Chapter-03

s-block elements:
The elements, in which the last electron goes to s-orbital, are known as s-block elements. Group
1, Group 2 elements and ‘He’ are members of this group. They have s1 or s2 electronic
configuration. Total numbers of s- block elements are 14. The outer shell electronic
configuration of s-block elements are ns1 and ns2.

What is alkali metal?

The metals that produce alkali when it is added to water are called alkali metals. Alkali metals
are Li, Na, K, Rb and Fr. They have only one electron in their outermost energy shell. Except H ,
other elements of G-I are known are alkali metals.

M + H2O MOH + H2
For example, Na + H2O NaOH + H2
K + H2O KOH + H2 etc.
Na is a alkali metal-explain
The metals that produce alkali when it is added to water are called alkali metals. Na as a metal
produces alkali when it is dissolved in water. So, this is an alkali metal.

Na + H2O NaOH + H2
What is alkali earth metal?
The metals that produce alkali when it is added to water are called alkali earth metals. They are
abundant in soil. Alkali earth metals are Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra. They have only two electrons in
their outermost energy shell. Group-II elements are alkali earth metals.

M + H2O M(OH)2 + H2
For example, Ca + H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2
Mg + H2O Mg(OH)2 + H2 etc.

So, Explain Mg is a alkali earth metal-why?

Explain Ca is a alkali earth metal-why?

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Na metal is preserved in kerosene-why?
Na is group-1 element which is highly reactive. So Na metal cannot left in air and water.
Because in open air it reacts with oxygen to form Na2O. Later Na2O reacts with CO2 gas of air to
form Na2CO3.

Na + O2 Na2O
Na2O + CO2 Na2CO3

Again in contact with water, Na reacts with water vigorously to produce NaOH and H2 gas. It is
an exothermic process; so H2 gas sets fire in O2 of the air to form H2O.That is why, it cannot
preserve in open air.

Aqueous solution of Na2CO3 is basic in nature-why?

In aqueous solution of Na2CO3 , there produce NaOH and H2CO3 where, NaOH is a strong base
but H2CO3 is a weak acid. Hence, aqueous solution shows basic property.
-
Na2CO3 + H2O Na+ (aq) OH (aq) + H2CO3
Na+ is formed but Na2+ doesn’t—why?
Electropositive Character: Due to low ionization energy, alkali elements lose the electrons very
easily. Hence, they can be said as strongly electropositive. The electropositive character
increases as we move down the group from Li to Cs. Due to their strong electropositive nature,
Na easily removes one electron and converts in Na+ and it very smaller 1st ionization energy. But
when it is in Na+ state, it has stable octet electronic configuration energy in its valence shell, so it
has higher 2nd ionization energy. Then it is very tough to remove electron and cannot form Na2+.

Na 1s22s22p63s1
Na+ 1s22s22p6 (Inert gas configuration attained)
Na2+ 1s22s22p5 (Inert gas configuration broken)
Why Be doesn’t take participation in flame test?
The main reason for the colour emission in flame test is when the alkali metals are introduced
into the flame; the electrons present in the valence shell get excited and reach the higher energy
levels. Now, these excited electrons emit light while returning to the original energy level. This
emitted energy is basically responsible to show different colour.
In case of Be(4)= 1s22s2, it has very smallest size and valence shell electron are in paired. So it
has very high ionization energy. That is why; the electrons present in the valence shell don’t get

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excited and don’t reach the higher energy levels. So, there doesn’t happen any electronic
transition ant it can represent any colour in flame test.
Why Mg doesn’t take participation in flame test?
The main reason for the colour emission in flame test is when the alkali metals are introduced
into the flame; the electrons present in the valence shell get excited and reach the higher energy
levels. Now, these excited electrons emit light while returning to the original energy level. This
emitted energy is basically responsible to show different colour.
In case of Mg(12)= 1s22s22p63s2, it has comparatively smaller size and valence shell electron
are in paired. So it has very high ionization energy. That is why; the electrons present in the
valence shell don’t get excited and don’t reach the higher energy levels. So, there doesn’t happen
any electronic transition ant it can represent any colour in flame test.

Thermal stability
A compound is said to be thermally stable when it doesn’t decompose under the influence of
heat. This property is called thermal stability. If a compound is ionic in nature, it has strong
lattice energy, and then it becomes more thermally stable. But if it has more covalent character,
then it has smaller thermal stability.
MgCO3 is more thermally stable than BeCO3-Why?
The cation of Be and Mg metals have +2 charges. So, charge density is high and they can
polarize anion CO32- and make them unstable to heat. As the size of Be2+ is smaller than Mg2+,
Be2+ has more polarizing capacity of anion CO32 than Mg2+. BeCO3 contains comparatively more
covalent character than MgCO3. So, BeCO3 has comparatively less lattice energy and becomes
less thermally stable than MgCO3.
CaCO3 is more thermally stable than MgCO3-Why?
The cation of Mg and Ca metals has +2 charges. So, charge density is high and they can polarize
anion CO32- and make them unstable to heat. As the size of Mg2+ is smaller than Ca2+, Mg2+ has
more polarizing capacity of anion CO32 than Ca2+. MgCO3 contains comparatively more covalent
character than CaCO3. So, MgCO3 has comparatively less lattice energy and becomes less
thermally stable than CaCO3.
Solubility Of Hydroxide
The larger the lattice energy, the more energy it takes to break the lattice apart into metal and
hydroxide ions. Since the atomic radii increase down the group it makes sense that the size of
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cations are increased and decreased the polarizing capacity of anion. Hence, there increase the
covalent character and decrease the lattice energy and reduce the solubility. Again, coordination
numbers also increases because the larger the metal ion the more room there is for water
molecules to coordinate to it. So the solubility of hydroxide from Mg to Ba successively
increases.
Hence sequence of solubility of hydroxides:
Be(OH)2 < Mg(OH)2 < Ca(OH)2 <Sr(OH)2 < Ba(OH)2

p-block elements
Group-13
Why aqueous solution AlCl3 is acidic in nature?
-
In aqueous solution AlCl3, it gets decomposed to Al3+ and Cl ions.

[Al(H2O)6]3+ [Al(H2O)5 OH]2+ + H+

[Al(H2O)5]2+ [Al(H2O)4 (OH)2]+ + H+

[Al(H2O)4 (OH)2]+ [Al(H2O)3 (OH)3] + H+

So, Finally,

[Al(H2O)6 ]3+ [Al(H2O)3 (OH)3] + 3H+

Charge density of Al3+ is very high. It forms coordination bond with water molecule and breaks
down water molecule to produce H+ in the solution. As H+ is producing here in aqueous solution
of AlCl3 is acidic in nature.

AlCl3 forms dimmer-why?

In AlCl3 the charge of Al cation is +3, so the charge density is higher. Due to higher charge
-
density of Al3+ more polarization of the anion (Cl ) occurs in AICI3 molecule and it attains
partial covalent character. During the polarization, electrons migrate to both the nuclei and
exhibits covalent character. As a result, octet is not filled up in Al3+ ion. To fill up the octet, Al3+
-
ion draws a lone pair of electrons from an adjacent Cl ion forming a coordinate bond with

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chlorine. Hence, two molecules of AlCl3 combine with each other and form dimer. Thus it exists
as Al2Cl6.

Monomer of AlCl3
Dimer of AlCl3

AlCl3 is a sublimated substance-why?

The process of transformation of a solid into gas directly without converting into liquid state is
called sublimation. AlCl3 is sublimed substance because in AlCl3 the charge of Al cation is +3, so
the charge density is higher. Due to higher charge density of Al3+, more polarization of the anion
occurs in AlCl3 molecule and it attains partial covalent character. During the polarization
electrons migrate to both the nuclei. For this covalency, strong lattice enthalpy between the ions
is absent. AlCl3 exists as dimer at ordinary temperature and there is weak Vander Waals force
among the dimers. Above 180°C temperature the dimer overcomes this weak force and is
converted into gas as monomer (AICI3). Again, the substance whose triple point pressure is
higher than atmospheric pressure misses the liquid form. Triple point pressure of AlCl3 is greater
than atmospheric pressure, so it misses its liquid state when it is heated. Thus, AlCl3 sublimes
when it is heated.

Group-14
CO2 is gaseous but SiO2 is a solid at room temp.-Explain

In CO₂ molecule one C-atom bonded with two O-atoms by two double bonds. Hence CO₂
molecule having sp hybridization and the structure of CO₂ molecule is linear; O=C=O. Its dipole
moment is zero. So it is a non-polar covalent compound and its molecular mass is low. Hence
CO₂ molecule contains only Vander Waals force between them. For this reason at room
temperature CO2 is gas.

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In case of SiO2, the difference between the electronegativity of silicon (1.8) and oxygen (3.5) is
3.5-1.8=1.7 and the value is high enough to form a dipole in the molecule. Thus intermolecular
attractive force is created. Due to this, four oxygen atoms are covalently bonded with one silicon
atom and each oxygen atom is bonded with two Si atoms forming tetrahedral shape. Hence a
three-dimensional giant structure is formed through the formation of Si-O-Si bond. In this way a
three-dimensional giant molecule is formed by the combination of silicon and oxygen atoms in a
piece of silicon dioxide. To break this Si-O-Si network, high temperature is needed. For this
reason, melting and boiling point of polymer SiO₂ is very high and at room temp. SiO2 is solid
crystalline substance.

The structure of SiO₂ is shown in the following figure.

Fig : Structure of (SiO2)n

SiCl4 undergoes hydrolysis but CCl4 does not undergo hydrolysis-Explain

The electronic configuration of C and Si are given below.

C(6) 1s22s22p2
Si(14) 1s22s22p63s23p23d0
From the configuration we see that, there is no vacant d-orbital of C atom but Si has vacant d-
orbital. CC14 cannot be hydrolyzed due to the absence of vacant d-orbital of C atom. As a result
water cannot form coordinate covalent bond. During hydrolysis, SiCl4 compound reacts with

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water molecule to form coordinate covalent bond through oxygen atom and HCI is eliminated. In
case of Si, it has vacant d orbital. So lone pair of electrons of oxygen atom of H₂O can enter into
its vacant 3d orbital and forms an unstable intermediate complex. In this intermediate complex Si
have 10 electrons in the outermost shell. Therefore it releases one molecule of HCI and forms
- -
SiCI3-OH. In this way, all Cl ions are replaced by OH group and produces Si(OH)4.
It can be explained by the following way.

So,

SiCl4 + H2O Si(OH)Cl3 + HCl

Si(OH)Cl3 + H2O Si(OH)2Cl2 + HCl

Si(OH)2Cl2 + H2O Si(OH)3Cl + HCl

Si(OH)3Cl + H2O Si(OH)4 + HCl

Finally reaction is

SiCl4 + 4 H2O Si(OH)4 + 4HCl

Graphite conducts electricity but diamond does not-why?

Graphite is a allotrope of carbon. In graphite, all C-atoms are sp² hybridized, all C-C angles are
120° and the carbon atoms lie on a plane. Six carbon atoms form a hexagon and a network of
hexagons is produced. After the formation of hexagon with the C-C sigma bonds, each carbon
atom contains one unhybridised 2pz orbital where there present an electron which one is known
as delocalized free electrons that moves throughout the network and can conduct electricity.
Thus graphite is an electrical conductor. But in diamond, it doesn’t contain any free electron and
doesn’t conduct electricity.

Group-15
Nitrogen exists as N2 but phosphorous as P4-why? : Because of high electronegativity and
smaller size, nitrogen is able to form pi-pi multiple bonding. As a result, nitrogen can form three

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bonds between its two atoms (N2) and exist as diatomic molecule. On the other hand,
phosphorous has bigger size and lower electronegativity. As a result, two P atoms cannot form -
multiple bonding. Instead, phosphorous exists as tetrahedral P4 molecule through p-p single
bonding.

Fig : Orbital structure of N2 Fig : Structure of P4

Reactivity of Phosphorous is higher than Nitrogen-why?

Nitrogen exists as diatomic molecule (N N). Due to this triple bond, the bond dissociation
energy nitrogen molecule is very high (945kJ/mol). For this reason, in elemental state, nitrogen
is very inactive. On the other hand, white phosphorous exists as tetra-atomic molecule (P4.) so
that the phosphorous atoms are connected with each other through single bond. The p-p single
bond is relatively weak (213 kJ/ mol). Bond angle in P4 is 60o and high bond stretch makes the
bonds weaker. As a result, phosphorous is more reactive than nitrogen.
N2 is gaseous but P4 is solid-why?
Each P4 molecule is formed by four atoms. These four phosphorous atoms are positioned at four
corners of a tetrahedron. Each phosphorous atom is again connected to three phosphorous atoms
by single covalent bond. Because of such structure, the molecule becomes larger and the Van der
Waals forces among the atoms are comparatively higher. As a result, P 4 is solid at ordinary
temperature. On the other hand, because of the ability to form - bonds, nitrogen atom combines
with another nitrogen atom through triple bond (N N). Hence, nitrogen exists as a diatomic
molecule. The existing Van der Waals force is easily destroyed because of the collision among
the molecules at normal temperature. As a consequence, nitrogen exists as a gas.
PCl5 is formed but NCl5 doesn’t-why?
The electronic configuration of N and P are given below.
N(7) 1s22s22px12py12pz1 [Three unpaired electrons]
P(15) 1s22s22p63s23px13py13pz1 [Three unpaired electrons]

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In the normal state both N and P have three unpaired electrons in their outer shell. So both can
share three electrons with 3 chlorine atoms to form NCl3 and PCl3 and their valency is three. But
since P atom has vacant 3d-orbital, in excited state its electron pair of 3s orbital can be broken
and promoted to vacant 3d-orbital. As a result, the number of unpaired electrons in its outer shell
increases to 5 and 5 chlorine atoms are bonded then with P and form PCI5.
In excited state phosphorus can make 5 unpaired electrons using vacant 3d orbital.

P*(15) 1s22s22p63s13px13py13pz13dxy1 [Five unpaired electrons]

But N atom has no vacant 2d-orbital in outer 2nd energy level (n=2). So, it has no chance to gain
electron in excited state. Hence N cannot exhibit eligibility to show valency 5. That is why NCI5
is not formed.
NCl5 doesn’t form but N2O5 forms-why?
The presence of strongly electronegative element oxygen (electronegativity =3.5) increases the
activity of nitrogen as the electron pairs in the 2s-orbital of nitrogen readily form coordination
bond with oxygen to form the stable compound N2O5 in the +5 oxidation state.
But N atom has no vacant 2d-orbital in outer 2nd energy
level (n=2). So, it has no chance to gain electron in excited
state. Hence N cannot exhibit eligibility to show valency 5.
That is why NCI5 is not formed but N2O5 is formed.

Fig : Structure of N2O5

Group-16

SF4 is formed but OF4 doesn’t-why?

The electronic configuration of O and S are given below.

O (8) 1s22s22px22py12pz1 [Two unpaired electrons]

2 2 6 2
S*(16) 1s 2s 2p 3s 3px13py13pz13dxy1 [Four unpaired electrons]
In the normal state O and S both have two unpaired electrons in their outer energy levels, so both
have an oxidation state of 2 in the normal state. From the electronic configuration of oxygen, it is
seen that its electrons are distributed up to the 2nd orbit and since there is no d-orbital in the 2nd
orbit, when it is no chance to be excited. So, the number of unpaired electrons does not increase,
valency is fixed and it cannot form OF4. On the other hand, since sulphur has vacant 3d-orbitals
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in its last energy shell. So, when it is excited, the electron pair of its 3Px2 orbitals are separated
and promoted to vacant 3dxy orbital. As a result, 4-unpaired electrons are created in sulphur.
Hence sulphur forms SF4.

SF6 is formed but OF6 doesn’t-why?

The electronic configuration of O and S are given below.

O (8) 1s22s22px22py12pz1 [Two unpaired electrons]

S**(16) 1s22s22p63s13px13py13pz13dxy1 3dyx1 [Six unpaired electrons]
In the normal state O and S both have two unpaired electrons in their outer energy levels, so both
have an oxidation state of 2 in the normal state. From the electronic configuration of oxygen, it is
seen that its electrons are distributed up to the 2nd orbit and since there is no d-orbital in the 2nd
orbit, when it is no chance to be excited. So, the number of unpaired electrons does not increase,
valency is fixed and it cannot form OF6. On the other hand, since sulphur has vacant 3d-orbitals
in its last energy shell. So, when it is excited, the electron pairs of its 3s2 and 3Px2 orbitals are
separated and promoted to vacant 3dxy and 3dyz orbital. As a result, 6-unpaired electrons are
created in sulphur. Hence sulphur forms SF6.

Sulphur shows variable valency-why?

S*(16) 1s22s22p63s23px23py13pz1 [Two unpaired electrons]

S*(16) 1s22s22p63s23px13py13pz13dxy1 [Four unpaired electrons]

2 2 6 1
S**(16) 1s 2s 2p 3s 3px13py13pz13dxy1 3dyx 1
[Six unpaired electrons ]

In the normal state S atom have two unpaired electrons in its outer energy level, so it has
oxidation state of 2 in the normal state and valency 2. Since sulphur has vacant 3d-orbitals in its
last energy shell. So, when it is excited, the electron pair of its 3Px2 orbitals are separated and
promoted to vacant 3dxy orbital. As a result, 4-unpaired electrons are created in sulphur and
shows valency 4. So, when it is more excited, the electron pairs of its 3s2 and 3Px2 orbitals are
separated and promoted to vacant 3dxy and 3dyz orbital. As a result, 6-unpaired electrons are
created in sulphur and shows valency 6. Thus, it shows 2, 4 and 6 valencies.

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SF6 is possible SCl6 doesn’t-why?
S**(16) 1s22s22p63s13px13py13pz13dxy1 3dyx1 [Six unpaired electrons]

Since sulphur has vacant 3d-orbitals in its last energy shell. So, when it is more excited, the
electron pairs of its 3s2 and 3Px2 orbitals are separated and promoted to vacant 3dxy and 3dyz
orbital. As a result, 6-unpaired electrons are created in sulphur. Then by sharing 6 –unpaired
electrons with 6 fluorine atoms, sulphur forms SF6. But S cannot this covalent bond with Cl atom
because Cl atom has higher atomic size than F.

At room temperature, H2O is liquid but H2S is gaseous-why?

The electronegativity of oxygen is higher than that of sulfur (O = 3.5, S = 2.5), so the polarity of
the O-H bond of the H2O molecule is greater than the polarity of the S-H bond of the H2S
molecule. Again, O atom is much smaller in size than S atom. As a result, the H2O molecules are
attracted together by forming strong intermolecular hydrogen bond. By breaking the H-bond,
more heat energy is required to separate the water molecules. So water is liquid at normal
temperature. On the other hand, H2S molecules are not held together by H-bond due to the low
electronegativity and large size of the S atom, weak van der Waals forces of attraction act
between them. So H2S is a gas at normal temperature.

Hydrogen Bond

Oxygen exists as gas but sulphur exists as Solid-why?

Oxygen is smaller in size compared to sulphur. Oxygen exists as (O=O) with weak
intermolecular forces of attraction whereas Sulphur exists in puckered structure, octatomic (S8)
forming S-S bond with strong forces of attraction. Hence Oxygen exists as gas whereas Sulphur
exists as solid.

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Group-17
What is interhalogen compound?
The compounds of one halogen with the other halogen are called inter halogens or inter halogen
compounds. The main reason for their formation is the large electronegativity and the size
differences between the different halogens.
Example:
Cl2 + F2 CIF
I2 + F2 IF5 etc.
Disproportion reaction:
The reaction that involves simultaneous oxidation and reduction of atoms of same element from
one oxidation state to two different oxidation states is known as disproportionation reaction. The
minimum requirement for this reaction to occur is; the element undergoing in this reaction
should exhibit minimum three different oxidation states. Except fluorine, halogens (Cl₂, Br2, I2)
undergo disproportionation in alkaline medium.
Cl2 takes participation in disproportion reaction-explain
The reaction that involves simultaneous oxidation and reduction of atoms of same element from
one oxidation state to two different oxidation states is known as disproportionation reaction. Cl2
forms chloride and hypochlorite in cold and dilute alkali.

0 -1 +1
NaOH + Cl2 NaCl + NaOCl + H2 O (at 150C)
Here, one chlorine atom is oxidized to +1 and second is reduced to -1 oxidation states. Whereas,
chloride and hypochlorite are formed in hot and concentrated alkali.

0 -1 +5
NaOH + Cl2 NaCl + NaClO3 + H2O (at 700C)
In this case, one chlorine atom loses 5 electrons and gets oxidized to +5 state and five chlorine
reduced to -1 state by accepting one electron each.
Cl2 is an oxidizing agent-explain
Chlorine dissolves in water at normal temperature to form a light yellow solution called chlorine
water. Chlorine discolors water when left for long periods of time, because chlorine produces
HCI and HOCI through disproportion reaction. Hypochlorous acid (HOCI) dissociates to
produce nascent oxygen which is responsible for the oxidation of chlorine.
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 Cl2 + H2O HCl + HOCI 2HCl + [O] (nascent oxygen)

Thus, in the presence of water vapor or in aqueous solution, Cl2 acts as a strong oxidizing agent.

Explain the bleaching property of Cl2

Chlorine bleaches organic dyes in the presence of water. The nascent oxygen produced by the
reaction of water with chlorine oxidizes and discolours the dyes. Thus, chlorine bleaches the dye
only in the presence of water, dry chlorine has no discoloration.

Cl2 + H2O 2HCI + [O] [nascent oxygen]

Colour substance + [O] Colorless
Since bleaching by chlorine is done by oxidation, the bleaching is permanent, i.e., the dyed
material does not regain its original color when exposed to air. But SO₂ discoloration is
temporary, because this discoloration occurs through reduction reaction.

Group-18
Clathrate compound
Argon, Krypon and Xenon form clathrate compounds. It has been found that when quinol (or
dihydroxy benzene) is crystallized from aqueous or alcoholic solution in presence of Ar, Kr or
Xe at about 10-40 atm. pressure clathrate compounds are formed, in which inert gas atoms are
surrounded by quinol molecules.

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Explain the formation of XeF2, XeF4 anf XeF4
XeF2:
Xe atom contains 8 electrons in its outer-shell.
Xe (54) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p6
After exited one electron of 5p is transferred to 5d orbital; then electronic configuration of
becomes---
Xe (54) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25px25py25pz1 5dxy1
Here we get 2 unpaired electrons. So two F atoms can share with single electron and form XeF2.
XeF4:
Xe atom contains 8 electrons in its outer-shell.
Xe (54) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p6
After exited one electron of 5p is transferred to 5d orbital; then electronic configuration of
becomes---
Xe (54) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25px25py15pz1 5dxy15dyz1
Here we get 4 unpaired electrons. So four F atoms can share with single electron and form XeF4.
XeF6:
Xe atom contains 8 electrons in its outer-shell.
Xe (54) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p6
After exited one electron of 5p is transferred to 5d orbital; then electronic configuration of
becomes---
Xe (54) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25px15py15pz1 5dxy15dyz15dzx1
Here we get 4 unpaired electrons. So six F atoms can share with single electron and form XeF6.

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