First Serbian (26th YU) Congress on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Kopaonik, Serbia, April 10-13, 2007

CRACK TIP STRAIN AND CTOD IN SITU MEASUREMENT

Nenad Gubeljak1, Jasmina Lozanovic2, Aleksandar Sedmak2
1

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova 17, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia e-mail: nenad.gubeljak@uni-mb.si
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Belgrade, Kraljice Marije 16, 11120 Belgrade 35 e-mail: jlozanovic@mas.bg.ac.yu e-mail: asedmak@mas.bg.ac.yu
2

Abstract: The paper presents the application extent of procedures for measurement deformations. The actual deformation distribution was measured on the surface of the specimen by the optical grating method (OGM) parallel to the CTOD measurements. Displacements are actually measured with two cameras, i.e. stereometric method. The stereometric method for monitoring deformation is presented with an example of application. The deformation of the surface was measured by recording the displacements of the optical marks, and captured in such a way that the 3D coordinates are connected with picture coordinates. Further calculation of the deformation gradient is possible by using the theory of large deformations, which allows large plastic deformations as well as rigid body motion. Further development of research is focused on constant deformation and damage monitoring in order to take full advantage of computer technology. Key words: integrity, structure, fracture mechanics, stereometric deformation measurement, CTOD parameter.

1. INTRODUCTION A total picture of deformed elements can be seen by tracking changes of spatial components of the deformation, in respect to determining values of three mutually perpendicular deformation components (x, y, z, Fig.1). Coordinates of selected grid points change due to their displacement caused by increase in load. The observed segment of elements has an outlined grid in a coordinate system, and characteristic intersection points of grid lines are selected for displacement tracking. Figure 1 shows a segment of structural element with grid points in initial and deformed state, and a particular detail is singled out in which point displacements are tracked in space by measuring their current coordinates. Displacements are actually measured with two cameras, i.e. stereometric method. Recording with two video cameras is rated as the appropriate contact less method (Fig.2) for receiving data on the behavior of the structure during operation. In order to determine displacement it is suitable to constantly monitor the critical part of component surface by video cameras. The component surface is sprayed with a contrasting colors (e.g. black on white background) so to draft spots the

N. Gubeljak, J. Lozanovic, A. Sedmak, Crack tip strain and CTOD in situ measurement

computer programme can discretize as a fingerprint into a unique discrete surface record, overlayed with a grid for easier definition. When the structure starts to be loaded, points start to displace, and hence the grid deforms. Pairs of digitalized images are entered in an ascribed timely fashion by the recording software, and may be compared during operation, so that strains can be calculated based on displacement differences of particular grid points [1]. Stereometric displacement measurement is of special interest for materials of heterogeneous structure and at locations of stress concentration. In the case when elasticity limit is exceeded and the plasticity zone entered, large displacements appear locally that cannot be determined in any other way.

Figure 1.

Figure 2. System for continuous monitoring of displacement of grated points by using two videocameras

2. Measurement by optical grating method The actual deformation distribution was measured on the surface of the specimen by the optical grating method (OGM) parallel to the CTOD measurements [2]. The deformation of the surface was measured by recording the displacements of the optical marks, and captured in such a way that the 3D coordinates are connected with picture coordinates. During the experiment, the grating structure relating to different deformation states of the specimen was recorded by two CCD cameras, with a resolution of 768 x 572 points and 256 grey levels. Images of undeformed and deformed grating structures of a specimen surface are shown in Figure 3A, B respectively. Several stages of deformation are recorded by the displacement of random grating attached to the specimen surface. The mutually independent image coordinates as well as the number of equations, is bigger than the number of unknowns in the over-determined mathematical

N. Gubeljak, J. Lozanovic, A. Sedmak, Crack tip strain and CTOD in situ measurement

triangulation model. The equation system is solved by the bundle adjustment method, applying suitable digital processing algorithms of the ARAMIS GOM mbH- the system for 3D optical deformation measurement [1]. Generally, mathematical model bases on well-known space intersections for the calculation of corresponding object points P(X,Y,Z) if the position of the two cameras and two homologous image points p1(x1,y1) and p2(x2,y2) are known [3,4].

x x0 d x X X0 y y0 d y = s R Y Y0 , Z Z0 c

(1)

where x, y are image coordinates, x0, y0 are principal points, dx, dy are lens distortions, c and s are the camera constants, R is rotation matrix, X0, Y0, Z0 are coordinates of the projection centre and X, Y, Z are coordinates of object points. The constants are calculated through a calibration procedure as described elsewhere [5,6].

Figure 3. Undeformed (A) and deformed (B) grating structures

The image analysis was performed after measurement in order to obtain 3D displacement determination. When homologous points are found, the object point in the undeformed grid P(Xu,Yu,Zu) and deformed grid P(X1,Y1,Z1) is determined by Equation (1). Displacement vector P(U,V,W) is calculated as the difference in displacements for each coordinate separately by the following equation:

Xu X1 U V = Y Y . u 1 W P Z1 P1 Z u P u

(2)

When local displacements in each image pairs are found, 3D deformations can be calculated through space triangulation. As previously mentioned, 3D displacement evaluation requires a recording of the scene with two or more cameras in a convergent set up. Each camera records images of a reference and the loaded stage giving four images in total.

N. Gubeljak, J. Lozanovic, A. Sedmak, Crack tip strain and CTOD in situ measurement

The image positions of each homologous point pair for each image can be determined by calculations of all three 2D displacements between the images of the deformed and referent undeformed states. As these homologous points represent the same object point in two loaded stages, its 3D coordinates can be calculated via back projection. When the distinctive 3D spatial coordinates of each measurement point in the region of interest on the objects surface, is determined, strain determination becomes merely a matter of numerical calculation from the displacement field. The chosen system calculates surface strain through transformation of the 3D displacement distribution into a 2D displacement distribution, thus strain is calculated in 2D space [7]. Initially, for each of the object points, a tangential plane is calculated (for both loading conditions) together with the surrounding object points. The obtained rectangular area is referred to as the object facet. Object points in this object facet are then projected onto the tangential plane in the direction of the normal vector of tangential plane, which renders the problem as planar. Further calculation of the deformation gradient is possible by using the theory of large deformations, which allows large plastic deformations as well as rigid body motion [3]. The performed strain analysis considered facet sizes to 11 x 11 pixels, in order to increase data density. The extreme strain gradients and extensive local out of- plane displacement can be expected in the tiny specimen area near the crack tip. Surface profiles were extracted from the digital elevation model, permitting the determination of crack tip opening displacement, as shown by a series of images in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Strain (von Mises) distribution at the crack tip at different loads of specimen (anotch 6 mm). (A) Load F 0.01 kN; CMOD 0.003 mm; (B) Load F 70.44 kN; CMOD 0.765 mm; (C) Load F 3.16 kN; CMOD 2.231 mm; (D) Load F 73.26kN; CMOD 2.258 mm.

N. Gubeljak, J. Lozanovic, A. Sedmak, Crack tip strain and CTOD in situ measurement

Figure 4 shows different strain stages during the loading. Figure 4A shows the unloaded surface of specimen. Figure 4B shows that strain in the vicinity of the crack tip increases higher than at the rest of specimen surface. Figure 4C shows the highest recorded strain at the crack tip during the test. Relaxation occurred at the moment of crack initiation strain, as shown in Figure 4D. The strain relaxation at the surface is a consequence of stable crack propagation inside the specimen. This is also confirmed by finite element analysis [8]. Therefore, initiation of crack propagation is possible using highly accurate displacement determination by means of the OGM. Otherwise, experimental stable crack initiation is possible to determine by using DC and AC potential drop techniques according to standards and testing procedures [9, 10, 11]. As potential drop is an analogue signal, the crack initiation is determined as a deviation between linear line and potential drop curve. Such assessment depends on the experience of researcher which should always be taken into account regarding some amount of error. Therefore, the OGM is also a powerful tool for accurately determining stable crack initiation. 3. Conclusions The OGM provides views of a stress field corresponding to the distribution of the material properties. The other advantage of the OGM is the easy and accurate determination of the initiation of stable crack propagation. As the deformation on the surface facet at the vicinity of the crack tip is observed and measured, one can expect that this technique will in future produce accurate experimental fracture testing and application on structure as is predict by MOSTIS-E! project[12]. References [1] Aramis GOM mbH, http://www.gom.com [2] GUBELJAK N., SEMENSKI D., DRVAR N., PREDAN J., KOZAK D., OBLAK M. Object grating method application in strain determination on CTOD tests. Strain, May 2006, vol. 42, iss. 2, str. 81-87. [3] Gomeri, M. (1999) The compensation of out-of-plane displacements in deformation measurement by grating method. O sterr. Ing. Architek. Z. (O IAZ) 144, 223227. [4] Ritter, R., Andersen, K. and Kamp, B. (1992) Three-dimensional surface deformation measurement by a grating method applied to crack tips. Opt. Eng. 31, 14991504. [5] Bergman, D. and Ritter, R. (2004) 3D Deformation Measurement in Small Areas Based on Grating Method and Photogrammetry [WWWdocument]. URL http://www.gom.com/pub/publications/besancon-en.pdf [accessed on 29 December 2004]. [6] Weisensee, M. (1992) Modelle und Algorithmen fur das Facetten-stereosehen. PhD Thesis, Technische Universitat, Darmstadt, Germany. [7] Ritter, R. (1989) Handbuch fur Exp. Spannungsanalyse, Hrsg. Ch. Rohrbach, VDI-Verlag, Dusseldorf. [8] Predan, J. (2005), Crack driving force in inhomogeneous materials. PhD Thesis, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia [9] ASTM E 182099a (1999) Standard Test Method for Measurement of Fracture Toughness. Annual Book of ASTM Standards. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, USA. [10] BS 7448 (1997) Fracture Mechanics Toughness Tests; Part 2. Method for Determination of KIC, Critical CTOD and Critical J Values of Welds in Metallic Materials. British Standard Institution, London, UK.

N. Gubeljak, J. Lozanovic, A. Sedmak, Crack tip strain and CTOD in situ measurement

[11] Schwalbe, K.-H., Neale, B. K. and Heerens, J. (1994) The GKSS Test Procedure for Determining the Fracture Behaviour of Materials. EFAM GTP 94. GKSSForschungszentrum, Geesthacht. [12] MOSTIS!- Mobile Structural Integrity System, EUREKA! Project, 2007