Table of contents.

1. Title page. 2. Acknowledgements 3. Abstract.: An abstract is an abbreviated version of your final report. 4. Certificate 5. Question and hypothesis. 6. Theory or Background research. 7. Materials required. 8. Experimental procedure. 9. Conclusions. 10. Precautions 11. Bibliography.

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge the following people and institutions for helping me complete this investigatory project successfully 1. DPS gandhinagar pphysics faculty 2. Our physics teacher Girish Govindan. 3. Wikipedia 4. Research papers on logic gates and their operations.

Abstract.

To construct logic gates and demonstrate their operation which follows basic Boolean law. Question and hypothesis

How are logic gates constructed? What are they? A logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function, that is, it performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or transistors acting as electronic switches, but can also be constructed using electromagnetic relays (relay logic), fluidic logic, pneumatic logic, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements.

Theory or Background research.

Complex functions
Logic circuits include such devices as multiplexers, registers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), and computer memory, all the way up through complete microprocessors, which may contain more than 100 million gates. In practice, the gates are made from field-effect transistors (FETs), particularly MOSFETs (metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistors). Compound logic gates AND-OR-Invert (AOI) and OR-AND-Invert (OAI) are often employed in circuit design because their construction using MOSFET's is simpler and more efficient than the sum of the individual gates.[2] In reversible logic, Toffoli gates are used.

Electronic gates
To build a functionally complete logic system, relays, valves (vacuum tubes), or transistors can be used. The simplest family of logic gates using bipolar transistors is called resistor-transistor logic (RTL). Unlike diode logic gates, RTL gates can be cascaded indefinitely to produce more complex logic functions. These gates were used in early integrated circuits. For higher speed, the

resistors used in RTL were replaced by diodes, leading to diode-transistor logic (DTL). Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) then supplanted DTL with the observation that one transistor could do the job of two diodes even more quickly, using only half the space. In virtually every type of contemporary chip implementation of digital systems, the bipolar transistors have been replaced by complementary field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) to reduce size and power consumption still further, thereby resulting in complementary metaloxidesemiconductor (CMOS) logic.Electronic logic gates differ significantly from their relay-and-switch equivalents. They are much faster, consume much less power, and are much smaller (all by a factor of a million or more in most cases). Also, there is a fundamental structural difference. The switch circuit creates a continuous metallic path for current to flow (in either direction) between its input and its output. The semiconductor logic gate, on the other hand, acts as a high-gain voltage amplifier, which sinks a tiny current at its input and produces a low-impedance voltage at its output. It is not possible for current to flow between the output and the input of a semiconductor logic gate.. Additional delay can be caused when a large number of inputs are connected to an output, due to the distributed capacitance of all the inputs and wiring and the finite amount of current that each output can provide.

Different types of gates

Type

Distinctive shape Rectangular shape

Boolean algebra between A & B

Truth table INPUT OUTPUT A B A AND B 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 INPUT OUTPUT A B A OR B 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1

AND

OR

NOT

INPUT OUTPUT A NOT A 0 1 1 0

In electronics a NOT gate is more commonly called an inverter. The circle on the symbol is called a bubble, and is used in logic diagrams to indicate a logic negation between the external logic state and the internal logic state (1 to 0 or vice versa). On a circuit diagram it must be accompanied by a statement asserting that the positive logic convention or negative logic convention is being used (high voltage level = 1 or high voltage level = 0, respectively). INPUT OUTPUT A B A NAND B 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 INPUT OUTPUT A B A NOR B 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 INPUT OUTPUT A B A XOR B 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 INPUT OUTPUT A B A XNOR B 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1

NAND

NOR

XOR

XNOR

or

Two more gates are the exclusive-OR or XOR function and its inverse, exclusive-NOR or XNOR. The two input Exclusive-OR is true only when the two input values are different, false if they are equal, regardless of the value. If there are more than two inputs, the gate generates a true at its output if the number of trues at its input is odd ([2]). In practice, these gates are built from combinations of simpler logic gates.

Data storage
Logic gates can also be used to store data. A storage element can be constructed by connecting several gates in a "latch" circuit. More complicated designs that use clock signals and that change only on a rising or falling edge of the clock are called edge-triggered "flip-flops". The combination of multiple flip-flops in parallel, to store a multiple-bit value, is known as a register. When using any of these gate setups the overall system has memory; it is then called a sequential logic system since its output can be influenced by its previous state(s). These logic circuits are known as computer memory. They vary in performance, based on factors of speed, complexity, and reliability of storage, and many different types of designs are used based on the application.

Three-state logic gates

Three-state, or 3-state, logic gates are a type of logic gates that have three states of the output: high (H), low (L) and high-impedance (Z). The high-impedance state plays no role in the logic, which remains strictly binary. These devices are used on buses also known as the Data Buses of the CPU to allow multiple chips to send data. A group of three-states driving a line with a suitable control circuit is basically equivalent to a multiplexer, which may be physically distributed over separate devices or plug-in cards. In electronics, a high output would mean the output is sourcing current from the positive power terminal (positive voltage). A low output would mean the output is sinking current to the negative power terminal (zero voltage). High impedance would mean that the output is effectively disconnected from the circuit.

A tristate buffer can be thought of as a switch. If B is on, the switch is closed. If B is off, the switch is open.

Applications
Logic gates are in fact the building block of digital electronics; they are formed by the combination of transistors (either BJT or MOSFET) to realize some digital operations (like logical OR, AND, INVERT). Every digital product, like computers, mobile, calculators even digital watches, contains logic gates. The use of logic gates in digital world can be understood better by the following example: the single bit full adder in digital electronics is a logic circuit which perform the logical addition of two single bit binary numbers (a,b,cin) a and b are the the two binary number of single digit (either 1 or 0) and cin is the carry input . say for example a,b,cin= 1,1,1 gave an logical sum output of 1 and a carry of 1 , a,b,cin= 110 gave sum= 0 and carry of 1. Now this adder can be formed by the combination of many gate like by using NAND gates only. or by using XOR , AND ,OR gates and so on. So, in a nutshell, the adder which is of great importance in your computer processor and also in many more applications is basically built from the logic gates.

Implementations
ince the 1990s, most logic gates are made of CMOS transistors (i.e. NMOS and PMOS transistors are used). Often millions of logic gates are packaged in a single integrated circuit. There are several logic families with different characteristics (power consumption, speed, cost, size) such as: RDL (resistor-diode logic), RTL (resistor-transistor logic), DTL (diode-transistor logic), TTL (transistor-transistor logic) and CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor). There are also sub-variants, e.g. standard CMOS logic vs. advanced types using still CMOS technology, but with some optimizations for avoiding loss of speed due to slower PMOS transistors. Non-electronic implementations are varied, though few of them are used in practical applications. Many early electromechanical digital computers, such as the Harvard Mark I, were built from relay logic gates, using electro-mechanical relays. Logic gates can be made using pneumatic devices, such as the Sorteberg relay or mechanical logic gates, including on a molecular scale.[7] Logic gates have been made out of DNA (see DNA nanotechnology)[8] and used to create a computer called MAYA (see MAYA II). Logic gates can be made from quantum mechanical effects (though quantum computing usually diverges from boolean design). Photonic logic gates use non-linear optical effects.

Aim. To construct different logic gates and demonstrate their logic operations.

Apparatus /Materials required. switches Conecting wires Led(light emitting diodes) or bulbs Sand paper to clean the wires Solder machine Wire cutters etc.

Theory. Gates made in this project are :

THE OR GATE
The OR gate is a two inputs and one output logic gate. It combing the input A and B with the output Y following the Boolean expression.

Y=A+B

The Boolean algebra, the addition symbol (+) is called OR (i.e. OR operation OR operator).

The various possible combinations of the input and output of the OR gate can be easily understand with the help of the electrical circuit. In this electric circuit, a parallel combination of two switches A and B is connected to a battery and a lump L.

The following interference can be easily drawn from the working of electrical circuit is :

a)

If switch A & B are open lamp do not glow (A=0, B=0)

b)

If Switch A open B closed then (A=0, B=1) Lamp glow.

c)

If switch A closed B open then (A=1, B=0) Lamp glow.

d)

If switch A & B are closed then (A=1, B=1) Lamp glow.

As we see truth table we found same as it is observation.

THE AND GATE

The AND gate is also a two inputs and one output logic gate. It combines the input A and B with the output Y following the Boolean expression. Y=A.B The Boolean algebra, the multiplication symbol (. dot or x Gross) is taken to mean AND. Y = A . B have Y is equal to A AND B.

The various possible combination of the input and outputs of the AND gate can be easily found with the help of the electrical circuit. Here a series combination of the switch A and B is connected to a battery and a lump L. The following conclusions can be easily drawn from the working of electrical circuit : a) b) c) d) If both switches A&B are open (A=0, B=0) then lamp will not glow. (y=0) If Switch A closed & B open (A=1, B=0) then Lamp will not glow. (y=0) If switch A open & B closed (A=0, B=1) then Lamp will not glow. (y=0) If switch A & B both closed (A=1, B=1) then Lamp will glow. (y=1)

the electrical representation symbols for the above gates is :

Experimental procedure.

FOR AND GATE:

Connect all the circuit parts and wires as given in the following diagram. Make sure the switches are in series.

Circuit diagram:

FOR OR GATE:

Connect all the circuit parts and wires as given in the following diagram. Make sure the switches are in parralel.

Circuit diagram:

Observation.

The simplified AND gate shown above has two inputs, switch A and switch B. The bulb Q will only light if both switches are closed. This will allow current to flow through the bulb, illuminating the filament.

The truth table ifor and gate is : INPUT OUTPUT A B A AND B 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1

The simplified OR gate shown above has two inputs, switch A and switch B. The bulb Q will light if either switch A or B are closed. This will allow current to flow through the bulb, illuminating the filament. The truth table for or gate is :

INPUT OUTPUT A B A OR B 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1

When the bulb lights this represents a 1 as current is running through the filament. If current is not running through the filament the bulb will not light and this represents a 0 (zero).

Conclusions

Thus the AND and OR logic gates are successfully created and show the correct logic operations accoprding to the boolean algebra laws..

Precautions

1. Make sure that the coonections are all neat, clean and tight. 2. Make sure the LEDs positive and negative terminal dont touch each other as they will be fused then. 3.The switch connection is important and should be done carefully.

Bibliography

1. Wikepedia .com the free encyclopedia Articles read: Logic gates Boolean algebra Logic operations

2. http://isweb.redwoods.cc.ca.us/instruct/calderwoodd/diglogic/

3. NCERT textboook physics class 12 Chapter 14 semiconductoer devices.

4. Harvard and Caltech articles and papers on LOGIC GATES.