Performance vs Prescriptive Fire Design of RC Elements

PRESCRIPTIVE VS.
PERFORMANCE BASED DESIGN OF RCC ELEMENTS FOR FIRE RESISTANCE
A SEMINAR REPORT
By
ANKIT AGRAWAL
(11523001)
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

ROORKEE 247 667, Uttarakhand, INDIA July 2012
Abstract
The latest advancements in knowledge in the domain of fire safety, particularly over the last two decades, has brought about new design methods and analytical tools rendering the engineering approach more viable in practice. This has in turn triggered a shift from the traditional prescriptive and restrictive building codes to performance based codes with functional and flexible requirements. After laying a background in Structural Fire Engineering, this seminar report differentiates between the most prominent aspects of these design approaches for Reinforced Concrete Structural Members subject to fire that have been proposed in various building codes and literature. An emphasis has been laid on highlighting the drawbacks linked with prescriptive approaches and the various flexibilities offered by performance-based approaches available for design. Where prescriptive building codes were found to be highly rigid and constrained engineering thinking, performance based design for fire protection imbibed knowledge and tools developed in the fire engineering field. Under such an approach it was observed that the modern building code requirement on fire resistance of a structural element could be fulfilled in different ways either by fire testing in furnaces (prescribed regulations) or by calculation but also by a combination of these two. Also, whilst the prescriptive approaches were found to be inadequate when complex buildings or processes were involved; the flexibility offered by the performance-based concept enabled engineers to overcome such difficulties. The application of fire safety engineering based on performance-based building codes have already led to new ideas how to improve the fire safety and how to consider fire risks and consequences. The real life examples discussed subsequently in the report clearly depict the possibility of choosing alternatives for fire safety measures where actual performance gains precedence over mere compliance. It was observed that several national building codes (New Zealand, Australia, UK etc.) have already been revised to follow this new approach, thus pointing the way to future developments in fire safety engineering or Performance Based Structural Fire Engineering (PBSFE). The International Committee of Concrete Model Code has also provided a model for Performance Based Design model for Fire Effects keeping in view the general design provisions adhered to in Asia and the Pacific. It is also important to note that the Eurocodes (EN1992-1-2:2004) were found to be most comprehensive and descriptive of the procedures characteristic of a performance-based approach. However, the need of good knowledge about fire behavior, material properties at elevated temperatures etc. for simulating fire tests in computer and performing reliable structural analyses along with more competent and experienced engineers working in this field was established as well.
Keywords: Concrete Structures, Design Fire Scenarios, Fire Resistant Design, Structural, Response Analysis, Thermal Analysis, Prescriptive Design, Performance-Based Structural Fire Engineering, Building Codes.
Acknowledgements
I take this opportunity to thank my supervisor Dr. Pradeep Bhargava, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, for his valuable suggestion and support in completion of this seminar report submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of Master of Technology with specialization in Structural Engineering. I have great pleasure in expressing my gratitude to Dr. Umesh Kumar Sharma, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, for his consistent encouragement and patiently responding to my queries.
Praveen Kamath, PhD. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee is to be deeply thanked for the helpful discussions and useful hints throughout this endeavour.
I woud also like to thank Dr. P.K. Gupta, Associate Professor , Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, as his support as O.C. of Structural Engineering and Dr. A.K.Jain, Professor and H.O.D., Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, for setting up the practical framework without which this report would not be possible. Last but not the least, I would also like to thank my parents and friends for their invaluable support.
Date: 22 July 2012 Place: Roorkee
Ankit Agrawal M. Tech IInd Yr (S.E.) 11523001
ii
List of Figures
1.1 2.1 3.1 3.2 Examples of structures subjected to elevated temperature. Matrix of assessment models for structural fire safety design Standard furnace test layout: (a) beam and (b) column 1 3 5
Effect of member continuity on the fire affected performance of flexural members: (a) 7 basic structure; (b) decrease of moment capacity with time; (c) no hogging moment and (d) hogging and sagging. Effect of furnace characteristics on fire test results. Prescriptive approach for determining the fire resistance of structural elements. Minimum dimensions of reinforced concrete members for fire resistance Effect of window area on fire temperatures during burnout tests with natural ventilation (SCI 1991) Performance-based structural fire engineering (PBSFE) design process 7 8 9 10 11
3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17
Stress distribution at ultimate limit state for a rectangular concrete cross section with 15 compression reinforcement, from EN 1992-1-2 Modeling of real fire behavior (a) Zone Model (b) Radiation Model (c) CFD Model. 18
19 Testing regimes to determine the mechanical behaviour of materials at elevated temperatures (Malhotra, 1982b). Idealization of stressstrain behaviour for steel at elevated temperatures: (a) linear 20 elastic perfectly plastic; (b) linear elastic, linear strain hardening and (c) Dounas and Golrang model. Stressstrain relationship for carbon steel at elevated temperatures, from EN 1993-1-2 20 Tests for computing the various strain components. Stressstrain curves for concrete with a constant descending (unloading) branch (Anderberg and Thelandersson, 1976). 21 22
Linear elastic-elliptical plastic idealization of the stressstrain curve for concrete (after 22 Khennane and Baker 1993). Comparisons of full stressstrain curves at temperatures 40, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 22 600 and 700C. Overall calculation procedure for the structural behavior of fire affected members. 23 Flowchart showing the steps associated with the analysis of an RC beam exposed to fire. Effect of Load Ratio on the Deflection of RC Beams Exposed to Fire Effect of fire scenario on the moment capacity of RC beams exposed to fire. Effect of various parameters on the fire resistance of RC beams Measured and predicted deflections as a function of time for columns. Measured and predicted deflections as a function of time for columns. iii 24 24 25 25 25 26
Contents
Abstract Acknowledgements List of Figures i ii iii
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 Structural Fire Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Philosophies of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Fire Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Assessment Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Interaction between Active and Passive Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Prescriptive Approach for Fire Resistance Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Standard Fire Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Drawbacks of the Fire Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Prescriptive Determination of Fire Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Fire Resistance Provisions as per IS 456 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Fire Resistance Provisions as per ASTM E119 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Performance Based Design Solutions for Fire Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Simple Calculative Approaches based on European Building Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Temperature Profile Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Reduced Section Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4 Method of Slices (Zone Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Advanced Analysis Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Modeling Real Fire Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Thermal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 Material Modeling at Elevated Temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.2 Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.3 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.5 Structural Response using Finite Element Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.5.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Other Design Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Performance in Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Performance of Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Provisions for Spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.4 Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 International Committee of Concrete Model Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Australian and New Zealand Fire Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Benefits of Performance Based Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Remarks in Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 The Road Ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Making Fire Safe Design Concrete! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography 2 2 2 2 3 4 5 5 5 6 8 8 9 11 12 12 12 12 13 15 16 16 17 18 19 19 19 20 23 23 23 26 26 26 26 27 28 30 30 31 31 32 32
Introduction
1.1 General
The fast advances in modern civilization have made the humankind more dependent on using buildings and infrastructure, increasing by that the probability of exposure to various risks and hazards. This has emphasized the importance of maintaining high safety standards in buildings to prevent or reduce casualties, injuries and losses that may occur due to incidents. One of the main threats to human safety is fires. Every year significant life loss and tremendous martial damage occur due to fires happening around the world. A fire can strike at any time in any building including houses, factories, schools, tunnels etc.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.1: Examples of structures subjected to elevated temperature There is also a growing recognition that the current prescriptive, component based method only provides a relative comparison of how similar building elements performed under a standard fire exposure and does not provide information about the actual performance (i.e. load-carrying capacity) of a component or assembly in a real fire environment, nor of the system as a whole or its connections. The prescriptive method also does not provide how the structural system as a whole or its connections will perform in a standard fire exposure, nor does it account for the effects of thermal expansion on the strength and stability of a structural system. Therefore, this method cannot be used to quantify the maximum possible fire endurance time of a structure without undergoing collapse. Thus, for a certain class of buildings such as high-rises or other important structures which, due to the longer evacuation time or the significance of the buildings, may be required to survive beyond the un-quantified system fire endurance time without structural collapse using prescriptive methods, a performance-based fire resistance approach may provide a more rational method for achieving the necessary fire resistance more consistent with the needed level of protection. A performance-based fire resistance approach considering the evolution of the buildings structural capacity as it undergoes realistic (non-standard) fire exposures is thus a desirable alternative fire resistance design method for those structures. The subsequent sections of the report highlight the salient features of both these design processes as well as some examples highlighting the benefits of the performance based approach in particular.
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Structural Fire Engineering

2.1 Introduction
Structural fire Engineering, not to be confused Fire Safety Engineering, focuses on specific aspects of passive fire protection in terms of analyzing the thermal effects of fires on buildings while designing members for adequate load bearing resistance and to control the spread of fire. The increasing need to improve fire safety in buildings has led to the creation of Structural Fire Engineering as a new subset to structural engineering. The main objective of Structural Fire Engineering is to improve fire safety standards in buildings using experimental and theoretical based research and to provide fire design solutions. This enables to improve the fire safety of buildings by the way of developing buildings fire codes, and fire design standards. Structural Fire Engineering covers all building categories including, steel structures, concrete structures, masonry structures, timber structures, aluminum structures and composite structures. It also covers various aspects of engineering science including: numerical modeling, practical applications, simple calculation models, experimental studies, material behavior at high temperature, case studies, codes of practice and design and analysis of the whole structural behavior.
2.2 Philosophies for Design

2.2.1 Fire Limit States
With respect to the prescriptive approach, based on the standard fire a failure criteria were defined as The element under test should have sufficient strength (load-bearing capacity) to resist the applied loading over the required duration of the test. The temperatures of the unexposed face should be low enough not to cause initiation of combustion of materials stored against that face. There should be no possibility of flame being able to reach the unexposed face through any weakness or loss of integrity in the construction either inherent in the construction itself or due to excessive deformation during the test. These failure criteria can be simply identified as load-bearing capacity (L), insulation (I) and integrity (E). With a performance based design perspective however, the limit states can be specified as Serviceability Limit State This limit state is a design requirement to ensure the structure behaves as intended and is relevant when providing fire resistance against frequent but relatively small fires. Restorability Limit State This limit state involves protection against moderate fires and ensures economic repair of the structure. Safety Limit State This limit state is intended to render the structure safe for the most severe foreseeable fire.
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Chapter 2 :Structural Fire Engineering It is also important to note that under any circumstances, a load-bearing capacity criterion can be expressed in one of the three ways On a time base : = , , 0
where , is the calculated time to failure and , is the required time to failure ( , may be replaced by the equivalent time , ). On a strength base : where , is the load resistance and , is the load effect, both evaluated with the application of suitable appropriate partial safety factors, over the required time period. On a temperature base : = , 0 where , is the critical design temperature and is the calculated design temperature of the member. This last criterion is applicable only to the load-bearing capacity when a member is exposed to the standard temperature-time curve. Also, the compliance to the Restorability limit state can be achieved through this definition. = , , 0
2.2.2 Assessment Models

Fire performance can also be evaluated on the basis of the heating or temperature exposure model instead of the structural model. There are three heating and three structural models available each of which are with increasing complexity and are illustrated in Figure 2.1 (Witteveen, 1983). It relates the heating model to exposure to the temperaturetime relationship generated in the standard fire, or furnace, test and allows assessment of either simple structural elements or subassemblies by test or by calculation with the duration determined from regulations or codes.
Figure 2.1: Matrix of assessment models for structural fire safety design Page | 3
Chapter 2 :Structural Fire Engineering
2.3.3 Interaction between Active and Passive Measures

Passive measures like the provision of adequate cover to reinforcing steels or the provision of a given thickness of protection on a steel beam in order to achieve a specified regulatory fire resistance when coupled with active protection through systems such as sprinkler system which reduce the amount of damage caused to the property and contents in the case of a fire forms a more robust fire protection strategy. Thus, possible trade-offs between the two approaches give rise to the possibility of reduction of the passive requirements if active measures are provided (Stirland, 1981; Read, 1985) . Baldwin and Thomas (1973) have addressed this problem statistically demonstrating that depending on relative costs and an assessment of the probability of failure of the sprinkler system, that the fire resistance grading required for an office block could be reduced by about 1 hr. by using sprinkler systems. It is thus seen that there is a benefit from trade-off although the benefits gained may not yet have been fully utilized in that with a fully operative sprinkler system the fire may well be contained or indeed extinguished before any structural damage occurs. There is, however, still the need to consider the possibility of the fire occurring when for whatever reason the sprinkler system is inoperative. Thus, until further guidance becomes available, it may well be prudent only to consider trade-off in terms of reduced fire resistance periods recognizing that one of the prime functions of fire resistance is to allow evacuation to proceed safely.
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Prescriptive Approach
3.1 Introduction
Prescriptive methods essentially instruct the designer is told what parameter values to use rather than being able to calculate these values for providing requisite fire resistance. The data used in the prescriptive approach are obtained by interpreting the results from the standard fire test. For a history of the development of the standard fire test, reference can be made to Malhotra (1982a, 1994), or Babrauskas and Williamson (1978a,b).
3.2
Standard Fire Test
The standard furnace test is regulated on an international basis by ISO 834 (1975) which has been subject to amendments since 1975. National bases tend to be in essential agreement with the international standard, although there may be slight variations in the detail of the test. In the UK the current British Standard is the prescribed as requirements in BS EN 1363 and BS EN 13501. Traditionally, most building structure fires have been considered to occur with the bulk of the combustible material taken as cellulosic and the resultant standard furnace temperaturetime curve being established on this basis. For such fire tests, the temperaturetime curve specified for the furnace is : where is the furnace temperature (oC) and is the time (minutes). The standard curve gives temperatures of 842 oC at 30 min, 945 oC at 60 min and 1049 oC at 120 min. It should be noted that whilst Eq. (3.1) is mathematically concise, it is not ideal for calculating analytically explicit solutions to the heat transfer equations when an element is exposed to the standard furnace curve on one or more boundaries. Thus alternative expressions were derived Williams-Leir (1973) and Fackler (1959). = 20 + 345 (8 + 1) (3.1)
Figure 3.1: Standard furnace test layout: (a) beam and (b) column.
The standard furnace test, whether conducted under the temperature time regime imposed by either the cellulosic or hydrocarbon curve continues until failure occurs due to any one of the following criteria (or limit states) being met: Page | 5
Chapter 3: Prescriptive Approach
Insulation (denoted as I): The average temperature on an unexposed face achieves a temperature of 140 or a local value exceeds C 180C. Integrity (denoted as E): Cracks or openings occur in a separating element such that ignition can occur on the unexposed face. Load-bearing capacity (denoted as R): The element being tested loses load-bearing capacity when the element is no longer able to carry the applied loading. In practice, however, deflection limits are imposed, partly in recognition of the fact that at collapse, large deflections occur due to the formation of plastic hinges in beams or slabs, or due to incipient buckling in walls or columns and partly to avoid the specimen collapsing into the furnace with possible consequential damage to the furnace and loading system. For any members such limits should not be applied until the deflection reaches L/30. Then for, Flexural members: Limiting deflection is L2/400d (mm) or rate of deflection L2/9000d (mm/min) where d is the depth of the member and L the span, both in mm. Vertically loaded members: Limiting vertical contraction is h/100 (mm) or rate of contraction 3 h/1000 (mm/min) where h is the initial height of the member (mm). It is to be stressed that the deformation or, rate of deformation, limits only apply to performance in the standard furnace test and not to elements within a structure. The result from the fire test is quoted in time units of minutes when each of the limiting criteria R, E or I, if appropriate to the element of construction being tested, is reached. The final test grading is then expressed as the least time for any of the criteria rounded down to the nearest appropriate classification, i.e. 30, 60, 90, 120, 180 or 240 min.
3.3 Drawbacks of the Standard Fire Test

The prescriptive method is essentially very quick, but is not likely to be economic, in that calculations may show that thinner members with lower cover, in the case of concrete, or lower amounts of fire protection, or indeed no fire protection, in the case of structural steelwork, can provide the requisite fire performance. In order to provide examples of the prescriptive method, it is convenient to consider each of the construction materials separately. The two main variables to be considered here are the specification of minimum overall dimensions of the member and the minimum axis distance to the main reinforcement. The minimum overall dimensions are specified, either in the case of walls or slabs to keep the temperature on the unexposed face below the insulation limit of 140 oC, or to ensure that spalling will not be severe enough to cause either the web of a beam or rib in a slab or a column to lose an amount of concrete such that the member can no longer carry its design loading. The minimum axis distance is specified to keep the temperature of the main reinforcement, which can be either the bottom flexural steel in a beam or slab or the vertical compression reinforcement in a column or wall, below a critical value generally considered as being around 500550 oC, as it is at around this temperature that the strength of the reinforcement drops to a value equal to the stresses induced by service loading (which is the loading generally applied in fire testing).The values of member dimensions and axis distance are dependent on the type of aggregate within the concrete (siliceous or calcareous in normal-weight concrete or lightweight) and on the fire resistance period. For columns, the effect of load level on these dimensions is also considered. For beams and slabs, there may also be some allowance for continuous members in comparison with simply supported members by a slight reduction in axis distances and overall depth values, in recognition that there is a degree of redistribution of moments away from areas of sagging moment to areas of hogging moment during a fire (Fig. 3.2). Additional Page | 6
requirements where spalling is considered to be critical may also be specified such as the provision of supplementary reinforcement in the form of light mesh in the concrete or the use of polypropylene fibers where axis distances exceed certain values or the concrete is high strength or self-compacting. As indicated in the previous paragraph, axis distances to reinforcement rather than covers are specified. This is actually more scientifically correct as it is observed in computer-based heat transfer calculations that the temperatures at the centre of a reinforcing bar are identical to those at the same position in plain concrete (Ehm, 1967). Becker, Bizri and Bresler (1974) indicate that this is only correct for a reinforcement area less than 4% of the gross section. Where the main reinforcement is in more than one layer, then the effective axis distance is used to determine the fire resistance requirement. The various other drawbacks are concerned with expense, specimen limitation, effect of restraint and continuity confidentiality of results loading failure modes and reproducibility.
Figure 3.2: Effect of member continuity on the fire affected performance of flexural members: (a) basic structure; (b) decrease of moment capacity with time; (c) no hogging moment and (d) hogging and sagging.
Figure 3.3: Effect of furnace characteristics on fire test results. .
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3.4 Prescriptive Determination of Fire Resistance

The prescriptive approach for determining the fire resistance of a structure, or more correctly, the assemblage of the elements comprising the structure considered on an individual basis, can be defined in the flow diagram in Figure 3.4, where the element is detailed to provide the fire resistance required by the appropriate regulatory guidelines.
Figure 3.4: Prescriptive approach for determining the fire resistance of structural elements.
3.5 Fire Resistance Provisions as per IS Codes

Various Indian Standard codes are available which describe general provisions for providing fire safety. IS 456 in particular provides for structural provisions for required fire resistance which has been depicted in Figure 3.5. It states that a structure or structural element required to have fire resistance should be designed to possess an appropriate degree of resistance to flame penetration; heat transmission and failure. The fire resistance of a structural element is expressed in terms of time in hours in accordance with IS 1641. Fire resistance of concrete elements depends upon details of member size, cover to steel reinforcement detailing and type of aggregate (normal weight or light weight) used in concrete. General requirements for fire protection are given in IS 1642. An important note that has been made in IS 1642 is that "in absence of research data in this country, the data as arrived by Building Research Establishment (UK) has been adopted in this standard". Thus, there is an urgent need to generate indigenous data such that it can be incorporated in the same. The present provisions presented in Figure 3.5 are prescriptive in nature and do not consider the variabilities due to factors such as fire characteristics, ventilation and material properties at elevated temperatures.
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Figure 3.5: Minimum dimensions of reinforced concrete members for fire resistance.
3.6 Fire Resistance Provisions as per ASTM E119

Fire resistance requirements in the US building codes are based on the presumed temperature profile and duration of a standard fire, as described in ASTM E119. The test determines load bearing capacity (the ability of a building element to continue its function for a period of time without collapse), integrity (the passage of flames or gases hot enough to ignite cotton waste) and insulation (assuring the temperature on the unheated side of the element does not exceed 250F). In the test, a beam, column, wall or floor under its calculated design load is exposed to a standard fire defined by a prescribed temperature/time curve. Programming the temperature of a test furnace through controlling the rate of fuel supply achieves this curve. The fire resistance Page | 9
of the element is taken as the time to the nearest minute, between commencement of heating and failure under one or all of the criteria outlined above (load bearing capacity, integrity or insulation). Periods of fire resistance are normally specified as half hour, one hour and/or two hours up to four hours. This test is based on methods first developed in the early 1900s when there was very little knowledge of how fires behave and their effect on structural performance (AISI 1981). The standard fire test has been widely criticized. The difference between the standard test temperature-time curve and temperaturetime curves measured in real compartment fires is considerable (see graph). The graph shows the temperature/ time curve for the standard test compared to real fire temperatures from compartment fires with various window areas. The differences are clear. The duration and severity of a real fire is not defined well as the standard fire test curve. Figure 3.6 also shows that in many cases periods of fire resistance are over-specified where the standard test results are applied, specifically where the decay phase of the real fires has begun but the standard fire test curve still increases. This figure also illustrates that the maximum fire temperatures will vary as a function of the window area, or ventilation conditions of the fire compartment. This is not considered when the standard fire test curve is assumed. Thus essentially, the provisions provided in ASTM E119 are prescriptive in nature.
Figure 3.6: Effect of window area on fire temperatures during burnout tests with natural ventilation (SCI 1991).
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Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

4.1 Introduction
Functional requirements such as prevention of spreading heat and smoke, safe evacuation and rescue etc. when related to fire resistance considering both local and global stability of structures, forms the most rational approach towards fire safety assessment. In a Performance-Based Design(PBD), it's desired to first understand the level of performance is expected, design to these levels and finally to predict the performance that will be achieved to ensure the reliability and robustness of the design. The existing test methods, like ASTM E 119 or IS : 3809 1979, are not currently configured to provide the required engineering data . The lack of engineering data from standard fire resistance test methods requires that performance-based design utilize data obtained from ad hoc test methods performed outside of the scope of standard test methodologies. This process is lacking in both standardization and efficiency. While the field of Performance-Based Structural Fire Engineering(PBSFE, Figure 4.1) is still nascent, the overall structure of the process has been well defined for some time. The process includes both design and analysis components. The analysis components involve the definition of the design fire exposure, the thermal/mechanical response of the structural assembly (including any fireproofing materials), and structural response of the structural system. The fire engineering begins with the development of a design fire exposure to the structure. This normally takes the form of a time-temperature curve based upon the fire load, ventilation, and thermal properties of the bounding surfaces (walls, floor, and ceiling). Design fire loads are dependent upon the occupancy and other fire protection features of the building. Based upon the architectural and structural designs, the design fire is used to develop the passive fire protection design. This involves the selection of fire resistive assembly constructions for use as walls, columns, and floor/ceiling assemblies. The assemblies are selected to survive the design fire exposure, to be consistent with the architectural/structural design, and to provide cost-effective protection. Generally, more than one set of conceptual designs are developed for further evaluation.
Figure 4.1: Performance-based structural fire engineering (PBSFE) design process.
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Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance
Detailed design involves the use of thermal/mechanical models to assess the performance of each conceptual design, resulting in trial protection thicknesses based upon tentative thermal failure criteria. It is significant that existing models cannot deal with the mechanical performance of the assembly in any substantive manner. Loss of physical integrity of a material or the assembly cannot be modeled at this time. The designer relies entirely upon the results of testing to assure that physical integrity is maintained over the design exposure period. In most cases, the engineer seeks to use materials and assemblies that can be relied upon to maintain integrity, or alternatively simple, and somewhat ad hoc, assumptions about material loss are made in the design calculations. The final analysis process is the prediction of structural performance of the structure under design loads with the structural elements heated according to the heat-transfer analysis. This analysis can be performed for individual elements, for the substructure in the fire area, or for the complete structural system. Typically, multiple analyses are performed with more detailed analysis at the element level and more basic analysis at the structural system level. Based upon the performance of the system, redesign may be indicated.
4.2 Simple Calculative Approaches based on European Building Codes 4.2.1 Introduction
Fire resistance is a measure of the ability of a building element to resist a fire, usually the time for which the element can meet certain criteria during exposure to a standard fire resistance test. A building element is a structural member such as a beam or a column, a non-structural element such as a partition or door, or a combination such as a floor or load-bearing wall. Individual materials do not possess fire resistance. Fire resistance is a property assigned to building elements that are constructed from a single material or a mixture of materials. A fire resistance rating is the fire resistance assigned to a building element on the basis of a test or some other approval system. Some countries use the terms fire rating, fire endurance rating, or fire resistance level, which are usually interchangeable. The following sections provide a detailed description of simple calculation methods to determine fire resistance of concrete elements based on EN 1992-1-2.
4.2.2 Temperature Profile Determination

Fundamental theory of heat transfer and empirical or graphical solutions can be used for calculating the temperature distribution in any element. However, it is generally accurate enough to use such data for the end-point design of concrete members. Where exposure is to a parametric or real fire curve, the temperatures within a concrete element, including therefore those of any steel reinforcement, continue to rise for a period after the maximum fire, or gas, temperature has been reached. Thus the mechanical response or resistance of any concrete element so exposed will need calculation during the early stages of the cooling period as the critical design strength may be attained after the maximum fire temperature has occurred. There are three main sources of graphical data. The ISE and Concrete Society design guide (1978) FIP/CEB report (1978) EN 1992-1-2 Empirical methods
These in general are based either on curve fitting techniques on data derived from furnace tests, or on the superposition of simple solutions to the Fourier heat transfer equation. There are two such available Page | 12
methods. The first proposed by Wickstrom (1985a, 1986) is based on the analysis of results from TASEF-2 and the second is proposed by Hertz (1981a, b). Both methods can be applied to exposure to either an actual compartment temperaturetime curve, provided that for Wickstroms method the parametric curve in EN 1991-1-2 is used, or the standard furnace test curve. Both methods are applicable to different concretes as the thermal diffusivity is entered as data. Both methods give the temperature rise above ambient. The presentation of both methods, given below, is limited to exposure to the standard furnace curve. The Position of the 500oC Isotherm as required by the method first proposed by Anderberg (1978b) as given by Eq. 4.1. For uni-axial heat flow, the position x for a temperature rise at time t and furnace temperature rise is given by: 0.417 106 ]0.5 = [ exp 4.5 + 0.18 (4.1)
4.2.3 Reduced Section Method
This method was proposed by Anderberg (1978b), following the analysis of a number of fire tests carried out on flexural reinforced concrete elements. There are some limitations placed on the use of the method and comprise minimum thicknesses for either standard exposure times or fire load densities (Table B1: EN 19921-2). If used with parametric curves then the opening factor must be greater than 0.14m1/2. The calculations are carried out by assuming: (1) The concrete within the 500oC isotherm remains unaffected by heat. (2) The reduction factors for the reinforcement are for: Compression reinforcement and tension reinforcement with the strain in the reinforcement , < 2 % 20 100 () = 1.0
() = 0.57 0.13 () = 0.1 0.47 () = 0.1 500 () = 0.7 0.3 400 300 100 500 200 (4.2)
400 500
100 400
500 700
700 1200
400 500
20 400
Compression reinforcement and tension reinforcement with the strain in the reinforcement , > 2 %
() = 0.78 0.22 () = 1.0 500 200
1200
700
(4.4)
(4.3)
(4.5)
(4.6) (4.7)
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(4.8)
500 600
600 700
() = 0.47 0.31
(3) In accordance with EN 1992-1-1, the depth of the stress block is taken as x, where x is the depth to the neutral axis, where is given by: = 0.8 50 0.8 200
800 1200
700 1800
() = 0.23 0.24 () = 0.11 () = 0.11 0.12 400
600 100 800 100 100
700
(4.9)
(4.10)
1200
(4.11)
(4.12)
and the concrete strength is taken as fcd, where is given by: = 1.0
(4) All concrete in tension is ignored. (5) In both methods the value of the load duration factor cc is taken as 1.0 and therefore not included in the calculations. The moment capacity of the section Mu is given by: where 1 is due to the tension reinforcement and 2 is due to the compression reinforcement and its balancing tension reinforcement. 1 is given by: and the mechanical reinforcement ratio is given by: = 1 = 1 , ( ) 1 , ( ) , (20) = 1 + 2
50 1.0 200
(4.13) (4.14)
(4.15)
(4.16)
2 is given by:
The total tension steel area As is given by:
2 = 1 , ( ) = 1 + 2
(4.18)
(4.17)
Symbols are defined in Figure 4.2.
(4.19)
Page | 14
The values of , () and , () are the temperature reduced strengths of the reinforcement at a mean temperature m in a given layer. Where the reinforcement is in layers then the mean temperature reduced strength k()fsd,fi is given by: (), = = ( ), 1
and the effective axis distance a by:
(), (),
(4.20)
(4.21)
Figure 4.2 Stress distribution at ultimate limit state for a rectangular concrete cross section with compression reinforcement, from EN 1992-1-2.
4.2.4 Method of Slices (Zone Method)

The heat affected concrete is divided into a series of slices and the temperature determined at the middepth of each slice. The concrete strength reduction factor for siliceous aggregate concrete kc() is given by (From Table 3.1, EN 1992-1-2): 100 200 20 100 () = 0.95 0.05 () = 0.15 0.6 () = 0.75 0.2 () = 1.0 200 100
400 800
200 400
900 1000
800 900
1000 1100
() = 0.01 0.03
() = 0.04 0.04
() = 0.08 0.07
800 400
400 200 900 100
(4.23)
(4.22)
(4.24)
1000 100 1100 100
(4.27) (4.28) Page | 15
(4.26)
(4.25)
1100 1200
() = 0.1 , = 1
1200 100
(4.29) (4.30)
The mean concrete strength reduction factor kc,m is given by:
The factor 1 0.2/n in Eq. (4.30) is to compensate for the fact that kc(i) is determined at the centre of a strip. The effective width of a uniform stress block is determined by calculating the width of the damage zone az given by: For Columns , 1.3 = [1 ) ( ) = 1
0.2 ( )
For beams and slabs
The strength reduction factor kc(M) is determined at the centre of the member and w is the half width for exposure on opposite faces and the width (thickness of a slab). For columns, 2w is the lesser cross-sectional dimension. The reinforcement strength reduction factors are the same as those used in the 500 oC isotherm method, and the method of analysis for beams is also similar. EN 1992-1-2 imposes a restriction on the zone method, that it may only be used for exposure to the standard furnace curve. The reason for this is unclear as Hertz implies there is not restriction as he tabulated mean strength and damage zone width parameters for exposure to parametric fire curves.
, ( )
(4.31) (4.32)
4.3 Advanced Analysis Procedures 4.3.1 Introduction

It is expected of advanced analysis procedures that they comprehensively account for thermal response and mechanical response of structural components and systems. Thermal and mechanical properties of structural materials are temperature-dependent (Gustaferro and Martin 1989; ECCS 2001). The deterioration in structural strength and stiffness with increasing temperatures, nonlinear material behavior, effects of thermal expansion, and large deformations should be taken into account. The appropriate limit states include excessive deflections, connection fractures, and overall and local buckling. The analysis should allow for the nature of the failure observed in fire tests of structural systems (Lim et al. 2004). For example, the Cardington tests showed that, in structural frames with fire-protected columns and floor slabs supported by unprotected steel beams, the floor systems supported the load through the development of two-way membrane action rather than flexural action. Thus, the analysis should take such behavior into account. Furthermore, for fire-induced limit states that are relevant for progressive collapse mitigation, a finite Page | 16
element (FE) platform with nonlinear analysis capabilities generally would be required for structural systems analysis. These aspects have been addressed in the subsequent sections.
4.3.2 Modeling Real Fire Behavior 4.3.2.1 Introduction

Fire modeling is a mathematical simulation of the fire conditions in a compartment and is capable of giving information based on the parameters which have been designed. The fire development in a room normally involves three phases: pre-flashover, post-flashover and fire decay. In the pre-flashover phase, fuels begin to burn and the gas temperature varies from one point to another in the compartment. In the post-flashover phase, the fire develops fully, and the gas temperature increases rapidly to a peak value and becomes practically uniform throughout the compartment. The fire has the most influence on structural design because of high temperature and radiant heat fluxes produced in this phase. In the fire decay phase, the available fuel begins to decrease and the gas temperature falls. There is considerable benefit when the effects of natural fires in buildings, where the amounts of the combustible contents are small and the buildings are of large volume, is considered than using the standard ISO fire. For many years, fire engineering research has shown that overall structure performs better than isolated members in a fire situation. Numerous studies have been carried out to determine the temperature reached in real (natural) fires, to quantify the factors that govern fire severity and to investigate the parameters that cause structures to fail in fire. The studies show that the severity of natural fires in building compartments is governed by the amount of combustible material (the fire load), the area of the doors and windows (the ventilation), and the thermal characteristics of the wall, floor and ceiling materials. In addition, fire-fighting measures are also important for the determination of fire exposure. The following subsections discuss the various models available for modeling fire of different complexity and severity. Design fires are derived empirically and may yield reasonable and consistent predictions provided that the fire conditions are similar to those in the underlying assumptions. Standard fire curves such as ISO-834 do not represent the real fire in a compartment and serve only as criteria to evaluate the fire resistance capacity of single structural members. Simplified code prescribed method often assumes that the fire has a constant temperature throughout the burning period. Design Fire Models Eurocode 1: Part 1-2 (2001) recommends equations for parametric fires, allowing a temperaturetime curve to be produced for any combination of fuel load, opening factor, height of opening and thermal characteristic of the boundary materials. Zone models represent more of the phenomenological behavior of fire. They solve the conservation equations for distinct and relatively large regions (Figure 4.3(a)). In each zone, the heat balance equations are solved to generate gas temperatures. There are several options for calculating the heat release rate, based on ventilation control, fuel control or the porosity of wood crib fuels. Other computer models including ZONE, CSTBZ1, CFAST, BANZFIRE, are summarized in SFPE (2002). Radiation model may be used to simulate fire as a radiating source with the heat flux intensity defined by its distance from the source, as shown in Figure 4.3(b). The heat rays are emitted in all directions. The Computational Fluid Dynamic CFD model can be used to represent various types of walls of different materials and the exact location and dimensions of openings. The fire compartment to be modeled by CFD is divided into a number of small volumes. The fluid dynamics equations are written in each of these small volumes, and each volume is linked to the adjacent volumes. The heat transient problems are expressed in differential equations, and time integration has to be performed by solving a large number of equations in the time domain (Figure 4.3(c)).
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4.3: Modeling of real fire behavior (a) Zone Model (b) Radiation Model (c) CFD Model.
4.3.3 Thermal Analysis

The fire exposure, nature of heat transfer, and thermal properties of the material govern the development of temperatures (and thus thermal strains) in the structural components and system. If the temperature is essentially uniform in the compartment, these temperatures can be determined from the numerical solution of the heat flow (diffusion) equation. Assuming heat flow in two dimensions and homogeneous and isotropic thermal conductivity, = 2 T (4.33) in which T=T(x,y,t) represents the temperature within the structural element at coordinate (x,y), = density, thermal parameters Cp = specific heat (typically 600 J/kg K for steel and 900 J/kg K for concrete), and k = thermal conductivity (typically 45 W/m K for steel and 1.4 W/m K for concrete). The thermal parameters may be temperature dependent (ECCS 2001).Assuming that the heat flow across the boundary due to the fire is caused by both convection and radiation, the boundary condition at the exposed surface for the solution of Eq. 4.34 is
n = Direction of heat flow at the boundary hc = Convection coefficient (typically 25 W/m2 K) V = Radiation view factor = Resultant emissivity (typically about 0.8 for hot surfaces and luminous flames) = Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.67 x 10-8 W/ m2 K4) Tg , Ts = Absolute temperatures of compartment and surface,respectively
4 = + 4
(4.34)
Analytical solutions to Eq. 4.33 and 4.34 are difficult to obtain, and finite element or finite difference approaches generally are necessary for all but simple structural member tests In the finite element formulation, Eq. 4.33 and 4.34 become,
A number of programs are available to perform the thermal analysis (Milke 2002). Simplified analytical and graphical methods are available for computing temperature development in simple beams and columns.
+ =
(4.35)
Page | 18
4.3.4 Material Modeling at Elevated Temperatures 4.3.4.1 Introduction

In order to carry out computer analyses of either steel or concrete elements or structures exposed to fire, it is necessary to be able to formulate constitutive stressstrain models for both steel and concrete. Both structural and reinforcing, and concrete, since for both these materials, there is a substantial amount of available data which has been published in two RILEM reports (Anderberg, 1983; Schneider, 1986a).These models may either be established using fundamental principles or by curve fitting on established data on an empirical approach. Whilst the former is clearly the more preferable, it is often necessary to resort to the latter owing to either the paucity of data needed to establish a fundamental model or practical aspects in that the model is not required to be portable, but applicable to a single identified material, e.g. a single steel strength (or grade). It is essential to be aware of potential limitations when using any model.
Figure 4.4: Testing regimes to determine the mechanical behaviour of materials at elevated temperatures (Malhotra, 1982b).
4.3.4.2 Reinforcing Steel

The mathematical model used for the instantaneous elastic strain is dependant upon the characterization used for the stress-strain curve. Common models include Linear elastic perfectly plastic Linear elastic, strain hardening model and Dounas and Golrang model which have been depicted in Figure 4.5. Idealization for creep has been presented in Figure. In order to standardize the parameters required in design, EN 1992-1-2, EN 1993-1-2 and EN 1994-1-2 give a stressstrain curve for both reinforcing and structural steels (Figure 4.6).
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Figure 4.5: Idealization of stressstrain behaviour for steel at elevated temperatures: (a) linear elastic perfectly plastic; (b) linear elastic, linear strain hardening and (c) Dounas and Golrang model.
Figure 4.6: Stressstrain relationship for carbon steel at elevated temperatures, from EN 1993-1-2.
4.3.4.3 Concrete
Generally, the constitutive model for concrete under high temperature may be expressed as follows
~ = ( (t ), T (t ), )
~ where, = Total strain at time t; = Stress ; T = Temperature; = Stress history
(4.36)
An adequate formulation of the model is obtained if the total strain is seen as the sum of four different strain components: free thermal strain ( strain (
).
th ), creep strain ( cr ), transient strain ( tr ) and instantaneous stress related
= th (T ) + ( , T ) + cr ( , T , t ) + tr ( , T )
= Total strain; = Corresponding stress; T = Temperature; t = Time
(4.37)
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Thermal strain, including shrinkage, is measured on unstressed specimens under variable temperature. Free thermal strain is due to change of temperature and is expressed by a linear function of temperature.
th = (T T0 ),
(4.38)
Where, is the thermal expansion coefficient and T0 is the initial temperature. For concrete with siliceous or carbonate aggregate, can be taken equal to 18 10-6 or 12 10-6 per 0C, respectively to conduct approximate calculations. Lie (1992) proposed following relationship for concrete with siliceous or carbonate aggregate.
Where, T = temperature in 0C.
= (0.008 T + 6) 106
(4.39)
Instantaneous stress related strain is caused due to externally applied stresses. It is based on stress-strain curves obtained under constant stabilized temperature. Creep strain or time dependent strain recorded under constant stress at constant stabilized temperature. Transient strain, accounts for the effect of temperature increase under stress, derived from tests under constant stress and variable temperature. It only occurs on heating during the first cycle. At very early stages of heating, transient strain is insignificant, but as the exposure time increases the effect of ignoring transient strain progressively increases and produces unconservative estimates of load carrying capacity.Each of the strain components is connected to and correlated with a specified type of test. Figure 4.7 shows the load and temperature variation with time for different tests to compute different strain components.
Figure 4.7: Tests for computing the various strain components. Unlike the free thermal strain, which is a function of temperature, the creep, transient and instantaneous stress related strains are functions of the stress, temperature and time. This makes it quite difficult to separate them during an experiment. Therefore, some of the existing models use only two strainsstress-induced strain and transient creep strain, which includes both the transient and creep strains. While in other models all the three strains are considered as a single strain. Primitive research in this field was carried out by Anderberg and Thelandresson (1976) but the basis of their analysis was questioned by Schneider (1981). An alternative Page | 21
approach based on Anderberg and Thelandersson for calculating the transient strain was proposed by Diederichs (1987). Freskakis (1984) also studied the behaviour of reinforced concrete at elevated temperature using Moment curvature relations and proposed lower and upper bound stress-strain curves. Lie (1992) conducted some experiment on steel fiber reinforced concrete and proposed some stress-strain relations. Khoury (1995) proposed different component for strain (strain model) after his studies on concrete for nuclear reactors, he introduced the term LITS (Load induced thermal strain). Later, Terro (1998) proposed a model using the strain model given by Khoury. Khennae and Baker (1993) proposed plasticity model using strain rate formulation. Recently few more stress-strain models were proposed by Li and Purkiss (2005), Yussef and Moftah (2007) and thermal induced Strain model by Schneider U., Schneider M. and Frassen (2009).Some of these selected constitutive relationships have been depicted in Figure 4.8-4.10.
Figure 4.8: Stressstrain curves for concrete with a constant descending (unloading) branch (Anderberg and Thelandersson, 1976).
Figure 4.9: Linear elastic-elliptical plastic idealization of the stressstrain curve for concrete (after Khennane and Baker 1993).
Figure 4.10: Comparisons of full stressstrain curves at temperatures 40, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and 700C.
Page | 22
4.3.5 Structural Response using Finite Element Packages 4.3.5.1 Introduction

For frame structures or structural members in which stresses are not uni-axial, structural analysis packages based on finite element approaches should be used. There are many structural analysis software packages commercially available nowadays. However, since the fire involves high temperatures, the software packages to be used must be able to take into account the special characteristics of materials at high temperatures and the nonlinearity both in geometry and material. Several computer packages were specially designed for modeling high-temperature phenomena, including FIRES-RC II (Iding, Bresler and Nizamuddin, 1977b), FASBUS II (Iding and Bresler, 1987, 1990), SAFIR (Nwosu et al., 1999) and VULCAN (Huang, Burgess and Plank, 2003a, b). In addition to these specific software packages, other nonlinear finite element structural analysis programs such as ABAQUS, ANSYS and DIANA can also be utilized for conducting the fire analysis of structures (Sanad et al., 1999). They offer the advantages of full validation, powerful ability to model different kinds of problems and availability of further development so that they can almost suffice all needs. But these programs are rather inconvenient to use for being both timeconsuming and complicated to operate since they are general purpose program not specifically written to perform analysis of structures under fire condition which is highly non-linear and transient.
Figure 4.11: Overall calculation procedure for the structural behavior of fire affected members.
4.3.5.2 Some Examples

Reinforced Concrete Beams (Kodur et al.)
In this study, A numerical model, in the form of a computer program, is presented for tracing the fire behavior of reinforced concrete (RC) beams over the entire range of loading from pre-fire conditions to collapse under fire. The model, which accounts for nonlinear material properties at elevated temperatures, is capable of predicting the fire resistance of RC beams under realistic fire scenarios, load levels, and failure Page | 23
criteria. The validity of the numerical model is established by comparing the predictions from the computer program with results from full-scale fire resistance tests. Hence, the developed computer program can be used to undertake performance-based fire safety design of RC beams for any value of the significant parameters, such as fire exposure, concrete cover thickness, section dimensions, concrete strength, concrete type, and load intensity. Figure 4.12 presents the steps associated with the analysis of an RC beam exposed to fire as a flowchart.
Figure 4.12: Flowchart showing the steps associated with the analysis of an RC beam exposed to fire. Some important findings of the study stated that Load level has significant influence on the fire resistance of RC beams(Figure 4.13). Thus, the failure, and the fire resistance of an RC beam exposed to fire should be determined based on realistic load levels and load combinations. Also, The type of fire exposure has significant effect on the fire resistance of RC beams(Figure 4.14). The conventional method of evaluating fire resistance, based on standard fire exposure, is conservative under even severe design fire scenarios. The limiting criterion, used for determining failure, has significant influence on the fire resistance of RC beam (Figure 4.15). The conventional failure criterion, such as limiting rebar temperature may not be conservative under some fire scenarios. The strength, the deflection, and the rate of deflection failure criteria should be considered for realistic assessment of the fire resistance of RC beams.
Figure 4.13: Effect of Load Ratio on the Deflection of RC Beams Exposed to Fire. Page | 24
Figure 4.14: Effect of fire scenario on the moment capacity of RC beams exposed to fire.
Figure 4.15: Effect of various parameters on the fire resistance of RC beams. Predicting Fire Resistance of HSC Concrete Columns (Kodur et al.)
On similar lines to the beam example discussed earlier, A numerical model, in the form of a computer program, for tracing the behavior of high performance concrete (HPC) columns exposed to fire was developed. The validity of the numerical model used in the program is established by comparing the predictions from the computer program with results from full-scale fire resistance tests. The significant parameters include load, section dimensions, fiber reinforcement, column length, concrete strength and aggregate type. Figure 4.16 depicts the measured versus predicted deflections for different types of columns that were tested during the study.
Figure 4.16: Measured and predicted deflections as a function of time for columns. Page | 25
Circular Steel Tube filled with Concrete (Yin et al. (2006))
A model was developed involving a circular steel tube filled with concrete subjected to pure compression and its outside surface is exposed to a fire. Because of the axial symmetry of the problem, the temperature and axial compressive stress were axially symmetric. Figure 4.17 shows the loaddisplacement curves of the composite column at various different fire-exposure times. The fire resistance of the column can be obtained by plotting the maximum loads of the loaddisplacement curves against the fire-exposure times.
Figure 4.17: Measured and predicted deflections as a function of time for columns.
4.4 Other Design Considerations

Some other important design considerations have been discussed in the following section.
4.4.1 Performance in Shear

For simply supported or continuous reinforced concrete construction, shear is rarely a problem (Krampf, undated). However, this will not be the case for pre-stressed concrete due to the moments induced in the section by the pre-stress. Bobrowski and Bardhan-Roy (1969) indicated that the critical section for shear was between 0.15 and 0.2L from the support, where L is the span. The tests reported by Lennon (2003) were to a natural fire of a time equivalent of approximately 1 h and indicated no spalling.
4.4.2 Performance of Bond

This also is generally not a problem even though bond strengths are severely reduced in a fire. The problem is more likely to be worse in pre-stressed concrete construction where bond in the anchorage length is needed to transfer the pre-stress force into the concrete. However, there appears to have been few, if any, failures in pre-stressed concrete directly attributable to loss in bond. It is not a general practice to check bond strengths in fire design.
4.4.3 Provisions for Spalling

Spalling occurs in one of two forms in a fire. The first is explosive spalling which occurs very early in a fire and is likely to lead to loss of cover to the main reinforcing and hence to more rapid rises in temperature and resultant strength loss leading to reduced fire performance. The second form is known as sloughing, Page | 26
whereby the concrete gradually comes away due to loss of effective bond and strength loss. This mode tends to occur toward the end of a fire or late on in the standard furnace test and is rarely critical. A computer simulation (Mustapha, 1994; Purkiss and Mustapha, 1995) indicates that a loss of cross-sectional area can lead to reduction of fire endurance of around 4050%. The exact mechanism of explosive spalling is still not understood, but it is affected by the factors like Moisture content, Concrete porosity and permeability, Stress conditions, Aggregate type, Section profile and cover, Heating rate, Concrete strength. A concrete with a high moisture content is more likely to spall since one of the possible mechanisms of spalling is due to the buildup of high vapor pressures near the surface causing tensile failures in the concrete caused by moisture clog (Shorter and Harmathy, 1965). However, it is now recognized that the critical isotherm for pore pressure build up is the 200 isotherm and not the 100C (Khalafallah, 2001). ]. A more porous concrete, C and therefore one with a high permeability, will allow the dissipation of vapor pressure, and thus relieve any build up within the section. However, it must be pointed out that a porous concrete will give a poor performance with respect to durability. It has also become clear that it is a combination of moisture content and permeability is critical (Tenchev and Purnell, 2005). The time to spalling tspall and the depth of spalling xspall are = (382 3.34 + 0.00538 2 0.00054 3 ) = (1.09 0.0085) (4.40) (4.41)
where is the porosity of the concrete and S is the initial water saturation in percent. From evidence of fire tests and observations in fires, it has been noted that spalling is likely to be more severe in areas where the concrete cross section is in compression, i.e. areas of hogging moments in beams or slabs, or in columns. The evidence available suggests that the aggregate most likely to give spalling is siliceous aggregate, with limestone producing less spalling and lightweight concrete the least. There is some evidence to suggest that sharp profiles will produce more spalling than rounded or chamfered edges. Spalling is also exacerbated in thin sections, partly since the depth of spalling is a greater proportion of the section dimension and hence proportionally worse, and partly due to the fact that there is less of a cool reservoir for any moisture to migrate toward (Khalafallah, 2001). High covers are also likely to produce greater amounts of spalling. Thus, design codes frequently place restrictions when high covers are needed at high fire resistance periods in order to maintain low temperatures in the reinforcing. These restrictions often concern the placement of a light mesh with 4mm wires at a spacing of 100mm at the surface of the concrete cover when the axis distance exceeds 70mm, in order to retain the cover (EN 1992-1-2). The higher the heat flux, the less chance pore pressures have to dissipate to the relatively cool internal regions of a concrete element. The rate of heating is therefore critical to an assessment of the likelihood of spalling. The influence of heating rate was demonstrated in tests on high strength concrete columns by Ali, OConnor and Abu-Tair (2001) who demonstrated that the level of spalling was lower at low heating rates compared to high rates, and moreover that this effect appeared not to depend on load level. In spite of the above, normal strength concretes (fck 60 MPa) may not spall. However, if a concrete although designed as normal strength has a much higher strength than that designed for, problems may ensue. With a moisture content of 3.8% and a permeability of 6.75 1017m2, the slab suffered severe spalling in the test (Bailey, 2002). The problems are exacerbated for high strength concretes.
4.4.4 Detailing
Where beams and slabs are designed to act as continuous members in a fire or where advantage, as in Example 7.1, is taken of anti-crack steel to give continuity in a fire but not at ambient, then it is absolutely essential that the hogging reinforcement is detailed so that anchorage forces needed to generate those Page | 27
hogging moments are capable of being sustained. It is thus essential that such reinforcement should be fully anchored beyond the point of contra flexure. For continuous members, the ISE/Concrete Society Report (1978) and EN 1992-1-2 both give detailing requirements which ought to be adhered to.
4.5 International Committee of Concrete Model Code for Asia

ICCMC has published model codes under Asian Concrete Model Code( ACMC) incorporating the performance based methodology, clearly describing the required performance of structure being designed, constructed and maintained during its service. It contains provisions that are common to all countries in the Asia Pacific. The ACMC Level 2 Part document specifies general guidelines for design of concrete buildings, serviceability , restorability and safety under fire actions. Some key aspects of the model code have been presented below. Determination of Fire Actions Although the model code suggests ISO 834 fire exposure to be assumed for a design fire, it allows for determination of time-temperature curve through the principle of natural fires or determined by experiments to reproduce the actual state of fire or through experiments reproducing the actual state of temperature. For calculation of fire load, the code proposes the formula, in MJ, where, 1 is the fire is the fire load density(MJ/m2) and Aroom is the floor area(m2). For example, 1 can be taken as 2000 MJ for a warehouse or building of similar usage. For calculation of fire actions based on natural fire concept, the code recommends general procedure based on usage of the structure, amount of combustible materials and ventilation characteristics .For public structures such as road tunnels, fire load shall be estimated according to the intended traffic plans. Empirical formulations have been explicitly stated for calculating heat release rate and fire temperature. Methods to obtain fire duration or an equivalent fire duration have also been presented. 1.6 ( 0.081) (0.081 0.1) 0.13 = 2.5 exp (11) + 0.048 (0.1 )
2/3
= 1 + ( , )
For, heat release rate,
(4.42)
where = and is the ventilation factor of the fire compartment (m5/2), Afuel is the surface area of combustible fuels in fire compartment(m2). Also, = 0.261 + ( ) = 60 (4.43) (4.44)
With respect to fire duration, calculation can be carried out by assuming constant heat release over time.
where is the heat release rate (MW) and is the fire duration (min). Fire temperature can be calculated by Page | 28
where the coefficient (oC/min1/6) is termed the fire temperature rise coefficient, AT is the total surface area of enclosure boundary (m2), is the thermal inertia of enclosure wall materials (kWs1/2/m2K). The calculated time-temperature curve can be converted to equivalent fire duration so that the impact based on the calculated time-temperature curve and ISO 834 curve can be compared. It can be calculated as = ( 3 )2 460 (4.47)
2 = 1.28(
= 1/6 + 20
(4.46)
(4.45)
Materials
It has been recognized that both concrete and reinforcement would lose their strength due to heating. For concrete, the decrease is significant at temperatures above 400oC. Even though there is considerable variation exists in data, high strength concrete (>60 MPa) tends to be more sensitive to high temperatures than normal strength concrete. As for ordinary strength steel bars (yield strength 345 MPa), the yield strength at 500oC is reduced to 2/3 of its normal temperature value. Hence this reduction of strengths needs to be accounted for in design which shall be discussed in the next section. Design is subdivided into verification for Serviceability Limit State, Restorability Limit State and Safety Limit State. Verification for Serviceability Limit State By keeping surface temperature low, deterioration of concrete materials can be prevented as reduction in concrete strength is sufficiently small if the maximum temperature is less than 100oC. To keep the surface temperature low, an insulation material is necessary. In general, the appropriateness of surface insulation material is checked by fire resistance. Verification for Restorability Limit State To keep the core intact, the temperature of reinforcing bars shall be below 350oC. To keep steel bar temperature below 350oC the cover thickness is selected based on duration of fire exposure. The requisite cover can be calculated using the relationship established as 350, = (, ) 0 34510 8 + 1 (4.48)
Verification for Limit State
It is recommended that the whole structure be checked for thermal deformation such as elongation on a case to case basis. The document assumes ductility of the frame to be unaffected by such phenomenon making an element-by-element basis verification possible. For columns, the stability is determined according to the axial load bearing capacity. The concrete strength for T>500oC is considered to be zero. For rest of the section, a reduction of 2/3 of the original strength is recommended. The axial strength P(N) is calculated by where d is the depth of degradation due to heat exposure (mm), is the total sectional area of a column (mm2) and is perimeter length exposed to fire (mm). Page | 29 = ( ) (4.49)
= min , 2 (4.50) where is the critical depth of degradation (mm) and is the thickness of concrete cover reinforcement (mm). The second term 2 is introduced to prevent the loss of confinement effect by hoop bars. For specified equivalent fire duration is calculated by Eq.4.51. In case of beam, the strength reduction factor of reinforcing bars at the bottom side (tension) for a conservative estimate is approximated by a linear function of the degradation depth () = 1 2 (4.51)
The subsequent design can be carried out by designing to resist flexural moments at the ultimate condition.
4.6 Australian and New Zealand Fire Codes

The Australian and New Zealand fire codes permit specific fire engineering design in a similar performancebased environment. However, the minimum fire ratings specified by the New Zealand prescriptive documents are much lower than in Australia and many other countries because of more emphasis on life safety than property protection. The fire requirements in the structural design codes are rather simplistic, using tabulated values for reinforced concrete, for example, or specifying that standard tests should be used for establishing fire resistance ratings. All fire resistance values are based on standard fire exposure with little or no mention of realistic fires. Alternative calculations are permitted but, unlike Europe, very little guidance is given (Buchanan 2000). A useful Guide for the Design of Fire Resistant Barriers and Structures was published in Australia (England et al. 2000).
4.7 Benefits of Performance based Solutions

By using performance-based design methods, real fire effects are addressed based on credible worst case design scenarios. This can lead to increased design freedom from prescriptive code restrictions whilst maintaining safety. Appropriate and cost-effective fire safety measures are derived. Practically, it can mean that intumescent coatings can be specified rather than a cementitious spray or board protection due to the reduced fire resistance required. Other fire protection systems can be utilized; for example, using a sprinkler system to give an integrated sprinkler/water cooling system that keep temperatures below the temperature required causing failure. Particularly for steel elements, it means that they can be left completely unprotected in large open spaces with low fire load areas: open sided car parks, stadia, transportation terminals, high atrium spaces and so forth. These design solutions have been proposed, accepted and integrated throughout Europe and are increasingly being proposed for the US.
Page | 30
Conclusion
5.1 Remarks in Conclusion
Until recently, structural design for fire resistance in all countries has been based on prescriptive building codes, with little or no opportunity for designers to take a rational engineering approach to the provision of fire safety. Recently, many countries have adopted performance-based building codes, which allow designers to use any fire safety strategy they wish, provided that adequate safety can be demonstrated. In general terms, a prescriptive code states how a building is to be constructed whereas a performance based code states how a building is to perform (Buchanan 2001). An important part of performance-based design is identification of the severity and probability of the design hazards. Thereby, There is a developing spectrum of fire design methods ranging from simple tabulated data to advanced structural analysis and design techniques. The more simple the design method, the more conservative the underlying assumptions need to be in order to provide the desired level of protection against collapse in fire. A major limitation on structural design for fire conditions is assessment of the fire scenario and the resulting fire temperatures. Advanced structural analysis and design of buildings in fire conditions are more difficult than for normal temperature conditions.
All the Structural Eurocodes include the following sections: Basis of design Fire exposure Verification methods Methods of structural analysis Material properties Mechanical properties Thermal properties Design procedures Tabulated data Simple calculation methods Advanced calculation methods Construction details
Conclusively, it can be seen that far the Structural Eurocodes are the most comprehensive international documents providing best guidelines structural design of buildings and structures in fire conditions. They also represent the worldwide shift from prescriptive towards performance based design methods for fire resistant design.
Page | 31
Chapter 6: Conclusions
5.2 The Road Ahead

There is enormous variability in approval processes from country to country, therefore no one leading design trend. However, the adoption of performance-based fire safety has increased with wider understanding of the subject in industry. Fire safety is quite a new engineering discipline, only really emerging in the 1980s. The skill base is small and relatively few skilled practitioners exist. Opportunities exist to evolve current practice, technologies and commitment to facilitate a functional and safe built environment. So if anything, the trend overall is the increasing use of scientific method in fire safety, rather than simple application of prescriptive codes. Many modern building codes recognize the limitations of a purely prescriptive approach and instead simply require a series of Performance Requirements be met. This is where the expression Performance Based fire engineering comes from. But because it would not be cost effective or sensible to adopt a different performance based solution for every routine project there are also prescriptive clauses, in effect a recipe book of measures that are deemed to satisfy the performance requirements. The language of this is revealing. You can say that if you follow the prescriptive clauses, you are assuming that this gives you a safe building, because the codes are deemed to satisfy the performance codes. By comparison, a performance-based approach demonstrates fire safety. Some people seem to think that adopting a performance based approach is about cutting cost, or getting away with things. In fact, it is about demonstrated, rather than assumed safety. This neds to be understood and appropriate methodologies need to be implemented through codification and legislation to ensure fire safe design of concrete structures in the future.
5.3
Making Fire Safe Design 'Concrete'
Current fire design rules do not reflect the actual behavior of concrete structures very well. Considering other failure modes than bending failure together with the effects of thermal expansion and spalling, the fire design of concrete will be much better agreement with the actual behavior. It will lead to a sometimes relieved design and sometimes a more strict design. With a view to the huge development into new types of concretes like ultra high performance concrete and self compacting concrete, there is a need for verification of the fire behavior of these new concretes. In order to improve the design rules, concrete can no longer be identified by its strength property. Other properties like specifically ductility, thermal expansion and load induced thermal strain play a very important role in the development of internal damage and the remaining load bearing resistance. For spalling, besides these properties also the properties related to the moisture movement need to be considered, like permeability and porosity. In the past substantial research has been carried out into many of these properties, however, a large scatter is generally found in materials testing as the properties depend on many factors, such as mix design, mixing process and curing conditions. Therefore, it is stated that in the future, uniform fire design rules for various concrete types will be replaced by rules for each type of concrete specified by its constituents, production process and application. Moreover, looking at current design codes, the application of materials properties derived in small scale tests in structural design is limited. Also the validation of models of full scale structures using these properties is limited. It will require a close collaboration between materials scientists and structural engineers to identify the most important properties with respect to the structural behavior, to determine the materials properties and to apply these values in a reliable way.
Page | 32
Chapter 6: Conclusions
Practical design solutions can be developed to achieve performance-based engineering objectives for fire resistance, and protection can be expressed in terms of acceptable risk. Adoption of PBFE as an alternative approach to fire safety assurance would have a number of benefits. Foremost among these is the flexibility it provides in designing to meet mutually agreed-upon building performance objectives including, but not necessarily limited to, life safety and property protection for specific building occupancy categories and anticipated risks. The ability to consider fire protection alternatives, to trade off investments in additional fire protection above the code minimums against benefit received, and to reduce or eliminate unnecessary fire protection would add significant economic value to design of certain building structural systems. Performance-based fire engineering requires a different approach to building planning and design from what is customary as well as better integration of the stakeholders, building design team, and the building code community. At the outset, a thoughtful approach must be taken to establishing performance objectives and identifying possible fire scenarios to check compliance with those objectives. This requires a systems approach, and involvement of project stakeholders early in the planning stages of design, and a degree of integration of traditional architectural and structural design functions. In the technical arena, the structural engineering task will become more complex. Advanced analysis methods may be warranted for major buildings or where additional investment in design is warranted by the nature of the building project or can be shown to have a major economic benefit. Large-scale fire testing has demonstrated the power of modern advanced analysis methods. Many of the analytical (thermo-structural modeling) tools are becoming accessible, and a more widespread demand for such tools will make them more user friendly. On the other hand, not all PBFE solutions require advanced analysis; some can be achieved using relatively simple structural calculations. Finally, PBFE should include an assessment of uncertainties and must carry with it recognition of the need to make trade-offs between performance and cost. Improving building fire safety by adopting PBFE methods is likely to provide economic incentive. For the majority of buildings, current methods of fire protection and demonstration of code compliance appear satisfactory and will continue to be used. On the other hand, PBFE gives the building design team and structural engineer additional quantitative tools for fire safety assurance in situations where prescriptive limits found in traditional codes may be highly restrictive or unsuitable, where safety benefits may be realized for unique facilities by better quantification of their structural fire resistance, or where innovative architectural expressions can be inhibited by customary fire resistance rating requirements. In addition, nonconforming fire code issues with existing construction can be addressed efficiently with PBFE prior to undertaking costly rehabilitation. To take full advantage of these new tools, structural engineers will have to develop a competency for fire-resistant structural analysis and design through education, and become comfortable in accepting this additional design challenge and responsibility.
Page | 33
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Web
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Hoffman, M. and Fleming, M. Chernobyl: The True Scale of the Accident. Press release, International Atomic Energy Agency, World Health Organization and United Nations Development Programme (2005). Hertz, K. D. Concrete Strength for Fire Safety Design. Magazine of Concrete Reseach, 57(8), (2005), 445453. Fletcher, I. A., Welch, S., Torero, J. L., Carvel, R. O., and Usmani, A. Behaviour of Concrete Structures in Fire. Thermal Science, 11(2), (2007), 3752. Khoury, G. A. Effect of Fire on Concrete and Concrete Structures. Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials, 2(4), (2000), 429447. Hertz, K. D. Reinforcement Data for Fire Safety Design. Magazine of Concrete Reseach, 56(8), (2004), 453459. Hertz, K. D. Limits of Spalling of Fire-Exposed Concrete. Fire Safety Journal, 38(2), (2003), 103116. Anon, Fire tragedy at football stadium. Fire Prevention, 81, (1985) ,56. Anon, News scene. Fire Prevention, (1986) ,188, 5. Anon, Kings cross tragedy. Fire Prevention, (1987) , 205, 56. Anon, Fenell report finds fundamental errors made by senior underground management. Fire Prevention, (1988), 215, 12. AISI, Fire protection through Modern Building Codes, 5th ed., 1981. Anderberg, Y. and Thelandersson, S. Stress and Deformation Characteristics of Concrete, 2 Experimental Investigation and Material Behaviour Model. Bulletin 54, University of Lund, Sweden (1976). Anderberg, Y. Properties of Materials at High Temperatures-Steel. RILEM Report, University of Lund, Sweden (1983). Anderberg, Y. Analytical fire engineering design of reinforced concrete structures based on real fire characteristics, in Proceedings of the Eighth Congress of the Federation Internationale de la Precontrainte, London, 1978, Concrete Society, London, (1978b) pp. 11223. Schneider, U. Properties of Materials at High Temperatures Concrete (Second Edition), RILEM Report, Gesamthochschule Kassel, Germany (1986a). Buchanan, A.H., ed., Fire Engineering Design Guide, New Zealand: Centre for Advanced Engineering, University of Canterbury (2000). Building Research Establishment, Smoke Control in Buildings: Design Principles, Digest 260, BRE, Garston (1987). Morgan, H.P. and Gardner, J.P., Design Principles for Smoke Ventilation in Enclosed Shopping Centres. Report BR 186, BRE, Garston, England (1991). Dougill, J.W. The relevance of the established method of structural fire testing to reinforced concrete. Applied Materials Research, (1966) 5, 23540. Harmathy, T.Z. and Stanzak, W.W. Elevated temperature tensile and creep properties of some structural and pre-stressing steels, in Symposium on Fire Test Performance, American Society of Testing and Materials, (1970) STP 464, pp. 186208. Khalafallah, B.H. Coupled heat and mass transfer in concrete exposed to fire, PhD Thesis, University of Aston (2001). Khoury, G.A. Compressive strength of concrete at high temperatures: a reassessment. Magazine of Concrete Research, (1992) ,44, 291309. Khoury, G.A., Grainger, B.N. and Sullivan, P.J.E. Transient thermal strain of concrete: literature review, conditions within the specimen and behaviour of individual constituents. Magazine of Concrete
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Performance vs Prescriptive Fire Design of RC Elements

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PRESCRIPTIVE VS.

PERFORMANCE BASED DESIGN OF RCC ELEMENTS FOR FIRE RESISTANCE

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Date: 22 July 2012 Place: Roorkee

Ankit Agrawal M. Tech IInd Yr (S.E.) 11523001

Structural Fire Engineering

2.2 Philosophies for Design

2.2.2 Assessment Models

Chapter 2 :Structural Fire Engineering

2.3.3 Interaction between Active and Passive Measures

Standard Fire Test

Chapter 3: Prescriptive Approach

3.3 Drawbacks of the Standard Fire Test

Chapter 3: Prescriptive Approach

Figure 3.3: Effect of furnace characteristics on fire test results. .

Chapter 3: Prescriptive Approach

3.4 Prescriptive Determination of Fire Resistance

3.5 Fire Resistance Provisions as per IS Codes

Chapter 3: Prescriptive Approach

3.6 Fire Resistance Provisions as per ASTM E119

Chapter 3: Prescriptive Approach

Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

Figure 4.1: Performance-based structural fire engineering (PBSFE) design process.

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

4.2.2 Temperature Profile Determination

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

4.2.3 Reduced Section Method

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

() = 0.23 0.24 () = 0.11 () = 0.11 0.12 400

600 100 800 100 100

The total tension steel area As is given by:

Symbols are defined in Figure 4.2.

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

and the effective axis distance a by:

4.2.4 Method of Slices (Zone Method)

400 200 900 100

1000 100 1100 100

(4.27) (4.28) Page | 15

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

The mean concrete strength reduction factor kc,m is given by:

For beams and slabs

4.3 Advanced Analysis Procedures 4.3.1 Introduction

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

4.3.2 Modeling Real Fire Behavior 4.3.2.1 Introduction

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

4.3.3 Thermal Analysis

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

4.3.4 Material Modeling at Elevated Temperatures 4.3.4.1 Introduction

4.3.4.2 Reinforcing Steel

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

th ), creep strain ( cr ), transient strain ( tr ) and instantaneous stress related

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

Where, T = temperature in 0C.

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

4.3.5 Structural Response using Finite Element Packages 4.3.5.1 Introduction

4.3.5.2 Some Examples

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

Chapter 4 : Performance Based Design for Fire Resistance

Circular Steel Tube filled with Concrete (Yin et al. (2006))

4.4 Other Design Considerations