xon th @n prkeiti gi uperol prolAF
(Mondec: 0.3)
@gA TF
frete ti exissei lwn twn eujein pou eni orizntie ki efptomenik ston nw gewmetrik tpo @ennoeti sto rqik ssthm suntetgmnwn xy AF
(Mondec: 0.6) (Mondec: 1.5)
x exetseteD qrhsimopoint ktllhl jewrmtD kt pso oi klouje seir sugklnounX

(Seirc)
@A @A
(Mondec:
0.8)
(Mondec:
0.7)
+ e n=1 (n log n)/(n + )D 5 n n=1 (n/(2n + (log n) )) F
QTR
PARARTHMA B.
PALIA JEMATA
Febrourioc 2010 - OMADA B
IF
x exetseteD qrhsimopoint ktllhl jewrmtD kt pso oi klouje seir sugklnounX

(' Apeirec Seirc)
(Mondec: 1.5)
@A @A PF
(Mondec:
0.8)
(Mondec:
0.7)
+ e n=1 (n log n)/(n + )D n 5 n=1 (4 + n )/(n!)F

(Mondec: 2)
(Melth troqic)
r knhsh sumnei metx twn qronikn stigmn t0 = 0 ki t1 = 2 F x pntsete st kloujX @A @A @gA @dA @eA QF
(Mondec: 1)
oio eni to sunolik mko th troqi tou ntikeimnouc
oi qronik stigmD ms sto disthm (0, 2)D to ntikemeno j qei klyei to mis mkoc
(Mondec: 0.2) (Mondec:
oi qronik stigmD ms sto disthm (0, 2)D j qei th mgisth stigmi tqtht @kt mtroAc
0.2) (Mondec:
oi qronik stigmD ms sto disthm (0, 2)D j rsketi sthn elqisth dunt pstsh p to shmeo (1, 1)c
0.4) 0.2)
qedisteD pol proseggistikD thn kmplhD upologzont merik shme p t opo dirqeti ki ennont tF
(Mondec: (Mondec: 2)
(Aristo kai Orismno Oloklrwma)
hneti h sunrthsh
f (x) =
(Paratrhsh: me
log x , x > 0. x2
logrijmo.)
log x
@A @A @gA
(Mondec:
0.6)
frete to risto oloklrwm th f F oi prgous th f dirqeti p to shmeo x = 1, y = 1c pologste t klouj ktqrhstik oloklhrmtX
1 + +
(Mondec:
0.2)
(Mondec:
1.2)
f (x) dx,
0 1
1.5)
f (x) dx,
0
f (x) dx.
RF
(Diaforik Exswsh)
(Mondec:
(x + 1)y + y = x2 1
1 sto disthm x > 1D kj ki h merik lsh gi thn opo y(0) = 3 F
QTS
SF
(Efaptmenec Eujeec)
(Mondec:
1.5)
4x2 + xy + 4y 2 = 56.
@A @A
(Mondec:
wetsqhmtste thn nw exswsh se exswsh th morf Ax2 +Cy 2 +Dx+ Ey + F = 0D me th ojei ktllhlou metsqhmtismo suntetgmnwnF
0.6)
engnwrste to edo th kwnik tomD ki prosdiorste ti exissei twn eujein ep twn opown rskonti oi xnwn th @n prkeiti gi lleiyhA o xon th @n prkeiti gi uperol prolAF
(Mondec: 0.3)
@gA TF
frete ti exissei lwn twn eujein pou eni orizntie ki efptomenik ston nw gewmetrik tpo @ennoeti sto rqik ssthm suntetgmnwn xy AF
(Mondec: 0.6) (Mondec: 1.5)
('Orio Ginomnou)
@A
(Mondec:
1)
9istw sunrthsh f (x) ttoi ste lim f (x) = +D ki stw sunrthsh g(x)
xx0
suneq sto x0 D me g(x0 ) = c > 0F oio eni to rio th f (x)g(x) sto x0 c epodexte to qrhsimopoint ton orism tou ktllhlou orouD ton orism th sunqeiD ki gnwst jewrmtGlmmtGktlF @A @gA oio eni to rio th f (x)g(x) sto x0 n isqoun t nw me th difor ti g(x0 ) < 0c ixhgste me lgiD qwr pdeixhF
(Mondec: 0.2)
en isqoun oi upojsei tou prtou sklouD ll g(x0 ) = 0D ti mporome n pome gi to rio lim f (x)g(x)c ixhgste me lgiD qwr pdeixhF
(Mondec: 0.3)
xx0
QTT
PARARTHMA B.
PALIA JEMATA
Lseic Febrouarou 2010
IF
(Melth troqic)
@fFIA
r knhsh sumnei metx twn qronikn stigmn t0 = 0 ki t1 = 2 F x pntsete st kloujX @A oio eni to sunolik mko th troqi tou ntikeimnouc @A oi qronik stigmD ms sto disthm (0, 2)D to ntikemeno j qei klyei to mis mkoc @gA oi qronik stigmD ms sto disthm (0, 2)D j qei th mgisth stigmi tqtht @kt mtroAc @dA oi qronik stigmD ms sto disthm (0, 2)D j rsketi sthn elqisth dunt pE stsh p to shmeo (1, 1)c @eA qedisteD pol proseggistikD thn kmplhD upologzont merik shme p t opo dirqeti ki ennont tF
Lsh:
@A ep t gnwst p th jewrD to mko th kmplh j dneti p ton tpo

2
l(C) =
0
x 2 (t) + y 2 (t) dt,
pou h rz ekfrzei to mtro th stigmi tqthtD v(t)D th qronik stigm tF rE thrste pwX
v(t) = =
x 2 (t) + y 2 (t) ( sin t + sin t + t cos t)2 + (cos t cos t + t sin t)2
1 2 1 2
= t2 cos2 t + t2 sin2 t = t.
9erD to sunolik mko th kmplh j isoti me

2
l(C) =
0
t dt = 2 2 .
@A qnoume th qronik stigm t2 kt thn opo j isqeiX
1 l(C) = 2
t2
t dt 2 =
0
t2 0 t0 = 2. 2
QTU
@gA efo v(t) = tD profn eni mgisth th qronik stigm t1 = 2 D ki sh me v() = 2 F @dA r pstsh p to shmeo (1, 1)D uywmnh sto tetrgwno @gi pltht sti prxeiA j eni
D2 (t) = (cos t + t sin t 1)2 + (sin t t cos t 1)2 = cos2 t + 1 + t2 sin2 t 2 cos t 2t sin t + 2t sin t cos t + sin2 t + t2 cos2 t + 1 2t sin t cos t 2 sin t + 2t cos t = 3 + t2 2(cos t + sin t) + 2t(cos t sin t).
en proume prgwgoD qoumeX
(D2 (t)) = 2t 2( sin t + cos t) + 2(cos t sin t) + 2t( sin t cos t) = 2t(1 sin t cos t).
r nw mhdenzeti sto 0D pou qei pokleiste p thn upjeshD ki epsh pou isqei 2 2 2 1 sin t cos t = 0 sin t + cos t = 1 sin t + cos t = 2 2 2 sin sin t + cos cos t = cos 4 4 4 cos t = cos t = 2k , k Z. 4 4 4 4 vmnont upyh ton periorism t (0, 2)D prokptei w mondik pijn lsh h t = F qi n dome n ut h lsh eni topik mgisto elqistoD prnoume th deterh 2 prgwgoX
(D2 ) (t) = 2(1 sin t cos t) + 2t(1 cos t + sin t) (D2 ) ( ) = 2, 2

r sto
2
uprqei to topik elqisto

2
D2 ( ) = 3 + 2 2
2 2 (0 + 1) + 2 (0 1) = 1 + 2 4
0.3258 D( ) 2
0.5708.
@eA ikol prokptei o kloujo pnk t x(t) y(t) 0 1 0 1 2 2 1 3 3 2 1 2 2 1 2 we th ojei tou pnk mporome n sqedisoume proseggistik thn troqiD h opo fneti sto qm fFIF PF
(Kataqrhstik Oloklhrmata)
hneti h sunrthsh
f (x) =
(Paratrhsh: me
log x , x > 0. x2
logrijmo.)
log x
QTV
PARARTHMA B.
PALIA JEMATA
6 4 2 0 t=3 /2 2 4 6
t=
(1,1) t=0
t= /2 x
t=2 8 6 4 2 0 2 4
qm fFIX 9eskhsh IF @A frete to risto oloklrwm th f F @A oi prgous th f dirqeti p to shmeo x = 1, y = 1c @gA pologste t klouj ktqrhstik oloklhrmtX
1 + +
f (x) dx,
0
Lsh:
f (x) dx,
1 0
f (x) dx.
@A
log x = x2
(x1 ) log x dx =
log x log x + x1 x1 dx = + x2 dx x x log x log x + 1 = x1 + C = + C, C R. x x
rgmtiD mporome n prgwgsoume ki n eplhjesoume to nwX
log x + 1 x
x1 x (log x + 1) 1 1 log x 1 log x = = 2 . 2 2 x x x
@A we pl ntiktstshD prokptei pw
1=
log 1 + 1 log x + 1 + C C = 2 f (x) = 2 . 1 x
QTW
@gA t upologsoume to prto oloklrwmD prthrnt ti eni ktqrhstik lgw tou peirismo th oloklhrwt sunrthsh sto 0F 9iqoumeX
1 0
log x dx = x2 =
h0
lim+ lim
h0+
log x 1 + log x dx = lim+ 2 h0 x x h h 1 + log 1 1 + log h + = . 1 h
qi thn teleut isthtD prthrste pw o rijmht 1 + log h tenei sto D en o pronomst tenei sto 0+ F 9erD to phlko prpei n tenei sto F eut eni diisjhtik profn ki mpore n podeiqje usthrD ll h pdeixh prlepetiF qi to detero oloklrwmD prmoi qoumeX
+ 1
log x dx = x2 =
h+
lim
h+
lim
log x 1 + log x dx = lim h+ x2 x 1 1 1 + log h 1 + log 1 1 log h + = lim 1 = 1. h+ h 1 h h
qi thn teleut isthtD qrhsimopoisme to rio
log h = 0, h+ h lim
pou prokptei ekol me ton unn LHspitalF o qi to trto oloklrwmD prthrome pl pwX
+ 1 +
f (x) dx =
0 0
f (x) dx +
1
f (x) dx = + 1 = .
qi n rome pou megistopoieti h f (x)D prnoume ti prte do prggouX
x1 x2 2x log x 1 2 log x = , 4 x x3 2x1 x3 + (2 log x 1)3x2 6 log x 5 f (x) = = . 6 x x4 r prth prgwgo mhdenzeti mno sto x = eD pou h deterh eni rnhtikD r eke qw to mondik mgistoD f ( e) = (2e) 1 0.1839F opik elqisto den uprqei poujenD git n uprqeD p gnwst jerhm j prepe eke h prgwgo n eni mhdnF r sunrthsh qei sqediste sto qm fFPF f (x) =
QF
(Idithtec Orwn)
@A 9istw sunrthsh f (x) ttoi ste lim f (x) = +D ki stw sunrthsh g(x) suneq sto x0 D me g(x0 ) = c > 0F oio eni to rio th f (x)g(x) sto x0 c epodexte to qrhE simopoint ton orism tou ktllhlou orouD ton orism th sunqeiD ki gnwst jewrmtGlmmtGktlF
xx0
QUH
PARARTHMA B.
PALIA JEMATA
0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0
10
qm fFPX 9eskhsh PF @A oio eni to rio th f (x)g(x) sto x0 n isqoun t nw me th difor ti g(x0 ) < 0c ixhgste me lgiD qwr pdeixhF @gA en isqoun oi upojsei tou prtou sklouD ll g(x0 ) = 0D ti mporome n pome gi to rio lim f (x)g(x)c ixhgste me lgiD qwr pdeixhF
xx0
Lsh:
@A efo h g(c) > 0D p to vmm hitrhsh rosmouD uprqei 1 > 0 ttoio ste c 0 < |x x0 | < 1 g(x) > . 2 9istw tr opoiodpote M > 0F 9er ki
2M c
> 0D rD p thn prxh tou orou lim f (x) =

xx0
+ j uprqei 2 > 0 ttoio ste 2M . c ipilgw = min{1 , 2 }D ki prthrD lgw twn nw do sunepgwgnX 0 < |x x0 | < 2 f (x) > 2M c , g(x) > f (x)g(x) > M, c 2 r telikD p ton orism tou orou sto +D prokptei pw 0 < |x x0 | < f (x) >
xx0
lim f (x)g(x) = +.
@A we prmoi pdeixhD mporome n dexoume pw

xx0
lim f (x)g(x) = .
o potlesm eni logikX r mi sunrthsh prnei pol megle timD ki h llh suE nrthsh pol kont se kpoion rnhtik rijmF ini logik to ginmeno n prnei pol rnhtik timD dhld n qei rio F
QUI
@gA e ut thn perptwsh uprqoun poll endeqmenX
iF o rio tou ginmenou n eni to +F qi prdeigmD stw x0 = 0D f (x) = g(x) = x2 F te f (x)g(x) = x2 D pou qei rio to +F iiF o rio tou ginmenou n eni to F qi prdeigmD stw x0 = 0D f (x) = g(x) = x2 F te f (x)g(x) = x2 D pou qei rio to F iiiF o rio tou ginmenou n eni kpoi stjer c = 0F qi prdeigmD stw x0 f (x) = x4 D g(x) = x4 F te f (x)g(x) = 1D pou qei rio to 1F ivF o rio tou ginmenou n eni to 0F qi prdeigmD stw x0 = 0D f (x) = g(x) = x5 F te f (x)g(x) = xD pou qei rio to 0F vF o rio tou ginmenou n mhn uprqeiF qi prdeigmD stw x0 = 0D f (x) = g(x) = xF te f (x)g(x) = x3 D pou den qei rioF
RF
(Diaforik Exswsh Omdac A)
x4 D x4 D = 0D x4 D x4 D
ex 1 . y + ( + 1)y = x x
sto disthm x > 0D kj ki h merik lsh gi thn opo y(1) = 0F
Lsh:
rthrome pw
1 +1 x
= log x + x + C,
opteD kt t gnwst p th jewrD pollplsizoume ki t do sklh me to
elog x+x = elog x ex = xex ,

ki qoumeX
1 ex x x x xe y + xe ( + 1)y = 1 (xe y) = (x) xe y = x + C y(x) = e + C . x x

x x
r nw eni h genik lshF thn eidik perptwsh pou y(1) = 0D tte
0 = e1 + Ce1 /1 C = 1,
opte h merik lsh eni h
y(x) = ex 1
SF
(Diaforik Exswsh Omdac B)
1 . x
(x + 1)y + y = x2 1
sto disthm x > 1D kj ki h merik lsh gi thn opo y(0) = 1 F 3
Lsh:
efo x > 1D mporome n diirsoume me x + 1 gi n froume thn exswsh sthn knonik th morfX 1 y +( )y = x 1. x+1
QUP
PARARTHMA B.
PALIA JEMATA
rthrome pw
1 = log(x + 1) + C, x+1 opteD kt t gnwst p th jewrD pollplsizoume ki t do sklh me to elog(x+1) = (x + 1).

rthrste ti tsi epistrfoume sthn rqik morf th exswshF 9iqoumeX
(x + 1)y + y = x2 1 (y(x + 1)) =
x3 x 3 =
y(x + 1) x3 x3 C x x + C y(x) = + . 3 3(x + 1) x+1
r nw eni h genik lshF thn eidik perptwsh pou y(0) = 1 D tte 3
0 C 1 1 = + C= . 3 3 1 3
opte h merik lsh eni h
y(x) =
TF
1 x x3 3x + 1 x3 + 1 + 3 = . x+1 x+1 3(x + 1)
('Elleiyh)
4x2 + xy + 4y 2 = 56.
@A wetsqhmtste thn nw exswsh se exswsh th morf Ax2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0D me th ojei ktllhlou metsqhmtismo suntetgmnwnF @A engnwrste to edo th kwnik tomD ki prosdiorste ti exissei twn eujein ep twn opown rskonti oi xnwn th @n prkeiti gi lleiyhA o xon th @n prkeiti gi uperol prolAF @gA frete ti exissei lwn twn eujein pou eni orizntie ki efptomenik ston nw gewmetrik tpo @ennoeti sto rqik ssthm suntetgmnwn xy AF
Lsh:
@A ut t gnwst p th jewrD j efrmsoume peristrof twn xnwn kt gwn
1 44 1 = arccot = arccot0 = . 2 1 2 4
9er o metsqhmtism eni o
2 2 x = u cos v sin = (u v), y = u sin + v cos = (u + v), 2 2
QUQ
ki efrmzont ton prokpteiX
u2 v 2 1 2(uv)2 + (u2 v 2 )+2(u+v)2 = 56 2u2 +2v 2 4uv + +2u2 +2v 2 +4uv = 56 2 2 2 u2 v2 9u2 + 7v 2 = 112 + = 1. 112/9 16
@A ep thn nw exswshD prokptei pw qoume lleiyhD me meglo xon ton xon twn v D me exswsh u = 0 x+y = 0D ki mikr xon ton xon twn uD me exswsh v = 0 xy = 0F r lleiyh qei sqediste sto qm fFQF @gA 9istw mi oriznti euje y = cF r euje j eni efptomenik nn uprqei mno n shmeo (x, y) pou eplhjeei ki ti do exisseiD thn y = c ki th dosmnhF en jsoume y = cD tte h exswsh gneti 4x2 + xc + 4c2 = 56. en dome thn exswsh w trinumo tou xD eni profn ti mpore n qei mi lshD do lseiD km lshF eut exrtti p thn tim th dikrnousD
= c2 16(4c2 56) = 63c2 + 16 56,

h opo exrtti p to cF rthrste pw isqoun t exX
iF en jsoume 16 56 14 = 8 , 63 63 to nw trinumo qei mno mi rzD git h dikrnous eni mhdenikD ki tte h euje j eni efptomenikF rthrste ti uprqoun do tim tou cD ki ntistoqw do eujeeD pou qoun sqediste sto qm fFQ @eujee (a), (b)AF iiF en isqei 16 56 14 |c| < = 8 , 63 63 tte h dikrnous eni jetikD r qoume do lsei tou triwnmouD r h euje dirqeti ms p thn lleiyhD pw h euje (c) tou sqmtoF iiiF loD n isqei 16 56 14 |c| > = 8 , 63 63 tte h dikrnous eni rnhtikD r den uprqoun lsei tou triwnmouD r h euje den tmnei thn lleiyhD pw h euje (d) tou sqmtoF c=
UF x exetseteD qrhsimopoint ktllhl jewrmtD kt pso oi klouje seir sugklnounX
(Seirc)
@A @A @gA
+ e n=1 (n log n)/(n + )D 5 n n=1 (n/(2n + (log n) )) D (Mno Omda n 5 n=1 (4 + n )/(n!)F (Mno Omda B)
A)
QUR
PARARTHMA B.
PALIA JEMATA
5 4
(d) (a)
x= y
3 2 1 0 1 /4
(c)
y x=
2 3 4 5 5 0
(b)
qm fFQX 9eskhsh TF
Lsh:
@A rthrste ti kje n p tou rou th seir qei rio to +F rgmtiD
n+ n
lim
n log n log n = lim = +, e n+ 1 + e /n +
fo o rijmht qei rio to peiroD ki o pronomst tenei sth mondF 9erD p to ngko kritrio CauchyD prokptei ti h seir den sugklneiF @A t qrhsimopoisoume to kritrio th rzX
1
n+
lim (an ) n = lim
n+
n 2n + (log n)5 = lim

n+
1 2 + (log n)5 /n
1 1 = , 5 /n 2 + lim (log n) 2
n+
r p to kritrio th rzD h seir sugklneiF thn teleut isthtD qrhsimopoisme ton knn tou LHspital sunolik pnte forX o
1 5(log n)4 n 5(< logn)4 5! (log n)5 = lim = lim = . . . = lim = 0. lim n+ n+ n 1 n n
QUS
@gA t efrmsoume to kritrio tou lgouX
n+
lim
4n+1 + (n + 1)5 4n + n5 1 4 4n + (n + 1)5 / = lim n+ n + 1 (n + 1)! n! 4n + n5 4 + (n + 1)5 /4n 1 4 + (n + 1)5 /4n 1 lim = lim = lim n+ n+ n + 1 n+ n + 1 1 + n5 /4n 1 + n5 /4n 4 + lim (n + 1)5 /4n n+ =0 = 0 4 = 0. 1 + lim n5 /4n
n+
o rio lim n5 /4n prokptei me S didoqik qrsei tou LHspitalX o

n+
5n4 5! n5 = lim = . . . = lim = 0. n n n+ (log 4)4 n+ (log 4)5 4n n+ 4 lim

rmoi prokptei ki to rio lim (n + 1)5 /4n F
n+
QUT
PARARTHMA B.
PALIA JEMATA
Septmbrioc 2010 - OMADA A
IF
(Pleurik rio)
@I mondA x dsete ton orism tou orou lim f (x) = +F ekolojwD +

xc x0
n dexete ti n lim f (x) = +D tte lim f (c + x2 ) = +D qrhsimopoint pokleistik tou + orismo twn ntstoiqwn orwnF PF
xc
(Dipl paragwgsimh sunrthsh) @I mondA 9istw sunrthsh suneq sto [a, b]D ki dipl prgwgsimh sto (a, b)F 9istw epsh pw to eujgrmmo tmm pou ennei t shme (a, f (a)D (b, f (b)) tmnei to grfhm th sunrthsh se n shmeo (c, f (c)) pou c (a, b)F x dexete ti uprqei n shmeo t (a, b) ttoio ste f (t) = 0F (a, f (a)) (c, f (c)) (c, f (c)) (b, f (b))
(Updeixh: kai parathrste to ti oi klseic twn do eujugrmmwn tmhmtwn ap to sto ap sto enai sec.)
QF
(Oloklrwma)
mtoX
@IFS mondA pologste thn tim tou kloujou ktqrhstiko oloklhrE

1
I=
1
(Updeixh: qwrste to oloklrwma
|x| dx. 1 x2
se do mrh.)
RF
(Mkoc kamplhc)
x upologsete to mko twn kloujwn kmpulnX
@A @I mondA r kmplh pou dneti p ti prmetrik exissei x(t) = t3 D y(t) = 3t2 /2D pou 0 t 3F x @A @I mondA o grfhm th sunrthsh y(x) = 0 2 + 2 dD pou 5 x 10F SF
(Diaforik Exswsh)
@I mondA qi th sunrthsh y(x) dneti ti
y (x) =
ex y y2 + 1
ki ti h y(x) dirqeti p to shmeo (0, 8)F vste thn diforik exswshF hhldD rete exswsh pou n iknopoieti p thn y(x) ki n mhn periqei thn prgwg thF @hen qreizeti n lsete thn exswsh pou j rete w pro y(x)FA
TF x pofnjeteD qrhsimopoint gnwst kritri ki idithte twn seirn ki twn orwnD kt pso sugklnoun poklnoun oi klouje seirX
(Seirc)
@A @I mondA @A @I mondA
(Updeixh: An
n sin (1/n)F [n! log n]/[n(n + 2)!]F lim f (x) = L

, tte kai
x0+
n+
lim f (1/n) = L
.)
UF
(Kwnik tom)
@IFS mondA 9istw h kwnik tom me exswsh 3 2 3 2 x + y + 5xy + 4 2x + 4 2y = 0. 2 2 x prosdioriste to edo th @prolD lleiyhD uperolD eidik perptwshAF x prosdioriE stonD w pro to ssthm suntetgmnwn xy D to kntro ki loi oi xone summetrF
QUU
Septmbrioc 2010 - OMADA B
IF
(Pleurik rio)
@I mondA x dsete ton orism tou orou lim f (x) = F ekolojwD +

xc x0
n dexete ti n lim f (x) = D tte lim f (c + x2 ) = D qrhsimopoint pokleistik tou + orismo twn ntstoiqwn orwnF PF
xc
(Dipl paragwgsimh sunrthsh) @I mondA 9istw sunrthsh suneq sto [a, b]D ki dipl prgwgsimh sto (a, b)F 9istw epsh pw to eujgrmmo tmm pou ennei t shme (a, f (a)D (b, f (b)) tmnei to grfhm th sunrthsh se n shmeo (c, f (c)) pou c (a, b)F x dexete ti uprqei n shmeo t (a, b) ttoio ste f (t) = 0F (a, f (a)) (c, f (c)) (c, f (c)) (b, f (b))
QF
(Oloklrwma)
mtoX
@IFS mondA pologste thn tim tou kloujou ktqrhstiko oloklhrE

1
I=
1
|x| dx. 1 x2
se do mrh.)
RF
(Mkoc kamplhc)
@A @I mondA r kmplh pou dneti p ti prmetrik exissei 3 x(t) = t2 /2D y(t) = (2t + 1) 2 /3D pou 0 t 5F x @A @I mondA o grfhm th sunrthsh y(x) = 0 e2 + 2e dD pou 1 x 2F SF
(Diaforik Exswsh)
@I mondA qi th sunrthsh y(x) dneti ti
y (x) =
ex y y2 + 2
ki ti h y(x) dirqeti p to shmeo (0, 1)F vste thn diforik exswshF hhldD rete exswsh pou n iknopoieti p thn y(x) ki n mhn periqei thn prgwg thF @hen qreizeti n lsete thn exswsh pou j rete w pro y(x)FA TF x pofnjeteD qrhsimopoint gnwst kritri ki idithte twn seirn ki twn orwnD kt pso sugklnoun poklnoun oi klouje seirX
(Seirc)
@A @I mondA @A @I mondA
(Updeixh: An
n tan (1/n)F (n + n)(n + 2)/n!F lim f (x) = L

, tte kai
x0+
n+
lim f (1/n) = L
.)
UF
(Kwnik tom)
@IFS mondA 9istw h kwnik tom me exswsh 1 2 1 2 3 x + y + xy 2x 2y = 0. 4 4 2 x prosdioriste to edo th @prolD lleiyhD uperolD eidik perptwshAF x prosdioriE stonD w pro to ssthm suntetgmnwn xy D to kntro ki loi oi xone summetrF
QUV
PARARTHMA B.
PALIA JEMATA
Lseic Septembrou 2010
IF
(Pleurik rio - Omda A)
x dsete ton orism tou orou lim f (x) = +F ekolojwD +

xc x0
n dexete ti n lim f (x) = +D tte lim f (c + x2 ) = +D qrhsimopoint pokleistik tou + orismo twn ntstoiqwn orwnF
Lsh:
xc
enlog me tou uploipou orismo tou orouD qoume ti lim f (x) = + n gi +

xc
kje M R uprqei > 0 ttoio ste c < x < c + f (x) > M F

xc x0
9istw tr pw lim f (x) = +F t dexoume ti lim f (c + x2 ) = +D dhldD gi kje M D + uprqei kpoio > 0 ttoio ste 0 < |x| < f (x) > M F 9istw loipn n M F teD p thn prxh tou pleuriko orouD uprqei ttoio ste c < x < c + f (x) > M F ttw = > 0F rthrste pw
0 < |x| < 0 < x2 < c < c + x2 < c + f (c + x2 ) > M,

ki h pdeixh oloklhrjhkeF PF
(Pleurik rio - Omda B)
x dsete ton orism tou orou lim f (x) = F ekolojwD +

xc x0
n dexete ti n lim f (x) = D tte lim f (c + x2 ) = D qrhsimopoint pokleistik tou + orismo twn ntstoiqwn orwnF
Lsh:
xc
enlog me tou uploipou orismo tou orouD qoume ti lim f (x) = n gi +

xc
kje M R uprqei > 0 ttoio ste c < x < c + f (x) < M F

xc x0
9istw tr pw lim f (x) = F t dexoume ti lim f (c + x2 ) = D dhldD gi kje M D + uprqei kpoio > 0 ttoio ste 0 < |x| < f (x) < M F 9istw loipn n M F teD p thn prxh tou pleuriko orouD uprqei ttoio ste c < x < c + f (x) < M F ttw = > 0F rthrste pw
0 < |x| < 0 < x2 < c < c + x2 < c + f (c + x2 ) < M,

ki h pdeixh oloklhrjhkeF QF 9istw sunrthsh suneq sto [a, b]D ki dipl pE rgwgsimh sto (a, b)F 9istw epsh pw to eujgrmmo tmm pou ennei t shme (a, f (a)D (b, f (b)) tmnei to grfhm th sunrthsh se n shmeo (c, f (c)) pou c (a, b)F x dexete ti uprqei n shmeo t (a, b) ttoio ste f (t) = 0F (a, f (a)) (c, f (c)) (c, f (c)) (b, f (b))
(Dipl paragwgsimh sunrthsh)
Lsh:
f (c) f (a) . ca we efrmog sto [c, b]D prokptei ti uprqei s2 ttoio ste f (s1 ) = f (s2 ) = f (b) f (c) . bc
ste
we efrmog tou tewrmto wsh im sto [a, c] prokptei ti uprqei s1 ttoio
QUW
f(b)
y f(s1)=[f(b)-f(a)]/[b-a] f(t1)=0 f(t2)=0 f(s2)=[f(b)-f(a)]/[b-a]
f(c) f(a)
x a s1 t1 c t2 s2 b
qm fFRX 9eskhsh QF 9ymw t dexi mlh eni sD opte ki f (s1 ) = f (s2 )F ep to terhm RolleD tou opoou le oi propojsei iknopoiontiD qoume ti uprqei c ttoio ste f (c) = 0F hete to qm fFR gi n prdeigmF qi th sunrthsh tou prdegmtoD uprqoun do shmeD t1 ki t2 D me mhdenik deterh prgwgoF RF
(Oloklrwma)
pologste thn tim tou kloujou ktqrhstiko oloklhrmtoX

1
I=
1
|x| dx. 1 x2
se do mrh.)
utrqn prthrste pw to oloklrwm eni ktqrhstik lgw twn peirismn th oloklhrwt sunrthsh sto rister ki to dex kroF 9iqoumeX
Lsh:
I =
0 a |x| |x| |x| dx = lim + dx + lim dx a1 a1 0 1 x2 1 x2 1 x2 1 a 0 a x x = lim + dx + lim dx 2 a1 a1 1x 1 x2 a 0 0 a x x = lim dx + lim dx 2 a1 a1 1x 1 x2 a 0 a a a x x x = lim dx + lim dx = 2 lim dx. 2 2 a1 a1 a1 1x 1x 1 x2 0 0 0
r ttrth istht prokptei me efrmog th profno iditht lim f (x) =

xc
r pmpth me ton metsqhmtism x xF o @snhjeA oloklrwm sto opoo ktlxme mpore n upologiste jtont x = cos t t = arccos xD pou 0 x aD arccos a t F 2
xc+
lim f (x)F
QVH
PARARTHMA B.
PALIA JEMATA
rthrste pw 1 x2 = | sin t| = sin tD gi to ero twn t se ut thn perptwshD ki epsh x = 0 t = D x = a t = arccos aF loD dx = sin t dtF entikjistnt t nwD telik 2
a
I = 2 lim
a1
x dx = 2 lim a1 1 x2
arccos a
( cos t) dt
2
arccos a
= 2 lim
a1 a1
2 ( sin t) dt = 2 lim sin t|arccos a
a1
= 2 lim [1 sin(arccos a)] = 2 2 sin( lim arccos a) = 2 2 sin 0 = 2.

a1
r kloujh sunoptik lsh eni epsh dektX

1
I=
1
|x| dx = 2 1 x2
1 0
x dx = 2 1 x2
( sin t) dt = 2,
2
pou h prth istht prokptei lgw summetrD ki h deterh me ton metsqhmtism x = cos tF 9in llo trpo n epilsete thn skhsh eni n prthrsete ti
x dx = 1 x2 . 1 x2
SF
(Mkoc kamplhc - Omda A)
@A r kmplh pou dneti p ti prmetrik exissei x(t) = t3 D y(t) = 3t2 /2D pou 0 t 3F x @A o grfhm th sunrthsh y(x) = 0 2 + 2 dD pou 5 x 10F
Lsh:
@A ut t gnwst p th jewrD
3 3
l(C) =
0 3
(x (t))2 + (y (t))2 dt =
0 3
(3t2 )2 + (3t)2 dt
=
0 3
(3t)2 (t2 + 1) dt =
0
3t t2 + 1 dt
3 2
=
0
(t2 + 1) 2
dt = t2 + 1
3 0
= 10 2 1.
@A e ut thn perptwshD h prmetro t eni ousistik h xD dhld

t
x(t) = t, y(t) =
0
2 + 2 d,
QVI
opteD kt t gnwstD
10 10
l(C) =
5 10
(x
(t))2
+ (y
(t))2
dt =
5 10
1 + ( t2 + 2t)2 dt
=
5 10
1 + t2 + 2t dt =
0
(1 + t) dt
10
=
5
(1 + t)2 2
(1 + t)2 dt = 2
=
5
85 121 36 = . 2 2 2
TF
(Mkoc kamplhc - Omda B)

3
@A r kmplh pou dneti p ti prmetrik exissei x(t) = t2 /2D y(t) = (2t + 1) 2 /3D pou 0 t 5F x @A o grfhm th sunrthsh y(x) = 0 e2 + 2e dD pou 1 x 2F
Lsh:
@A ut t gnwst p th jewrD
3 5
l(C) =
0 5
(x
(t))2
+ (y
(t))2
dt =
0 5
t2 + ( 2t + 1)2 dt
2
=
0
t2 + 2t + 1 dt =
0 5
(t + 1)2 dt =
1
(t + 1) dt
1 (t + 1)2 2
=
0
35 . 2
@A e ut thn perptwshD h prmetro t eni ousistik h xD dhld

t
x(t) = t, y(t) =
0
e2 + 2e d,
opteD kt t gnwstD
2 2
l(C) =
1 2
(x (t))2 + (y (t))2 dt =
1
1 + ( e2t + 2et )2 dt
=
1 2
1 + 2et + e2t dt =
1 2 1
(1 + et ) dt = 2 + e2 1 e = 1 + e(e 1).
=
1
(t + et ) dt = (t + et )
UF
(Diaforik Exswsh - Omda A)
qi th sunrthsh y(x) dneti ti
y (x) =
ex y y2 + 1
QVP
PARARTHMA B.
PALIA JEMATA
Lsh:
y2
rthrste ti h exswsh eni qwrizomnwn metlhtnD fo mpore n grfe w + 1dy = ex dxF rthrste epsh ti
1 1 + y2 3
3 2
=y
1 + y2.
@innoeti ti h prgwgo eni w pro y FA ut t gnwst p th jewr gi ti diforik exissei qwrizomnwn metlhtnD qoumeX
y 2 + 1dy = ex dx
1 1 + y2 3
3 2
dy = (ex ) dx
1 1 + y2 3
3 2
= ex + C.
qi n prosdiorzw th stjer C D qrhsimopoi to gegon ti to grfhm th y dirqeti p to shmeo (0, 8)D r 3 1 [1 + 8] 2 = e0 + C C = 8. 3 9er telik h zhtomenh exswsh eni h
1 1 + y2 3
VF
(Diaforik Exswsh - Omda B)
3 2
= ex + 8.
qi th sunrthsh y(x) dneti ti
y (x) =
ex y y2 + 2
Lsh:
y2
rthrste ti h exswsh eni qwrizomnwn metlhtnD fo mpore n grfe w + 2dy = ex dxF rthrste epsh ti
1 2 y +2 3
3 2
=y
y 2 + 2.
@innoeti ti h prgwgo eni w pro y FA ut t gnwst p th jewr gi ti diforik exissei qwrizomnwn metlhtnD qoumeX
y 2 + 1dy = ex dx
1 2 y +2 3
3 2
dy = (ex ) dx
1 2 y +2 3
3 2
= ex + C.
qi n prosdiorzw th stjer C D qrhsimopoi to gegon ti to grfhm th y dirqeti p to shmeo (0, 1)D r 3 1 [1 + 2] 2 = e0 + C C = 3 1. 3
QVQ
9er telik h zhtomenh exswsh eni h
1 2 y +2 3
WF
3 2
= ex +
3 1.
(Seirc - Omda A) x pofnjeteD qrhsimopoint gnwst kritri ki idithte twn seirn ki twn orwnD kt pso sugklnoun poklnoun oi klouje seirX
@A @A
n sin (1/n)F [n! log n]/[n(n + 2)!]F

An
(Updeixh:
x0+
Lsh:
lim f (x) = L
, tte kai
n+
lim f (1/n) = L
.)
@A rthrome pwX
n+
lim n sin
1 n
= lim
sin
1 n
1 n
n+
= lim +
x0
sin x = 1. x
to detero sklo qrhsimopoisme thn updeixhF efo oi roi th kolouj den tenoun sto 0D p gnwst kritrio prokptei ti h seir poklneiF @A rthrome pw
n! log n log n 1 1 = 2. n(n + 2)! n(n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1)(n + 2) n

thn prth nistht qrhsimopoisme to ti log n nF 9erD epeid h n! log n j sugklnei ki h F n(n+2)! IHF
(Seirc Omda B)
1 n2
sugklneiD
x pofnjeteD qrhsimopoint gnwst kritri ki idithte twn seirn ki twn orwnD kt pso sugklnoun poklnoun oi klouje seirX @A @A
n tan (1/n)F (n + n)(n + 2)/n!F

An
(Updeixh:
x0+
Lsh:
lim f (x) = L
, tte kai
n+
lim f (1/n) = L
.)
@A rthrome pwX
n+
lim n tan
1 n
n+
lim
sin
1 n
1 n
cos
1 n
= lim
1
sin
1 n
1 n
n+
n+
lim cos
1 n
sin x = lim + x0 x
x0+
lim cos (x)
= 1.
thn trth istht qrhsimopoisme thn updeixhF 9erD fo oi roi th seir den sugE klnoun sto 0D h seir poklneiF
QVR
PARARTHMA B.
PALIA JEMATA
@A rthrome pwX
an+1 = an
(n + 1 + n + 1)(n + 3) (n + 1)! (n + 1 + n + 1)(n + 3) = (n + 1)(n + n)(n + 2) =
(n +
n)(n + 2) n!
1 (1 + 1/n + 1 + 1/n)(1 + 3/n) , n (1 + 1/n)(1 + 1/ n)(1 + 2/n)
pou profn tenei sto 0D opte p to kritrio tou lgou prokptei ti h seir sugklneiF IIF
(Kwnik tom - Omda A)
9istw h kwnik tom me exswsh
3 2 3 2 x + y + 5xy + 4 2x + 4 2y = 0. 2 2
x prosdioriste to edo th @prolD lleiyhD uperolD eidik perptwshAF x prosdioriste to kntro ki loi oi xone summetr w pro to ssthm suntetgmnwn xy F ut t gnwst p th jewrD j eisgoume no ssthm suntetgmnwnD peristrmE mno risterstrof kt gwn pou
Lsh:
cot 2 =
3/2 3/2 =0= . 5 4
9erD o metsqhmtism pou eisgoume eni o
2 x = u cos v sin = (u v), 2

ki me ntiktstsh prokptei telik
y = u cos + v sin =
2 (u + v), 2
3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 5 5 u + v uv + u2 + v 2 + uv + u2 v 2 + 4(u v) + 4(u + v) = 0 4 4 2 4 4 2 2 2 16 4 v2 u2 v 2 + 8u = 0 (u + 1)2 = 1. 4 4 4

9erD qoume uperolD me kntro to u = 1D v = 0D xon @pou eni ki xon summetrA thn exswsh v = 0D ki epiplon xon summetr profn thn exswsh u = 1F ifrmzont ton ntstrofo metsqhmtism
2 u = x cos + y sin = (x + y), 2
2 v = x sin + y cos = (y x), 2

2 D 2
prokptei telik pw to kntro eni sto shmeo x = o llo xon summetr eni o x + y = 2F
y=
2 D 2
o xon eni o x = y D ki
QVS
IPF
(Kwnik tom - Omda B)
9istw h kwnik tom me exswsh
1 2 1 2 3 x + y + xy 2x 2y = 0. 4 4 2
x prosdioriste to edo th @prolD lleiyhD uperolD eidik perptwshAF x prosdioriE stonD w pro to ssthm suntetgmnwn xy D to kntro ki loi oi xone summetrF ut t gnwst p th jewrD j eisgoume no ssthm suntetgmnwnD peristrmE mno risterstrof kt gwn pou
Lsh:
cot 2 =
1/4 1/4 =0= . 3/2 4
9erD o metsqhmtism pou eisgoume eni o 2 x = u cos v sin = (u v), 2 ki me ntiktstsh prokptei telik
y = u cos + v sin =
2 (u + v), 2
1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 u + v uv + u2 + v 2 + uv + u2 v 2 u + v u v = 0 8 8 4 8 8 4 4 4 v2 u2 u2 2u = 0 (u 1)2 = 1. 2 2
9erD qoume uperolD me kntro to u = 1D v = 0D xon thn exswsh v = 0D ki xon summetr thn exswsh u = 1F ifrmzont ton ntstrofo metsqhmtism 2 2 u = x cos + y sin = (x + y), v = x sin + y cos = (y x), 2 2 prokptei telik pw to kntro eni sto shmeo x = llo xon summetr eni o x + y = 2F
2 D 2
y=
2 D 2
o xon eni o x = y D ki o
QVT
PARARTHMA B.
PALIA JEMATA
Parrthma G
Loip Parartmata
QVU
QVV
PARARTHMA G.
LOIPA PAR ARTHMATA
G.1
Sumbolismo
Suntomografec
shmnei {gi kje}F shmnei {uprqei}F o : ki to | shmnoun {ttoio ste}F o

ki to sumolzoun {orzeti w}F
{nn}a {n ki mno n}F tou orismoD to {n} ennoeti w {nn}F shmnei {} ki shmnei {ki}F
Snola
R eni oi prgmtikoD Q eni oi rhtoD N eni oi fusiko 1, 2, 3, . . .D ki Z eni oi krioi rijmoF R+ eni oi jetiko prgmtiko rijmoF Q+ eni oi jetiko rhto rijmoF N+ eni oi jetiko fusiko rijmoF o ken snolo sumolzeti w F shmnei {eni uposnolo} ki to shmnei {eni gnsio uposnolo}F A B = {x : x A x B} eni h tom do sunlwnF A B = {x : x A x B} eni h nwsh do sunlwnF Ac = {x : x A} eni to sumplrwm en sunlouF A B = A B c eni h difor do sunlwnF shmnei {nkei} ki shmnei {den nkei}F
Sunartseic
domf eni to pedo orismo mi sunrthshF sin x eni to hmtono tou x @ {sine} AD cos x eni to sunhmtono tou x @ {cosine} AD tan x eni h efptomnh tou x @ {tangent} A ki cot x eni h sunefptomnh tou x @ {cotangent} AF x eni o megltero krio pou eni mikrtero so me ton xF rdegmtX 2.3 = 2, 2 = 2, 1.999999 = 1. x eni o mikrtero krio pou eni megltero so me ton xF rdegmtX 2.3 = 3, 2 = 2, 1.999999 = 2. f |x shmnei h f upologismnh sto xF
G.2.
BIBLIOGR AFIA
QVW
G.2
Bibliografa
Ellhnik Bibliografa
IF PF QF RF SF
Antera
Majhmatik
D rl plutznhD ikdsei eF tmolhD ejnEeiri IWWQF

Logismc
Diaforikc
kai
Oloklhrwtikc
kdoshD IWTPF
Diaforikc kai Oloklhrwtikc
D tmoi sEssD Tom M. ApostolD ikdsei etlntD Ih
Logismc,
Michael SpivakD Ph kdoshD IWVHF
Apeirostikc
Logismc,
R. L. Finney, F. R. GiordanoD nepisthmik ikdsei urthF
Majhmatik
Anlush,
tmoi sEssD qF xF nteldhD ikdsei thD IWWRF
Agglik Bibliografa
IF Calculus, Tom M. Apostol, John Willey and Sons, 2nd edition, 1969. PF Calculus, Michael Spivak, Cambridge University Press, 3rd edition, 1993. QF Calculus, D. Varberg, E. J. Purcell, S. E. Rigdon, Pearson International Edition, 9th edition, 2007. RF Calculus, James Stewart, Brooks Cole, 6th edition, 2007. SF Calculus, G. B. Thomas, R. L. Finney, M. D. Weir, F. R. Giordano, Addison Wesley, 10th edition, 2002.
QWH
PARARTHMA G.
LOIPA PAR ARTHMATA
G.3
Lexik
ekrioX Integer engkoX Necessary 9exonX Axis 9enwX Upper 9ejroismX Sum, summation ekoloujX Sequence 9ekro @sunlou distmtoAX Bound ekrtto@AX Extremum (extrema) elgrijmoX Algorithm enisthtX Inequality enoikt @disthmAX Open entjetoX Opposite entiktstshX Substitution entiprgwgoX Antiderivative entstrofoX Inverse entimetjetikthtX Commutativity entiprdeigmX Counterexample 9enw frgmnoGhX Upper bounded exwmX Axiom eristo oloklrwmX Indenite integral 9epeiroX Innite, innity epdeixhX Proof epoklnwX Diverge epokopX Truncation epluth timX Absolute value epluth gklishX Absolute Convergence ermonikX Harmonic 9errhtoX Irrational 9ertioX Even erqX Principle exwnX Increasing fshX Base qeitoniX Neighborhood qenik ntiprgwgoX General antiderivative qewmetrikX Geometric qewmetrik tpoX Locus qnsio uposnoloX Strict (proper) subset qnhsw xwnX Strictly increasing qnhsw fjnwnX Strictly decreasing qnhsw montonoX Strictly monotonous qrmmikX Linear qrmmik 9elgerX Linear Algebra qrmmik sundusmX Linear combination
qrfhmX Graph qwnX Angle himrishX Partition hinusmX Vector hinusmtik qroX Vector space, linear space histhmX Interval hitxhX Ordering hiforX Dierence hiqwrsimoX Separable hiforikX Dierential hieujetos @prolAX Directrix hiqotmhshX Bisection ikjetikX Exponential ikkentrtht @kwnik tomAX Eccentricity iklptunshX Renement ilqisto@AX Minimum (minima) 9illeiyhX Ellipse 9in pro nX One on one inllssousX Alternating indimesh @timAX Intermediate 9inwshX Union ixswshX Equation ist@eA @kwnik tomAX Focus (foci) iswterik ginmenoX Inner product, dot product ipimeristik idithtX Distributive law ippedoX Plane ipifneiX Surface, area iswterik @sunlouAX Interior iujeX Line ifptmenhX Tangent rmieppedoX Half-plane rmtonoX Sine temelide terhmX Fundamental Theorem terhmX Theorem sknX Sucient ujetoX Vertical umplhX Curve unnX Rule, law unn th lusdX Chain rule urtesinX Cartesian utqrhstik yloklrwmX Improper Integral utwX Lower utw frgmnoX Lower bounded ulufoX Shell uen noloX Empty set
G.3.
LEXIKO
QWI
untroX Center uleist disthmX Closed interval ulimkwt sunrthshX Step function uoloX Concave uoruf @kwnik tomAX Vertex uritrioX Criterion ukloX Circle @qi cycle ulindroX Cylinder uumtik ixswshX Wave Equation uurtthtX Convexity uurtX Convex uwnik tomX Conic section veoX Smooth vogrijmoX Logarithm vmmX Lemma vogismX Calculus wgisto@AX Maximum (maxima) wjodoX Method werikX Partial wetsqhmtismX Transformation wettpishX Translation wsoX Mean wkoX Length wigdikX Complex wondio dinusmX Unit vector wontonoX Monotonous, monotone xrmX Norm 9ygkoX Volume ylikX Total yloklrwmX Integral yloklrwshX Integration yloklhrsimoGhGoX Integrable yloklhrwsimthtX Integrability ymogenX Homogeneous ymoimorfoX Uniform yrjognioX Orthogonal 9yrioX Limit yrismnoX Dened 9yroX Term yudtero stoiqeoX Identity element rolX Parabola rgousX Antiderivative rgontX Factor rgwgoX Derivative rgwgo nterh txhX Higher order deriva-
tive rgwgsimoGhGoX Dierentiable rgwgisimthtX Dierentiability rllhloX Parallel rmetrikX Parametric rmetroX Parameter edoX Field edo hiejunshX Slope Field edo orismoX Domain edo timnX Range, image eriodikX Periodic eristrofX Rotation erittX Odd nkX Matrix leurikX Side olikX Polar olunumoX Polynomial roolX Projection rosggishX Approximation rosetiristik idithtX Associative law rshmoX Sign rismX Corollary rodoX Progression rth xhX First Order ukn @snoloAX Dense yrjogwnithtX Orthogonality htX Rational zX Root ujmX Rate eirX Series tjerX Constant tereX Solid toiqeoX Element ugklnwX Converge gklishX Convergence umplrwmX Complement unrthshX Function unefptmenhX Cotangent unhmtonoX Cosine unjhX Ordinary unistsX Component untelestX Coecient untetgmnhX Coordinate noloX Set unqeiX Continuity
QWP
PARARTHMA G.
LOIPA PAR ARTHMATA
enwX Tend etrgwnik rzX Square root hleskopikX Telescopic omX Intersection xoX Arc opikX Local rigwnik nisthtX Triangle identity rigwnometrikX Trigonometric pkoloujX Subsequence perolX Hyperbola perolikX Hyperbolic p sunjkhX Conditional ploipoX Remainder posnoloX Subset pjnwnX Decreasing prgmX Bound prgmnoX Bounded pusikX Natural ordX Chord wroX Region roX Space ro nrmX Normed space ro eswteriko ginomnouX Inner product space
G.4.
TUPOLOGIO
QWQ
G.4
Tupolgio
cos(y x) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y, sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x, sin x + sin y = 2 sin
sin
x = 2
1 cos x 2
cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x = 2 cos2 x 1 = 1 2 sin2 x
xy x+y xy x+y cos , cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos 2 2 2 2 xy x+y xy x+y sin , cos x cos y = 2 sin sin sin x sin y = 2 cos 2 2 2 2 1 1 sin x sin y = [cos(x y) cos(x + y)] , cos x cos y = [cos(x + y) + cos(x y)] 2 2 sin x 1 x 1 + cos x 1 = < , cos sin x cos y = [sin(x + y) + sin(x y)] , cos x < 2 x cos x 2 2 |f (x) f (x0 )| C|x x0 |, (arcsin y) = 1 1 y2 , |f (y) f (x)| C|y x| 1 1 y2 , (arctan y) = 1 1 + y2
(arccos y) =
f (x0 + (1 )x1 ) < f (x0 ) + (1 )f (x1 )

n n n
L(f, P )
i=1
mi (ti ti1 ), x = r cos , y = r sin
U (f, P )
i=1
Mi (ti ti1 ),
i=1
f (xi )(ti ti1 )

y x2 +y 2
r= x cos = 2 xf (x) dx,

a
1 2
x +y b
x2 + y 2 , , sin = 2
b a
f 2 () d,
a
f 2 , 2
a
A(t) dt,
(f (x))2 + (g (x))2 dx
y + P (x)y = Q(x),
x
y(x) = [S(x) + C] exp[R(x)]

u x
y(x) =
y0 + 1 n!
x0 x a
Q(u) exp
x0
P (t) dt du exp
x0
P (t) dt |x a|n+1 (n + 1)!
En (x) =
(x t)n f (n+1) (t) dt,

n
|En (x)| M
n
sn =
k=1
f (k),
n
tn =
1
f (x) dx 0 < (1)n (S sn ) < an+1
S=
k=1
(1)k1 ak ,
sn =
k=1
(1)k1 ak ,
AB A = B, A = A A , (x x0 , y y0 )(A, B) = 0 Ax + By = Ax0 + By0 B 2 x x0 y y0 z z0 x x0 y y0 z z0 x1 y1 z1 x1 x0 y1 y0 z1 z0 = 0, = 0, x2 y2 z2 x2 x0 y2 y0 z2 z0 A(x x0 ) + B(y y0 ) + C(z z0 ) = 0 Ax + By + Cz = Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 y 2 = 4px, x2 y2 + 2 a2 a (1
2)
=1
x2 y 2 + 2 = 1, a2 b
x2 y2 2 a2 a (1
2)
=1
x2 y 2 2 =1 a2 b
QWR
PARARTHMA G.
LOIPA PAR ARTHMATA
u = (x x0 ) cos + (y y0 ) sin , v = (x x0 ) sin + (y y0 ) cos x = x0 + u cos v sin , y = y0 + u sin + v cos u x x0 x = v y y0 y x0 y0 z0 y z x1 x1 y1 z1 = x0 1 1 y0 y2 z2 x2 x2 y2 z2
x y = z1 z2 =
u v
x0 y0 x0 + u y0 + v
cos sin x x0 sin cos y y0 cos sin u + sin cos v 1 AC , = arccot 2 B , x0 y0 x1 y1 = x0 y1 x1 y0 .
+ z0
x1 y1 x2 y2
Euretrio
R2 D PQI R3 D PQT Rn D PPQD PRP 9ejroism RiemannD IPH 9ekro unlouD IH 9illeiyhD PSR ixisseiD PSS 9ygko erq CavalieriD ITR ik eristrofD ISTD ITH wjodo hskwnD IST wjodo uelfwnD ITH 9yrioD PP ekoloujD QT fsik sdithteD PU leurikD PS to 9epeiroD QR rigwnometrikn unrtsewnD QH rigwnometriknGhtn unrtsewnD PV InmumD T SupremumD T
ejrosmt DarbouxD WW ekoloujD QT CauchyD PHW epoklnousD QU gklishD PHU ugklnousD QU ellg untetgmnwnD PTH enistht Cauchy-SchwarzD PPU entiprgwgoD VI qenikD VI erqik unrthshD VI erqimdei sdithtD V esunqeiD QW exwm lhrthtD U eximt hitxhD R
eximt edouD I hinusmD PPQ fsikD PPT ujetoD PPV wkoD PPT wondioD PPT xrmD PPT yrjogwnithtD PPV hiforikD TRD VU hiforik ixissei erqik unjkhD IUQ hiqwrsime rth xewD IVP qrmmikD IVV qrmmik rth xewD IUW uthgoropohshD IVV vseiD IUQ ymogeneD IVV rth xewD IUQ tjern untelestnD IVV himrishD WW histmtD IH ifptmenh iujeD VT iklptunshD WW imd urtesin untetgmneD IRS olik untetgmneD ISQ ippedoD PQT ixisseiD PQT to Rn D PRP iswterik qinmenoD PPU iswterik hmeoD IH iuje ixisseiD PQPD PRH ujeteD PQP rllhleD PQID PRH rllhlh se ippedoD PRI QWS
QWT
EURETHRIO
rmetrik ixswshD PQI to Rn D PRP ton R2 D PQI ton R3 D PQW qewmetrik rodoD PIP rmieppedoD PQR to Rn D PRP
hitrhsh rosmouD RQ wjodo EulerD IVR wjodo hiqotmhshD RW wjodo tou xetwnD VV werik 9ejroismD PII
oD PHI yloklrwm 9enw yloklrwm DarbouxD IHI terhm DarbouxD IHP Bolzano-WeierstrassD PHV LebesgueD IPP BolzanoD RR RiemannD IPH HeineD SW eristoD VI LeibnizD PPI utw yloklrwm DarbouxD IHI RolleD UV utqrhstikD IQP TaylorD IWV yloklrwsh hetero temelide terhm vogismoD IPU ut rgonteD VQD IPW indimesh imD RS we entiktstshD IQH wsh imD UV wsh im CauchyD VH rism wsh im gi yloklhrmtD IIS whdenik rggouD UW rgousD VI rto temelide terhm vogismoD IPS rgwgoD TI umplh enterh xhD TS ve umplhD ITV entstrofh unrthshD UP wko umplhD ITW eristerD TI rmetrik worfD ITU hexiD TI olik untetgmneD ISH werikD IVV unn th elusdD TVD VP leurikD TI unn tou LHpitalD WU o rolD PSI uteujnont unhmtonD PRI ixisseiD PSI uritri rgwgisimthtD TI ekrottwnD WID WP ed hieujnsewnD IUT uurtthtD WS olik untetgmneD IRW wonotonD WI olunum MaclaurinD IWI yloklhrmtoD PIV olunum TaylorD IWI yloklhrwsimthtD IHSD IHTD IHVD IHW ploipoD IWV zD PIW rgmtik hunmeiD IRH gklish eirnD PIR ukn nolD V gkrishD PIS gkrish ekoloujinD PIH ro gkrish sto 9yrioD PIT hinusmtikD PRQ uwnik omD PRU iswteriko qinomnouD PRS qenik ixswshD PTQD PTS xrmD PRR vmm zD VD RW
EURETHRIO
QWU
ht hunmeiD W gklish epluthD PPI p unjkhD PPI eirD PII epoklnousD PII ermonikD PIQ inllssousD PPI qewmetrikD PIP ugklnousD PII umolism LeibnizD TR umplrwmD IH unrthsh 9ertiD II 9in pro 9inD II DirichletD IHQ inmumD II maximumD II minimumD II supremumD II krttD II entstrofhD SI entstrofh rigwnometrikD UR erister uneqD QW esuneqD QW hexi uneqD QW ikjetikD IQS pjnousD II prgmnhD II qnhsw exousD II qnhsw pjnousD II qnhsw wontonhD II uolhD WQ uurtD WQ vogrijmikD IQRD IRP wettpishD IIU wontonhD II yloklhrsimhD IHP rgwgsimhD TI eriodikD II erittD II uneqD QW unqeiD QW LipschitzD SS
ymoimorfhD SV e histhmD RP rigwnometrik unrtseiD IQ pkoloujD PHV perolD PSU ixisseiD PSV

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ysuyxywsuy exisrwsy etrxxD wrwe vrypysur

Shmeiseic Dialxewn, Askseic Frontisthrwn

IFI IFP IFQ IFR IFS

PFI PFP PFQ PFR PFS PFT

QFI QFP QFQ QFR QFS QFT

RFI RFP RFQ RFR RFS

SFI SFP SFQ SFR

TFI TFP TFQ TFR TFS

WW IHS III IPH IPP

UFI UFP UFQ

VFI VFP VFQ VFR VFS VFT

IRS IRW IST ITH ITR ITU

WFI WFP WFQ WFR WFS

IUQ IUW IVP IVR IVV

IIFI IIFP IIFQ IIFR IIFS

PHS PII PIR PIS PPI

IPFI R F IPFP R2 F IPFQ R3 F IPFR Rn

PPQ PQI PQT PRP

IPFS IQFI IQFP IQFQ IQFR IQFS IQFT IQFU

PRU PSI PSR PSU PTH PTQ PTS

qFI qFP qFQ qFR

umolismo filiogrf vexik F F F upolgio F

QVV QVW QWH QWQ

Aximata Pragmatikn Arijmn

1. (Kannac thc Apaloifc) An arijmc me thn idithta

2. (Orismc Afareshc) Uprqei akribc nac

enai o monadikc arijmc me thn

AXIWMATA PR AGMATIKWN ARIJMWN

uprqei akribc nac

arijmc autc kaletai to phlko twn

a/b + c/d = (ad + bc)/(bd), (a + b) = a b. (a b) + (b c) = a c. an = (an )1 .

Gia na apodexoume ton kanna thc apaloifc, stw To

uprqei lgw tou Aximatoc Pedou

(Axwma Pedou (Upjesh) (Axwma Pedou

'Estw tra pwc uprqoun nw tou enc oudtera stoiqea. ta

'Estw gia pardeigma pwc

@enisthte ki epluth imA

AXIWMATA PR AGMATIKWN ARIJMWN

1. (Kannac thc Triqotmhshc) Isqei akribc na ap ta aklouja:

(i) a < b, (ii)

1. 'Estw pwc qoume thn prth perptwsh: epiplon

x = a b = 0 a = b. 'Estw pwc anisthtac, qoume ti o x = a b enai jetikc,

Oi apodexeic twn upolopwn paralepontai.

enc mh keno sunlou

enai nw frgma tou

2. Kannac arijmc mikrteroc tou

den enai nw frgma tou

Antstoiqa orzetai h nnoia tou mgistou ktw frgmatoc,

Apdeixh: Lmma 1.2

S qei supremum, sup S h. S qei inmum, inf S + h.

tte gia kje

AXIWMATA PR AGMATIKWN ARIJMWN

uje mh kenD frgmno nw snolo S qei supre-

Kje mh ken, fragmno ktw snolo

@9ejroism unlwnA ken snola A, B R. 'Estw

sup C = sup A + sup B .

inf C = inf A + inf B .

Apdeixh: Lmma 1.5

Sunpeiec tou Aximatoc thc Plhrthtac

1. Oi fusiko arijmo den enai fragmnoi nw. 2. Gia kje pragmatik 3. An

tte uprqei fusikc

Uprqei anmes touc toulqiston nac

rrhtoc. (Dhlad oi rrhtoi enai pukno stouc pragmatikoc.) 3. 'Estw