Basics: Dipole-Dipole forces(permanently polar molecules) + and parts of the molecules attract electrostatically giving Bts higher than

n those of non polar molecules of similar size. Dispersion/Van der waals forces(non polar molecules)Temporary dipoles form between molecules because of mobile electron density within the molecule. + on one molecule will induce a on a nearby one and so on, tho theres a net attraction between molecules Higher forces: More electrons Larger area of contact(larger molecules/atoms) Linear instead of branched chains There will be bigger van der waals forces as Atomic/molecular size increases More shells of electrons For large molecules dispersion forces can exceed dipole-dipole attraction Molecular covalent substances Bonded strongly within the Intramolecular bonds Covalent molecule but weakly between molecules Ionic Properties depend on intermolecular forces Metallic Van der Waals forces Dipole dipole attraction Hydrogen bonds strongest Ionic bond The electrostatic attraction between + and ions formed by complete transfer of electron/s Covalent bond Sharing a pair of electrons, one pair to a bond (rather than complete transfer) Polarisability The ease with which the electron cloud of an anion is distorted by a cation so theres electron sharing Intermolecular bonds

Hydrogen bond Electrostatic attraction between a strongly + H atom attached covalently to a highly electronegative element F/N/O and a strongly F/N/O atom on another molecule, H bonds are longer than covalent bonds - Compounds which can H bond with water are very soluble (glucose, has OH groups that H bond with water)

Strong acids HCl + water H+ + Cl Ionise(dissociate)almost completely, nearly every H atom released to become a hydrated proton, lots of H +(aq) ions Weak acids H2CO3 + water H+ + HCO3 weak acid equilibrium lies to the left so most of the acid wont be ionised Ionise(dissociate)slightly, little H atoms released, little H +(aq)ions Strong acids and concentrated acids OR weak acids and dilute acids arent the same 3 Strong weak refers to how much the acid has ionised Concentrated dilute refers to molcm of the acid Acids proton donors Acids mixed with water release H+ which combine with H2O(hydrated)to form hydroxonium ions H3O+ HCl(g) + H2O(l) H+(aq) + Cl(aq) HCl(g) doesnt release hydrogen ions until it meets water so HCl(g) isnt an acid Bases proton acceptors, make OH hydroxyl ions when dissolved in water Salt A compound formed by replacing hydrogen in an acid by a metal The Periodic Table II (Period 3) Variation of properties across a period Know Period 3 elements reactions with oxygen, chlorine and water Na Mg Al Si P H2O NaOH MgO Hydrolysis + H2 + H2 O2 Na2O2 MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 Cl2 NaCl MgCl2 Al2Cl6 SiCl4 PCl5

S SO2 S2Cl2

Cl HCl + HOCl -

Ar -

Know the formulae and acid-base character of Na2O, NaOH, MgO, Mg(OH)2, Al2O3, Al(OH)3, SiO2, P4O10, SO2, SO3, Cl2O and structure/bonding of the oxides Know the reactions with water of NaCl, MgCl2, AlCl3, SiCl4, PCl3, PCl5, S2Cl2 and structure/bonding of the chlorides Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO2 Cl2O Ionic lattice Ionic covalent Giant Molecular covalent lattice covalent NaCl MgCl2 Al2Cl6 SiCl4 PCl3 PCl5 S2Cl2 Giant ionic lattice solids Strong Molecular covalent - weaker intermolecular forces (van der Waals dispersion ionic attractions forces) Basic Amphoteric Can act Acidic both as acid & base NaCl MgCl2 Al2Cl6 SiCl4 PCl3 PCl5 S2Cl2

AlCl3(s) + 6H2O(l) [Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3Cl-(aq) [Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) [Al(OH)(H2O)5] 2+(aq) + H+(aq) AlCl3(s) + H2O(l) AlCl2OH(aq) + HCl(aq) AlCl2OH(aq) + H2O(l) AlCl(OH)2(aq) + HCl(aq) AlCl(OH)2(aq)+ H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s) + HCl(aq) H2O Na+(aq) + Mg2+(aq) See below SiO2(s) + H3PO3(aq) + H3PO4(aq) + Cl-(aq) + HCl(aq) HCl(aq) HCl(aq) 2Cl-(aq) Neutral solutions non Covalent chlorides have polar bonds which undergo nucleophilic attack by the lone pair vigorous reaction on the H2O molecule. Reactions violent, fume in moist air(HCl(g))

H2O

Na2O NaOH

MgO Mg(OH)2

Al2O3 -

SiO2 -

P4O10 H3PO4
SiO2 -

SO2 H2SO3

SO3 H2SO4

Cl2O HOCl SO3 Cl2O -

HCl H2SO4 NaOH

Na2SiO3 +H2O Al2O3 + 6NaOH + 3H2O --> 2Na3Al(OH)6

Na2O NaOH NaCl +H2O Na2SO4 +H2O -

MgO Mg(OH)2 MgCl2 +H2O MgSO4 +H2O -

Al2O3 Al(OH)3 AlCl3 +H2O Al2(SO4)3 +H2O a3Al(OH)6

P4O10 -

SO2 -

NaH2PO4 +H2O

Na2SO3 +H2O

Na2SO4 +H2O

NaOCl +H2O

2 ionic equations showing amphoteric behaviour of aluminium oxide Al2O3 (s) + 6H+(aq) 2Al3+ (aq) + 3H2O (l) A12O3 + 6OH + 3H2O 2AI(OH)63

Questions: What type of bonding would you expect in aluminium fluoride and why? Ionic Fl ion is very small and has only 1- charge which makes it hard to become polarised State the type of bonding in sodium oxide and explain how particles react to form the product in Na2O + H2O 2NaOH Ionic O2 ion very polarisable/strong interaction with polar water reacting with water to give OH What types of bonding exist in aluminium chloride, Al 2Cl6? Dative covalent NaCl(s) + H2O(l) Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) PCl3 + 3H2O H3PO3 3HCl Account for the difference in the changes by comparing the bonding in these two chlorides. NaCl is ionic so dissolves in water/ions separate PCl3 is covalent so hydrolyses in water Relate the acid-base character of the oxides sodium and phosphorus to the variation in metallic character of the elements in Period 3 of the Periodic Table (sodium to argon). The Periodic Table II (Group 4) Variation of properties down a group Recall the reasons for increase in metallic character down Group 4 Remember: Metallic character increases - atomic radius increases - ionisation energies fall - ions less polarising Understand: - As atoms become larger, they more easily lose electrons to form cations - Increase in metallic bonding, electrostatic attraction between lattice of cations and sea of delocalised electrons - Increase in strength, malleable, ductile, good conductor of heat & electricity - More able to form ionic bonds with non metals Recall physical properties of the elements Physical properties Properties that do not change the chemical nature of matter. Eg color, smell, boiling point Group 4 As atomic number increases, Bt decreases, density increases

Carbon (C)

Non-metal

Solid

Silicon (Si) Germanium (Ge) Tin (Sn) Lead (Pb)

Metalloid Metalloid Metal Metal

Solid Solid Solid Solid

(graphite) shiny black (diamond) colourless dark grey-blue Grayish white Yellowy-silver Grey-silver

Conducts along layers Non-conductor Semi conductor Semi conductor Conductor Conductor

Giant covalent layer lattice Giant covalent Giant covalent Giant covalent Metallic Metallic

The oxides acid-base characteristics & equations CO Neutral Does not react with water. CO + NaOH HCOONa --> H2CO3 CO2 Weakly Acidic CO2 + H2O SiO2 + 2NaOH --> 2Na2SiO3 + H2O SiO2 Acidic GeO GeO2 Amphoteric As an acid: XO + NaOH + H2O --> Na2X(OH)4 SnO SnO2 SnO2 + 2NaOH H2O + Na2SnO3 PbO PbO2 As a base: XO + HCl --> XCl2 + H2O XO2 + HCl --> XCl4 + H2O PbCl4 decomposes showing the oxidising nature of lead(IV)oxide PbCl4 PbCl2 + Cl2

Questions: Give an equation to show why solutions of carbon dioxide in water are acidic CO2 + H2O H+ + HCO3State how the metallic character of the Group 4 elements changes with an increase in atomic number Increases as atoms become larger (so) more easily lose electrons As atomic number increases in group 4 the metallic character of the elements increases. Explain how this increase in metallic character is demonstrated in the acid-base properties of carbon dioxide and of lead(II) oxide Metal oxides are (more) basic than non-metal oxides CO2 acidic PbO amphoteric Recall that +2 oxidaton state in Group 4 becomes more stable than the +4 oxidation state down the group and apply this to the chemistry of tin and lead Redox (reduction/oxidation reaction) describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number/state changed Oxidation state is the hypothetical charge that an atom would have if all bonds to atoms of different elements were 100% ionic Oxidation describes the loss of electrons by a molecule, atom or ion (From +2 to +4) Reduction describes the gain of electrons by a molecule, atom or ion (From +4 to +2) heat SnO2 doesnt decompose, Lead(+2) shows no reducing properties SnO2(s) No reaction tin more stable in the +4 ox state Lead(IV) oxide oxidises chloride to chlorine More stable lead(II)chloride PbO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + Cl(g) + 2H2O(l) heat PbO2 decomposes to PbO + O2 (+4) (+2)reduced PbO2(s) PbO(s) + lead more stable in +2 ox state O2(g) More stable Questions: I SnO2 + 4HCl SnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O II SnO2 + 4HCl SnCl4 + 2H2O Which of the above reactions is more likely. Explain your reasoning. Tin is more stable in +4 than +2 oxidation state therefore Sn(IV) not reduced (by Cl-/HCl) Reasons for the difference in behaviour of SnO2 and PbO2 with concentrated hydrochloric acid In tin oxidation state +4 more stable than +2 In lead oxidation state +2 is more stable than +4 Therefore lead(IV) oxidises chloride ion (to chlorine) Recall and explain the structure of carbon tetrachloride Tetrahedral configuration joined to a carbon atom, in the center, by single covalent bonds. Because of this symmetrical geometry, the molecule has no net dipole moment; that is, CCl4 is non-polar.

Recall and explain the behaviour of carbon tetrachloride with water and contrast this behaviour with that of silicon tetrachloride with water Chloride(Tetrahalides) Nature CCl4(tetrachloromethane) Molecular covalent liquid, doesnt hydrolyse CCl4 + 2H2OCO2 + 4HCl lone pair on oxygen in water cannot attack C atom because C atom too small / Cl atom too large SiCl4(silicon SiCl4+ 2H2O SiO2+ 4HCl Carried out in fume cupboard, as HCl is irritant/harmful tetrachloride) Molecular covalent liquid, hydrolyses due to electron pair donation by water to empty d orbitals of Si atom Rapid hydrolysis due to electron pair donation by water to empty d orbitals of Si atom In this hydrolysis Si-Cl bonds dont have to be broken before Si-O bonds form EACT for this hydrolysis therefore much lower than CCl4 Less steric effects in larger molecule Questions: Carbon tetrachloride and silicon tetrachloride behave in different ways when added to water. State how each chloride behaves and explain the difference SiCl4 reacts/hydrolyses, CCl4 does not (lone) pair of electrons (from the oxygen atom) in a water molecule Cannot form a bond with/be donated to the C atom C is a small atom surrounded by large Cl atoms (so attack is sterically hindered)