5

On the wild side

A* Extension 5.8: Raised heat levels, permafrost and peat
This extension material addresses HSW Criterion 10. Ground covered by snow reflects back into space most of the sunlight that falls on it, and the land below stays cold (this is referred to as albedo feedback). However, once snow and ice sheets start to melt as a result of raised air temperatures, relatively dark coloured ground is exposed. This land now absorbs heat from sunlight and warms up quickly, accelerating the icemelt process. Under the ice, land may be rich in undecayed plant remains (peat) but in a frozen condition (permafrost), it is far too cold for significant decay by the micro-organisms that abound there. Large amounts of greenhouse gases remain locked up in frozen peat. As the permafrost melts, it passes into a waterlogged state where decay of plant matter is largely an anaerobic process. More methane than carbon dioxide is released. Remember, methane is far more efficient at heat retention than carbon dioxide. Accelerated melting of the vast areas of permafrost of the boreal forests and of the Arctic tundra will be a consequence of increased global warming. Incidentally, all peat deposits, including those in milder climates, are also sources of greenhouse gases. In the UK, for example, the peat bogs (mostly found in Scotland and northern England) represent 75% of all the carbon locked up in organic matter in British soils and vegetation, under current climatic conditions. In The Revenge of Gaia; Why the Earth is Fighting Back And How We Can Still Save Humanity (published by Allan Lane/Penguin Books, in 2006), Dr James Lovelock reviews many features of the environmental crisis threatened by unchecked global warming. He writes in a very readable style and he discusses scientific solutions from a range of ethical viewpoints (HSW Criterion 10).

I A* Extensions 5.8 to 5.13

A* Extension 5.9: Charles Darwin and the origins of the Origin

This extension material addresses HSW Criterion 5b. Charles Darwin (18091882) was a careful observer and naturalist who made many discoveries in biology. As a young man, after attempting to become a doctor (at Edinburgh University), and then a clergyman (at Cambridge University), he became the unpaid naturalist on an Admiraltycommissioned expedition to the southern hemisphere, on a ship called HMS Beagle. On this five-year expedition around the world, and in his later investigations and reading, he developed the idea of organic evolution by natural selection. Two years after his return from the Beagle expedition, Darwin moved to Down House, near Bromley, Kent. Here, in his family home and large garden, most of his experiments were conducted. He also worked on his theory of the origin of species. The idea of evolution did not start with Charles Darwin. Biologists and geologists discussed this issue before Darwin, and various hypotheses were proposed. Darwins achievements were to state the evidence for evolution convincingly, and to show that the objections to the idea of evolution were answerable. He proposed a mechanism for evolution, called natural selection, which could be tested (HSW Criterion 5b). Darwin remained very anxious (always) about how the idea of evolution might be received, and he made no moves to publish it until the same idea was presented to him in a letter by another biologist and traveller, Alfred Russel Wallace. Only then (1859) was On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection completed and published. The arguments of the Origin of Species are presented in Edexcel Biology for AS, pages 181182. After publication, Darwin avoided becoming involved in the heated public debate his book caused. He left all that to his outspoken friend, Thomas Huxley. Today, the controversy has died down, and natural selection is widely accepted as the organising principle of modern biology.

Edexcel Biology for A2 Dynamic Learning

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ON THE WILD SIDE: A* EXTENSIONS 5.8 TO 5.13

A* Extension 5.10: Alternative explanations of the origin of species

This extension material addresses HSW Criterion 7.

The inheritance of acquired characteristics?

Lamarck (17441829) made a major contribution to the development of biology and was the first to develop and publicise evolution as a central, unifying idea (which brought down onto him strong disapproval at that time). He died, blind and destitute, and was buried in Paris in an unmarked grave. Subsequently, he has continued to be lightly esteemed, blamed for the idea of inheritance of acquired characters. This concept was part of his general theory, but it was also commonly held by many people, at the time. The illustration below summarises the four laws of Lamarcks Theory of Evolution, and the evidence he believed supported the theory.
first law organisms tend to increase in size and complexity with time aquatic birds have developed webbed feet because of the need to paddle through water second law new organs develop in response to an organisms specific need for them giraffes have acquired long necks in order to reach plant material high in the canopy

third law organs vary in size and efficiency in direct proportion to use

fourth law all that is acquired in an organisms lifetime may be transmitted to the offspring in reproduction

the legs of snakes have been reduced through disuse

the eyes of moles have ceased to function through disuse

anteaters have lost their teeth, developed tubular mouths and long, sticky, pointed tongues in order to catch ants

Biologists today do not accept that new characteristics, acquired during an organisms life-time, can be transmitted to its offspring through sexual reproduction. In an organisms body, the gametes are produced by gonads (the germ plasm), which except for the supply of nutrients are independent of the body cells (the soma). Changes to the body are not recorded in the gonads. Animals and plants cannot inherit acquired characteristics through sexual reproduction. However, plants can transmit mutations in body cells via vegetative propagation. Animals with a significant degree of parental care of their offspring (such as birds and mammals) can transmit a culture, through their rearing and training regimes. Culture transmission is highly developed in humans. The diagram on the next page summarises the ways in which offspring may inherit from their parent or parents.

Edexcel Biology for A2 Dynamic Learning

Hodder Education 2009

ON THE WILD SIDE: A* EXTENSIONS 5.8 TO 5.13

1 sexual reproduction new organism formed from the zygote

germ plasm independent of soma and environment

new individual from the fusion of gametes

gametes formed zygote

body cells (soma) gonads (germ plasm) 2 asexual reproduction (vegetative propagation/budding) body, e.g. of plant body cells changed e.g. by somatic mutation or by recombinant DNA technology

new organism by asexual reproduction (vegetative propagation in plants, budding in some animals)

when asexual reproduciton occurs it normally involves cells with uncharged nuclei 3 cultural transmission parent transmission of culture in addition to genes

offspring

e.g. in humans the sex of offspring is determined by a combination of X and Y chromosomes, but the roles and attitudes of males and females are communicated orally and by experience (culturally) because of cultural transmission, it can be hard to distinguish the degree to which behavioural differences are acquired (learnt) rather than innate (in the genes)

Questions for discussion 1 What aspects of Lamarcks evidence do you see as tentative? 2 Can you see the ways in which Lamarcks Theory of Evolution differs fundamentally from that of neo-Darwinism (HSW Criterion 7)?

Creationism in various forms and guises

The idea that each species was created by God, based on the biblical account in the book of Genesis, was widely accepted at one time. Associated with this idea was the belief that species were unchanging (immutable). Also, from the chronology of the biblical account, life on Earth was thought a mere few thousand years old. In 1654, a biblical scholar calculated that our world was created in the year 4004 BC. This fact was accepted in Europe, at least until well into the nineteenth century. Some accepted these ideas on authority alone; others reasoned an argument for design. In the eighteenth century, a theologian named William Paley based a case for creation on the complexity of living things. He argued that if one found a watch but knew nothing of such objects, on discovering the intricate watch mechanism, one would conclude the existence of a watchmaker a creator.

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ON THE WILD SIDE: A* EXTENSIONS 5.8 TO 5.13

Today, many Christians may view the bible in a different light. Nevertheless, they typically hold to involvement of a supernatural force in the origin of living things, even if they accept that living things may change with time. They may have some affinity with William Paley, perhaps? But Christianity is one of several world religions and ethical systems. What other systems typically hold to concerning the origin of life (and perhaps the changeability of living things) is briefly summarised in the table below. Inevitably, this summary is introductory rather than definitive, but it does acknowledge that a range of views exist about the nature of life.
World ethical systems Judaism Islam Hinduism Origin of life (and the idea of organic evolution?) A single God who not only created the universe, but continues to work in the world. There is only one God (Arabic name, Allah) who created everything and rules everything. The concept of evolution is not accepted. Spirituality is a principle rather than a personality. The universe is one divine entity, one God embodying the principles of Brahman the Creator, who is continuing to create, and Vishnu the Preserver. Perhaps a blend of Hinduism and Islamic ideas in origin. Holds belief in an eternal creator God who governs the universe absolutely. A tradition focused on personal spiritual development. Buddhists strive for deep insight into the true nature of life (and do not worship deities). No formal creed. A religion of oppressed black people living in exile. Accept current scientific view and experimental approach. View the concept of God as a human invention, and may be critical of its value.

Sikhism Buddhism Rastafarianism Humanism

We can conclude that the idea of creation, albeit in different forms, has been held as a matter of faith in different cultures. Perhaps the origin of the idea was from speculations by early humans about the world of nature that surrounded them, and became a religious idea later? Be that as it may, special creation is not a scientific theory. The consequence of this belief may be significant to personal religious views, but it does not lend itself to experimental investigation, enquiry and falsification. This is a field in which science is not applicable.

A* Extension 5.11: Speciation speed and types

Speciation is not rapid
Apart from cases of instant speciation by polyploidy, species do not evolve in a simple or rapid way. The process is gradual, taking place over a long period of time. In fact, speciation may occur over several thousand years, in many cases. Complex though it is, we can recognise that all cases of speciation require isolation. Deme is the name we give to a small, isolated population. The individuals of a deme are not exactly alike, but they resemble one another more closely than they resemble members of other demes. This similarity is to be expected, partly because the members are closely related genetically (similar genotypes), and partly because they experience the same environmental conditions (which affect their phenotype).

Allopatric and sympatric speciation

Demes fall into two groups, depending on the ways in which isolation is brought about.
I I

Isolating mechanisms that involve special separation lead to demes undergoing allopatric speciation (literally different country). Isolating mechanisms involving demes in the same location lead to sympatric speciation (literally same country).

The table on the next page compares allopatric and sympatric speciation.

Edexcel Biology for A2 Dynamic Learning

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ON THE WILD SIDE: A* EXTENSIONS 5.8 TO 5.13

Allopatric speciation due to physical separation of the gene pool, which prevents organisms of related demes or their gametes from meeting by geographic isolation for example, when motile or mobile species are dispersed to isolated habitats important in plant speciation

Sympatric speciation due to an isolating mechanism within a gene pool, which prevents production of viable offspring between members of related demes in the same locality by reproductive isolation due to: I temporal mechanisms I behavioural mechanisms I polyploidy important in animal and in plant speciation

A* Extension 5.12: Convergent evolution versus adaptive radiation

Convergent evolution is a striking phenomenon caused by natural selection. It is a product of the process of adaptation of species to specific niches. It has resulted in some unrelated species appearing similar. One of the most remarkable examples is seen by comparing the mammals (fossil and living forms) of Australia with those of North America and Europe. Australia became isolated (an island continent) about 120 million years ago (in the Cretaceous period), early in mammal evolution. This isolation was a product of the movement of the plates of the Earths crust (plate tectonics). At this time, eutherian mammals (placental mammals) were diverging from marsupial mammals (without a placenta the young are born at a more immature stage, migrate to a pouch on the mothers body, and complete development there). In Australia, only marsupial mammals developed, and for many millions of years, adapted to an environment without competition from eutherian mammals. Nevertheless, there were many similarities (in effect, parallels) between the environments in Europe and North America and in Australia, and there are corresponding similarities in the types of mammals found in comparable niches there, too. The drawings below show a few of these. Convergent evolution does not arise by chance, and yet natural selection is a process without a purpose or a plan. The environment made up of both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic)

placentals

marsupials

Wolf (Canis)

Tasmanian wolf (Thylacinus)

Ground hog (Marmota)

Wombat (Phascolomys)

Anteater (Myrmecophaga)

Anteater (Myrmecobius)

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ON THE WILD SIDE: A* EXTENSIONS 5.8 TO 5.13

forces is the driving force for natural selection. We know that variation among progeny arises randomly, but natural selection is not a random process. By natural selection, organisms with characteristics of structure or physiology that favour their survival are most likely to reproduce and generate offspring themselves. Many of the offspring will have those characteristics, too. In this way we can expect many similarities to be shown by the successful organisms that come to occupy comparable niches for long periods of geological time. The result may be parallel or convergent evolution, as shown by marsupial and eutherian mammals. On the other hand, adaptive radiation is an altogether different phenomenon also driven by natural selection. An example is shown by the limbs of vertebrates, which all appear to relate to a common plan called the pentadactyl limb (meaning five fingered). These limbs occupy similar positions in the different vertebrate organisms, have an underlying basic structure in common, but may have evolved completely different functions (such as a human arm, the wing of a bat and the front leg of a horse). Each relates to the plan, but may also show modification from it. These organisms share a common ancestry, but they diverged a long time ago. Another striking example of adaptive radiation is in the mouthparts of insects. These are thought to have originated from paired limbs, one pair on each of the segments that developed into the head region of the insects body (insects are members of the phylum of animals known as the arthropods, having segmented bodies, typically with one pair of jointed limbs per segment). Below, adaptive radiation is illustrated by the case of the beaks of the Galapagos finches. These caught Charles Darwins attention when he visited the Galapagos Islands, and the study of these birds was followed up by the ornithologist, David Lack.
The adaptations by the nches that reached these islands off South America seem to have minimised competition between them. vegetarian nch food: buds, leaves and fruits, in trees woodpecker nch food: insects poked out of trees using a small twig (tool) warbler nch food: insects in the air or on the ground

ancestors nches from the mainland of South America that colonised the Galapagos Islands, and adapted to particular resources and habitats (niches) ground nch food: large seeds on the ground cactus nch food: the cactus plant

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ON THE WILD SIDE: A* EXTENSIONS 5.8 TO 5.13

A* Extension 5.13: Credible opposition to the idea of organic evolution?

Charles Darwin wrote in the Origin of Species: If it can be demonstrated that any complex organ existed which could not possibly have been formed by numerous successive slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. At times, this idea has been seized upon and developed, particularly by individuals opposed to the idea of organic evolution. The objections have been applied to the evolution of the vertebrate eye, for example. The implication is that any intermediate form of the eye, rather than confer advantage, would actually have increased vulnerability. It is valuable to research at this stage how widely eyes occur in the living world. Our story would begin with the light-sensitive spot in the cytoplasm of certain motile unicellular flagellates, and how advantageous to their survival this structure is. Alternative types of eyes are also found in many non-vertebrates species, of rather diverse structure and efficiency. For a sightless world we have to go back to about 544 million years ago. What followed that point in life history (contracted into the next 5 million years or so) was an event we call the Cambrian explosion. It might be termed the big bang of evolution! Suddenly, animals evolved hard external structures; armaments and defences now appeared to be of importance. At this time, the numbers of different phyla of animals jumped from three to 38 the number we have today! What triggered this life revolution was the evolution of the eye. You can read about this period in Earths history in a book called In the Blink of an Eye: The Cause of the Most Dramatic Event in the History of Life, by Andrew Parker (2003), published by The Free Press. The issue of the evolution of vision and of gradual evolution of the eye is reviewed in The Blind Watchmaker, by Richard Dawkins (1986), published by Longman. Incidentally, the ability of flight has been the subject of similar scepticism. You might care to research whether flight has evolved as often as sight in different animal phyla. And what is implied in the adage: Why did the fly fly? Because the spider spied her.

Edexcel Biology for A2 Dynamic Learning

Hodder Education 2009