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Biomimetics: its practice and theory

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JournalofTheRoyalSocietyInterface
171.66.127.193 doi:10.1098/ f .2006.0127 r si J.R.Soc.Interface22August2006vol.3no.9471482

Biomimetics:itspracticeandtheory
JulianF.VVincent* ,OlgaABogatyreva,NikolajRBogatyrev, AdrianBowyerandAnjaKarinaPahl
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AuthorAffiliations

Authorforcorrespondence(j.f.v.vincent@bath.ac.uk) Abstract Biomimetics, a name coined by Otto Schmitt in the 1950s for the transfer of ideasandanaloguesfrombiologytotechnology,has produced some significant andsuccessfuldevicesandconceptsinthepast50years,butisstillempirical. WeshowthatTRIZ,theRussiansystemofproblemsolving,canbeadaptedto illuminate and manipulate this process of transfer. Analysis using TRIZ shows that there is only 12% similarity between biology and technology in the principles which solutions to problems illustrate, and while technology solves problemslargelybymanipulatingusageofenergy,biologyusesinformationand structure,twofactorslargelyignoredbytechnology.
Keywords: biomimetics bionics TRIZ technologytransfer conflict inventiveprinciple

1.Introduction Otto Schmitt was a polymath, whose doctoral research was an attempt to produceaphysicaldevicethatexplicitlymimickedtheelectricalactionofanerve. By 1957, he had come to perceive what he would later label biomimetics as a disregardedbuthighlysignificantconverseofthestandardviewofbiophysics: Biophysicsisnotsomuchasubjectmatterasitisapointofview.Itisan approach to problems of biological science utilizing the theory and technology of the physical sciences. Conversely, biophysics is also a biologist's approach to problems of physical science and engineering, althoughthisaspecthaslargelybeenneglected. (Harkness2001) The word bionics was coined by Jack Steele of the US Air Force in 1960 at a meetingatWrightPattersonAirForceBaseinDayton,Ohio.Hedefineditasthe science of systems which have some function copied from nature, or which represent characteristics of natural systems or their analogues. At another meetingatDaytonin1963,Schmittsaid Letusconsiderwhatbionicshascometomeanoperationallyandwhatit orsomewordlikeit(Ipreferbiomimetics)oughttomeaninordertomake gooduseofthetechnicalskillsofscientistsspecializing,orrather,Ishould say, despecializing into this area of research. Presumably our common interest is in examining biological phenomenology in the hope of gaining insight and inspiration for developing physical or composite biophysical systemsintheimageoflife. (Harkness2001) Later,Schmittusedthewordbiomimeticsinthetitleofapaper(Schmitt1969) the word made its first public appearance in Webster's Dictionary in 1974,

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accompaniedbythefollowingdefinition: Thestudyoftheformation,structure,orfunctionofbiologicallyproduced substancesandmaterials(asenzymesorsilk)and biological mechanisms and processes (as protein synthesis or photosynthesis) especially for the purpose of synthesizing similar products by artificial mechanisms which mimicnaturalones. (Harkness2001) Biomimetics (which we here mean to be synonymous with biomimesis, biomimicry, bionics, biognosis, biologically inspired design and similar words andphrasesimplyingcopyingoradaptationorderivationfrombiology)isthusa relativelyyoungstudyembracingthepracticaluseofmechanismsandfunctions of biological science in engineering, design, chemistry, electronics, and so on. However,peoplehavelookedtonatureforinspirationformorethan3000years (sincetheChinesefirsttriedtomakeanartificialsilk).Historically,wehave: i.Leonardo da Vinci studied birds flying and designed some machines, but nevermadeany. ii.InSwift'ssatireoftheRoyalSociety: Therewasamostingeniousarchitectwhohadcontrivedanewmethodfor buildinghouses,bybeginningattheroof,andworkingdownwards to the foundation which he justified to me by the like practice of those two prudentinsectsthebeeandthespider. (Swift1726) i.HenryMitchelloftheAmericanCoastSurveyinventedapile socutthatthelowerportionofit,ofaspaceofsixoreightfeet,presents the appearance of a number of inverted frustums of cones, placed one abovetheother. Whenthisswaysundertheactionofwavesitsinksdeeperintotheseabed,a design borrowedfromnaturecertainseedvessels,byvirtueoftheirforms,bury themselvesintheearthwhenagitatedbywindorwater. (fromH.D.Thoreau'sJournal(1859)thankstoProf.KalmanSchulgasser fortheinformation) i.Pettigrew had some pithy comments to make about people's failure to produceausableflyingmachine,sayingthat Ithasbeencultivated,ontheonehand,byprofoundthinkers,especially mathematicians, who have worked out innumerable theorems, but have never submitted them to the test of experiment and on the other, by uneducated charlatans who, despising the abstractions of science, have madethemostridiculousattemptsatapracticalsolutiontotheproblem. Interestingly,healsopointedoutthattheinventionofthehotairandhydrogen balloonshadmisledresearch,causingpeople tolookforasolutionbytheaidofamachinelighterthanair,andwhich hasnoanalogueinnature.

(Pettigrew1873,p.209) i.Pettigrewthusmissedtheanalogyofaballooninairandaneutrallybuoyant organisminwater. ii.ClementAderdesignedandbuiltseveralsteampoweredaircraft(Eole)using thewingdesignofabat.Heattainedaflightof300morso,butcouldnotgain controlwithsuchacompliantwing(Coineau&Kresling1987).

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ThefollowinglistisbynomeanscompletetheInternetisalargeandunreliable source of further examples. We have chosen examples which are contentious, interestingoriconic. i.ThestablewingdesignedbyIgnazandIgoEtrichin1904wasderivedfrom the large (15cm span) winged seed of Alsomitra macrocarpa, a liana which grows on islands in the Pacific (Coineau & Kresling 1987). The seed with its outgrowthsfunctionsasaflyingwingandcanglideforsignificantdistances. ii.Velcro is an invention derived from the action of the hooked seeds of the burdockplantwhichcaughtinthecoatofGeorgedeMestral'sdogwhenthey wereoutonawalk(Velcro1955).Thefirstusehewantedtoputtheconcept towasanoveltypeofzipfastener. iii.Jeronimidis analysed the main toughening mechanism of wood in tension anddecideditwasduetotheorientationofcelluloseinthewallsofthewood cells,whichiscommonlyat tothelongaxisofthecellsinsoftwoods.He made assemblages of tubes with various orientations of glass fibre in a resin matrixandshowedthatthisindeedproducesthetoughestmaterial(Gordon& Jeronimidis1980).Inanotherseriesoftestsheshowedthatthisstructureis, weightforweight, about five times tougher than anything else in impact (Chaplinetal.1983). iv.The observation that the leaves of the lotus are always clean, despite growing in muddy and stagnant water, led to the production of Lotusan, a paint for selfcleaning surfaces (Barthlott & Neinhuis 1997). Similar surface texturesareusedtorepeldirtormakeiteasilyremoved(e.g.ahoneyspoon whichdrainscompletely),andhavebeenobservedinmanyotherplantsandin othersystems,suchasinsectwings(Wagneretal.1996). The same surface propertiesarenowbeingdevelopedonmetals. v.Antireflective surfaces have been discovered several times on insect eyes (Bernhardet al. 1965 Parker et al. 1998), wings of insects (Stoddart et al. 2006) and leaves of plants in the understorey of tropical forests (Lee 1986). Thishasnowbeenmanufacturedonpolythenesheet,whichisadheredtothe glasssurfaceofasolarpanel(usinggluewhichmatchestherefractiveindices), resultingina10%improvementincaptureoflight. vi.SoftKillOption(afiniteelementmodelbyMattheck(1989)developedfrom hisstudiesonstressrelievingshapesintheadaptivegrowthoftrees)wasused todesignthechassisoftheDaimlerChryslerBionicCarbasedontheshapeof the boxfish (Ostracion meleagris), which has the unusual combination of a large volume within a small wheelbase (Anon 2005). It is possible that this designisbasedonoriginalobservationsbyDanielWeihsandothers(Bartolet al.2005),butthisisnotacknowledgedbyDaimlerChryslerintheirpromotional literature. vii.Dryadhesivetapehasbeenmadeusingtheadhesivemechanismofgecko feet. A single gecko foot hair (seta) adheres equally well to hydrophobic and hydrophilicsurfaces,generatingvanderWaalsforcesof10MPa,showingthat theadhesivepropertiesofgeckosetaearearesultofthesizeandshapeofthe tips, which conform to the local surface topography, and are not strongly affectedbysurfacechemistry(Autumnetal.2001Geimetal.2003). viii.Amicroairvehiclehasbeenmadewithoscillatingwingsinspired(inpart) bybirds(Jones&Platzer2002),especiallythoseflyinglowoverwatermaking use of the ground effect. This is particularly interesting because it also illustrates the limitations which observation of nature can impose. Although theJones&Platzerdesignusesupanddownmotionofwings,itistechnically plungingratherthanflappingsincethewholeaerofoilismovedupanddown bythesameamountalongitsspan(Lai&Platzer2001),whichisanatomically impossibleforananimalwhichhasthewingattachedtothebodyatoneend. Theplungingaerofoilshaveachangingangleofincidencesincetheymoveon an arc, but their (summed) net angle is zero. They therefore provide mainly thrustliftandcontrolareprovidedbyaseparatefixedwing.Yetthedesignis inspired by nature. The problem has always been stated as how can we implement flapping flight? rather than how can we oscillate one or more aerofoils so as to produce thrust? The effect is identical if the aerofoils are mounted vertically rather than horizontally, which could be a mechanism whichsealsusetogeneratethrustwiththeirhindlimbs. ix.Roboticcontrolsystemsinspiredbynaturalneuralcircuits,especiallythose ofinsects,provetobeexceptionallyrobustandsimple(Reeve&Webb2001). x.By clever design of its ear drums and associated nervous system, a fly (Ormia ochracea) increases the time difference between the two ears in responsetoanoiseandcandetectthesourceofthesoundhighlyaccurately (Masonetal.2001).

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xi.Camouflage,especiallyduringtheSecondWorldWar,wasbiomimeticunder the direction of Hugh Cott. More recently, motion camouflage has been describedandwillbeimplemented(Anderson&McOwan2003).Anexampleis given by the dragonfly which, as it approaches its prey on the wing, endeavourstooccupythesamepartoftheprey'svisualfield,thusappearing nottomoveandthereforenottobeathreat.Itisdifficulttodetectanobject movingtowardsyouifallitdoesisincreaseinsize. xii.Thesurfacesofearthmovingmachinery(ploughs,bulldozers)canbemade moreeffectivewhenmodelledonsurfacesofsoilmovinganimals which have geometrically optimized ridges and bumps. This reduces the degree of interaction of the earthmoving surface with the soil, reducing friction and improvingseparationofthesoilfromtheplough(Lietal.2004). xiii.The vortices induced by ridges on shark skin can cut down friction drag significantly. This is being used on the hulls of sailing boats (and outlawed in competition,soitisobviouslyverysuccessful!)andtheliningofpipescarrying liquid.Thesamesystemhasbeenusedonaircraft,showingdragreductionof 510%(Bechertetal.2000).(Seealsoswimwearbelow.) xiv.The divided wing tip of birds with wings of low aspect ratio (buzzard, vulture, eagle) reduces tip drag (Tucker 1993) and can be abstracted into a loop that reduces drag in aircraft wings and underwater propellers (Stache 2004). xv.The fins of fishes are much more efficient propulsors than conventional propellersandhavebeenimplemented(asnektors)insmallsubmersiblesby Nekton,Inc.Thesevessels,withfournektors,haveallsixdegreesoffreedom ofmovement.AnearlyexampleoftheconceptistheTwiddlefish(McHenryet al.1995). xvi.Thebodyshapeofapenguinhasextremelylowdragandhasbeenusedto designlowdragdirigibles(Bannasch1993). xvii.The bumpy surface of the elytra of beetles from the Namibian desert encouragestheformationofdropletsofwaterfromdampairatthedewpoint (Parker&Lawrence2001).ThismechanismisbeingimplementedbyQINETIQ. xviii.Many architects use biology as an inspiration. Some, such as Frei Otto, make direct and useful reference and so produce efficient lightweight tensile structures taking direct inspiration from spider webs (Coineau & Kresling 1987). Architects commonly use biology as a library of shapes. As decoration (ArtNouveau,Jungendstil,andthelike),thisisobviously acceptable, but the clientstillhastobeabletoaffordit.Unfortunately,biologyisalsousedineptly asastructuralrationale,andFreiOttowasasguiltyofthisasanyone,withhis notorious pneu studies, where he claimed that all biology is the product of inflatablestructures,totallymissingthepointthattheshapeofasoapbubble isnecessitatedbytheinabilityofasoapfilmtoresistsheartherefore,theskin ofanobjectshapedlikeasoapbubblewillalsobeshearfreeand thus lighter andmoreefficient. Somesystemsmaybeapocryphalintheirderivation,havethestatusofurban myth,orbetheproductofoverenthusiasm: i.It is uncertain whether Joseph Paxton got his ideas for the Crystal Palace fromtheleavesofagiantwaterlily:heusedaleafasanillustrationduringa talkattheRoyalSocietyoftheArtsinLondon,showinghowtosupportaroof like structure, and the myth may have grown out of overenthusiastic reportage(Vogel1998).Certainlythereislittlesimilaritybetweenthedesignof thewaterlilyleaf(whichusessupportofradialtaperingbeams)andthedesign oftheroofoftheCrystalPalace(which,withitscorrugations,moreresembles othertypesofleaf,suchasbeechorhornbeam). ii.TherearestoriesthatEiffel'stowerwasbasedonthestructureoftrabecular strutsintheheadofthehumanfemur,orthetaperofatulipstem.Infact,it was constructed to resist wind loading, a topic in which Eiffel was an early expert. In the construction of the tower, the curve of the base pylons was calculated,sothatthewindloadswereresistedrelatedtotheirforceandthe moment exerted with height. Thus, even in the strongest winds the tower swaysnomorethan12cm. iii.Swimsuitswhosesurfacestructureismodelledonsharkskin(seeabove)do not reduce drag significantly when their performance is examined objectively (Stageretal.2000).Theyprobablysupportthemusclestosomeextent. iv.PolarbearsaresupposedtohaveadarkskintoprotectthemfromUV,but have hairs that transmit radiation down to the skin. However, it appears impossibleforthehairstoactaslightguidessincetheyarelargelyhollow,and theairspaceswhichwillreflectanddisperseradiationratherthantransmitting

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it.Thereisnoreferredstudypublishedaboutthissupposedphenomenon. 2.Aframeworkforbiomimetics Nogeneralapproachhasbeendevelopedforbiomimetics,althoughanumberof people are currently developing methods for searching biological literature for functionalanalogiestoimplement.Wethinkthatthisisonlypartoftherequired framework.Althoughitiswellknownthatdesignandengineeringarerendered mucheasierwithuseoftheory,inbiomimetics,everytimeweneedtodesigna new technical system we have to start afresh, trying and testing various biological systems as potential prototypes and striving to make some adapted engineered version of the biomimetic device which we are trying to create. Additionally, the transfer of a concept or mechanism from living to nonliving systems is not trivial. A simple and direct replica of the biological prototype is rarely successful, even if it is possible with current technology. Some form or procedureofinterpretationortranslationfrombiologytotechnologyisrequired. Moreoftenthannot,thetechnicalabstractionispossibleonlybecauseabiologist haspointedoutaninterestingorunusualphenomenonandhasuncoveredthe generalprinciplesbehinditsfunctioning(e.g.theselfcleaninglotuseffect).Only thendoesthebiologicalprinciplebecomeavailableoutsidebiologyforbiomimetic use. The result is often unexpected (e.g. selfcleaning buildings) and the final productin this instance, a paint containing particlesseldom resembles the biological prototype. We present here a logical framework that we believe exposessomeimportantunderlyingpatterns. Approximately 50 years ago in Russia, a particularly successful problemsolving system began to be developed. It was named TRIZ, the acronym of Teorija Reshenija Izobretatel'skih Zadach (loosely translated as Theory of Inventive Problem Solving).TRIZ is well known for its successful transfer of various inventions and solutions from one field of engineering to another. Since the main thrust of biomimetics is also to transfer functions, mechanisms and principles from one field to another, TRIZ seems the ideal starting point (Bogatyrev 2000 Vincent & Mann 2002). We also use TRIZ as a functional summaryanddefinitionofengineeringmethodology,anoveluseofthesystem. We know of no other strategy or system which is so powerful and so general. Since TRIZ is not very well known to Western science and technology, a short descriptionisnecessary,outliningitsnormalusebyproblemsolvers. TRIZisacollectionoftoolsandtechniques,developedbyGenrichAltshullerand RafikShapiro(Altshuller1999)thatensuresaccuratedefinitionofaproblemata functionallevelandthenprovidesstrongindicatorstowardssuccessfulandoften highlyinnovativesolutions.Atthedefinitionstage,anumberoftechniquesare used to ensure that the problem is placed properly within its context (simply changing the context may solve the problem) and the available resources listed. In the most popular (though probably not the best) technique for solution, the problem is then characterized by a pair of opposing or conflicting characteristics (typically what do I want and what is stopping me getting it, butHegel'sthesisandantithesis will do as well, suggesting that it is a form of dialectic process), which can be compared with pairs of characteristics derived fromother,solved,problemsderivedfromtheexaminationandanalysisofmore thanthreemillionsignificantpatents. Inordertostandardizetheprocess,eachoftheconflictingcharacteristicshasto beassignedtoatermcontainedinadefinitivelistof39contradiction features (Domb1998Altshuller1999).Thesolvedproblemswhoseconflictpairsmatch most closely those of the problem under examination are then used as analogues1ofthesolutionthatisbeingsought,andthusprovidethesynthesis to complete the dialectic of thesisantithesis. In order to make this matching processeasier,theinventiveprinciplesderivedfromexistingpatentsareentered intoamatrixwiththeantitheticfeaturesalongthetop,andthedesiredfeatures arrangedalongtheverticalaxis.Thiscontradictionmatrixthenservesasalook up table. Hence, the problem is resolved. Crucially, this method allows the problem, and its derived analogue(s), to be separated from their immediate context,sothatsolutionstoanyproblemcanbedrawnfromaverywiderange of science and technology. Hence, TRIZ should become a suitable vehicle for identifying functions and transferring them from nature to engineering. In passing, one of the characteristics of this method, which points to something muchdeeper,presumablysolubleonlybysomephilosophicalargument,isthat the more apparently incompatible the contradiction features are, the stronger

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the solution which will be revealed. This has to mean that the nature of the problemisbetterdefined,orperhapsevenidentified,byathesisantithesispair that is as conflicting as possible. Therefore, a robust definition assists the identificationofamorerobustsynthesistothedialectic.Thatsuchasystemof definitionandsolutionofaproblemshouldemergefromRussiaisnotsurprising when it is realized that similar philosophical arguments and teaching are (or were)giventoRussianchildrenwhilestillinschool. 3.Solvingproblemsinbiologyandtechnology The nature and organization of biology and engineering are very different: organismsdevelopthroughaprocessofevolutionandnaturalselectionbiology islargelydescriptiveandcreatesclassifications,whereasengineeringisaresult ofdecisionmakingitisprescriptiveandgeneratesrulesandregularities.Types ofclassificationcanbehierarchical(e.g.phylogenetic),parametric(e.g.cladistic, or like the Periodic Table) or combinatorial. However, the driver for change in biology and engineering may well be the same: the resolution of technical conflict. Wepresentacasestudybasedonarelativelysimplenaturalfibrouscomposite materialthe outer covering or cuticle of arthropods. This layer of material, produced by a single layer of epithelial cells, is called upon to provide a large numberoffunctions,suchasshape,structure,hinges,barrier,filterandsimilar functions (Neville 1975). Some of these functions are intrinsically and profoundly conflicting, although obviously since they coexist some form of compromisemusthavebeenevolved,sothatthecuticlecanbemultifunctional. A list of these functions and the associated characteristics of cuticle was generated partly by reference to literature (such as Neville 1975) and partly fromexperiencewithinsectsandinsectcuticleovertheyears. Consider, then, the function of the cuticle in providing a stiff support or exoskeleton for the insect, attachment for muscles, mechanical protection and control of shape (Vincent 2005). A uniformly stiff skeleton does not permit movement,sohingedareasareneeded.Intheinsect,thishasbeenachievedby making the cuticle softer along the hinge line. This appears to be the same as TRIZinventiveprinciple(IP)3:Controloflocalquality,whichischaracterizedby the following statements: use gradients instead of uniformity (change an object's structure, or its environment, from homo to heterogeneous) compartmentalize (make each part of an object more adapted to its own purpose) introduce multifunctionality (make each part of an object fulfil a differentfunctionlikeapencilwithaneraserahammerwithanailpullerora Swiss army knife). Translated into cuticular structure, the hinge areas have different amounts and orientation of chitin (the fibrous component), and the matrix proteins are chemically different from the stiff areas and so more hydrated and softer the geometry of the hinge can be linear (for an intersegmental membrane) or circular (for a hair socket). Second, stiffness requires extensive crosslinking of the matrix protein, which militates against theuseofthecuticleasalabile,resorbablechemicalenergystore(importantfor insects which feed only intermittently, such as Rhodnius prolixus, a blood suckingbug).Theresolutionofthisconflictisachievedbyprocessesdescribedby IP2:Extractionextract, isolate or remove an interfering or necessary part or propertyfromanobject.Itscuticulartranslationistohavea minimum of two layers of cuticle, the inner one being only partially stabilized and available for resorption.Sincethislayer is more likely to take loads in tension, its ability to resist compression is less important. Third, an external skeleton is a barrier to transmissionofsensoryinformationabouttheexternalenvironment,afunction provided by sensory hairs and holes (the functional basis of the campaniform sensillum and slit sense organ). Note that translucent cuticle, needed over photoreceptors (IP 3), can still be crosslinked and stiff. Resolution here is achievedbythemorphologyofIP31Porousmaterials,makeanobjectporous usetheporestointroduceausefulsubstanceorfunction.Last,theanimalwill gain advantage if it recycles as much of the old cuticle as possible when synthesizingthenewoneatthemoult,whichstiffnesswillcompromisesinceit requires extensive crosslinking. Larval and nymphal cuticles tend to be less crosslinkedthanadultcuticles,probablyforthisreason.Resolutionisachieved in softbodied larvae by prestressing the material in tension to allow the structuretotakecompressiveforces(i.e.ahydrostaticskeleton),whichprovides protectionbeforethechallengeandisdescribedinIP9Priorcounteraction.

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In order to compare these biological resolutions of a design conflict with those whichtechnologywoulduse,itisnecessarytoconvertthefunctionsidentifiedin the cuticle into the conflict topics that TRIZ recognizes. For instance, the functions change stiffness, protection, soft cuticle and stiff skeleton are all reduced to conflict number 11, which is defined as stress or pressure (compression, tension or bending). Similarly, keep poison out, self cleaning, surface properties and waterproof all become conflict number 30, which is externalharmaffectstheobject.Theconflictingfunctionsaresimilarlyclassified intothestandardTRIZfeatures,whichnowallowtheconflictstobetreated in thestandardTRIZsystem(Vincent&Mann2002)andadirectcomparisontobe madebetweentechnicalandbiologicalsolutionstothesameproblem. One outcome of this study is that biology and technology solve problems in designinratherdifferentways.Apartfromsimilaritiesinspectralfilteringwhich allow the cuticle to let visible light through to photoreceptors, yet resist damaging UV radiation (a resolution which we would resolve in the same way that the insect does), most of the functions of cuticle are provided by detailed controlofpropertiesoveraveryshortdistanceatachemicalandmorphological level,summarizedinIP3.TheTRIZmatrixderivedfromtechnologyrevealsthat wetendtousearatherblunter,moreglobalapproach.Thisisillustratedbythe factthatIP35isthecommonestresolutionintheTRIZmatrix,whichinvolves changingaparameter,suchastemperature. TRIZ was conceived in and derived from the environment of things artificial, nonliving, technical and engineering. But biomimetics operates across the borderbetweenlivingandnonlivingsystems.Andsincethereasonforlooking to nature for solutions is to enhance technical functions, it is necessarily true thatTRIZdoesnotcontainmanyofthesefunctions,andprobablydoesnothave the means of deriving them. Despite the fact that TRIZ is the most promising systemforbiomimetics,westillhaveamismatch.Thisisconflatedbyanumber of factors that are currently not normally observed in a technical system. For instance,themorecloselyanartificialsystemismodelledonalivingprototype, which is typically complex and hierarchical, the more frequently we have emergent effects, which are unpredictable, therefore mostly unexpected and often harmful. Furthermore, one of the basic features of living systems is the appearance of autonomy or independence of action, with a degree of unexpectednessdirectlyrelatedtothecomplexityofthelivingsystem.Thisgives living systems great adaptability and versatility, but at the expense of the predictabilityofthesystem'sbehaviourbyanexternalobserver.Ingeneral,we donotacceptunpredictabilityintechnicalsystemsindeed,weavoidit.Butwe need to consider this even in our current technology, since nearly every technicalsystemisactuallyacombinationofatechnicalsysteminthenarrow sense, and a living (usually human) system which is the operator of this technical system. This immediately suggests a broader and more general definition of the term technical systema biological system, part of the functions of which is delegated to a device that is mostly artificial and/or non living. This definition includes agriculture. This consideration is commonly omitted technical systems are often considered in isolation, neglecting any broader context despite the fact that engineering is really a subset of human behaviour. At best this can lead to reduced effectiveness, at worst it produces technologicalcatastrophesand/orsocialtensionandunrest. AnotherTRIZconceptofwhichwemakemuchuseistheSystemOperatoror9 Windows. It is commonly depicted as nine squares arranged 33, horizontally representingtime(before,nowandafter)andverticallyrepresentingsizeor hierarchy.Thisallowsustoregularizelevelsofhierarchyaboveandbelowalmost any object being studied that can be in a different condition (growth, death, attainment of a goal and so on) before and after the time at which they are currentlybeingconsidered.Inbiology,thehierarchicallevelsareorganelle,cell, tissue, organ, organism, population, ecosystem the hierarchical level of the object under scrutiny is always referred to as the System. The superSystem represents the assemblage of which the System is apart (for a cell it is the tissueforanorganismitisthepopulation)andthesubSystemrepresentsone ofthecomponentsoftheSystem(foracellitisanorganelleforanorganismit isanorgan). Increasingly, we are finding that this classificationwhich in TRIZ is usually regardedsimplyasawayofexpandingtheconceptualapproachtoaproblemis anintegralpartnotonlyofunderstandingtheproblembutofdiviningwherethe

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solution to the problem might lie. This is because the System Operator, especiallyinbiology,definesthecontextoftheSystem.Theimplicationis that contextislessimportantinengineering,which,inturn,impliesthatintegration betweenhierarchies(insofarastheyexistinengineering)islessgood.Tosome extent this is true, since we find, empirically, that the solution to a problem where hierarchy is less important (as in engineering) usually lies at the same level within the hierarchy (this is probably obvious), whereas the solution to a problemwherehierarchyisintegralusuallyliesatalevelabove(oroccasionally below)thecurrentleveloftheSystem(figure1).Thisresultisnotobvious.Itis apparent,though,thatweshouldtakeintoaccounttherelationshipofthesub Systemand superSystem to a given System. Therefore, we also consider the hierarchy(whichregulatesresources,energydistributionandthecapacityofthe System in space and time) and the inertia, (which affects the likelihood of an effect being expressed on a different level of the hierarchy). The further the superSystem is from the effector in terms of hierarchical levels, the less the likelihood that the effect will be expressed at the remote level. This causes cumulativepropertiesofbiologicaleffectswhichappearasemergenteffects.An effect has influence in the superSystem, and the superSystem tries to compensatefortheactions/effectsofitssubSystems.ButtheonlySystemthat wantstochangeisthatwhichhasagoal.Theinherentinertia(homeostasis)in biological systems, due to negative feedback, opposes change. That is why an active effect is always coercive at the levels of the superSystem and environment,afactemphasizedbythefewpositivefeedbacksystemsinnature, forexamplethepheromonal/behaviouralinductionofswarminginlocusts.Ifthe organism is considered as the System (figure 1), then superSystem is the environment or ecosystem and subSystem is the organ within the organism. Suchclassificationistosomedegreearbitrary,butthegeneralrulesarethatthe superSystem wants to maximize input and use the System as a resource, while the System wants to minimize effort and wants its resource from the superSystem.
Figure1

TheSystemOperator hierarchyforbiological systems.

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4.Trizandbiology:thesynthesis Wehaveanalysedsome500biologicalphenomena,coveringover270functions, at least three times each at different levels of hierarchy. In total, we have analysedabout2500conflictsandtheirresolutionsinbiology,sortedbylevelsof complexity(Vincentetal.2005).Evenso,thisislessthanathousandthofthe datacontributingtotheengineeringTRIZsystem.Toenableustoprocessthis hugeamountofinformation,weestablishedalogicalframework(Bogatyrevaet al.2004)capturedbythemantra:thingsdothingssomewhere.Thisestablishes six fields of operation in which all actions with any object can be executed: things(substance,structure)includeshierarchicallystructuredmaterial,i.e.the progressionsubsystemsystemsupersystemdothings(requiringenergyand information)impliesalsothatenergyneedstoberegulatedsomewhere(space, time). These six operational fields reorganize and condense the TRIZ classificationbothofthefeaturesusedtogeneratetheconflictstatementsand the inventive principles (appendix 2electronic supplementary material). Although this generalization blunts the contradictions tool of TRIZ, it actually makesotherprocesseseasier(e.g.theimplementationoffunctional analysis in TRIZ, commonly called the SubstanceField system) and is considerably more logicalandeasiertousethanthe39contradictionssystem.Moreover,itismore complete,inthattheconflictmatrixthatisconstructedfromthesefieldshasall the cells occupied. This more general TRIZ matrix (which we name PRIZM Pravila Reshenija Izobretatel'skih Zadach Modernizirovannyetranslated as TheRulesofInventiveProblemSolving,Modernized)isnowusedtoplacethe inventive principles of TRIZ into a new order that more closely reflects the

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biologicalroutetotheresolutionofconflicts.WecallthisnewmatrixBioTRIZ. Wecannowcomparethetypesofsolutiontoparticularpairsofconflictswhich are arrived at in technology via classical TRIZ, and in biology. Although the problems commonly are very similar, the inventive principles that nature and technologiesusetosolveproblemscanbeverydifferent(tables1and2).
Table1

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PRIZMmatrixderivedfrom standardTRIZmatrix.

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Table2

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PRIZMmatrixderivedfrom biologicaleffects:BioTRIZ.

In fact, the similarity between the TRIZ and BioTRIZ matrices is only 0.12, whereidentityisrepresentedby1.Onlytheprinciplesofspatialcompositionare significantlysimilar(0.73)inbiologyandtechnology.Thedifferencesareinlarge parttodowiththepervasivepresenceofhierarchyinbiologicalstructuresand systems. But they are also to do with the degree of detail it is possible to incorporateintoastructurewhich,likeanorganism,isselfassembledandeven designedbytheforcesofmolecularinteraction(Vincent1999,2005). Hierarchyisexceedinglyimportantinthesolutionofproblems(seeabove)this is not obvious because our current technologies are either not significantly hierarchical, or ignore any hierarchical structure. However, a strictly scalar approachisdifficultsincemanybasicbiologicalfunctionsoccurinorganismsover averywiderangeofsizes.Thus,thebasicprocessesofcellularmetabolism are more or less invariant from protista to large mammals complexity and added functionalityareachievedbyaddinglevelsofhierarchywhichcanbequantified quasistatically by considering the number of cell types in an organism (Bonner 1965),orinamoredynamicwaybyconsideringtheprovisionofinfrastructure (West&Brown2005).Thehierarchicalapproachisalsodifficulttouse,sincein engineering(takenheretorepresenttheentirespectrumofeffectswhichpeople imposeontheworldinanattempttomakeitmorehabitable)hierarchyisnot as well developed as in biology. The definition of cause and effect needs clarification: in physical terms, ambient pressure (cause) dictates the temperature of the boiling point of pure water (effect) in biological terms, an effectisaproblemtobesolvedbytheorganismandthecauseisthemethodof solution.Changingtheboilingtemperatureinvokestheoperationfieldenergyas does changing pressure. These are at the substance level of hierarchy. At the molecularlevelofhierarchywewouldsay,thespeedatwhichmoleculesmove in a liquid (operation field is time) depends on the pressure (operation field is energy)andtemperature(energy)whichweapplytothem.Appendix3ofthe electronicsupplementarymaterialillustratesourclassificationofeffects. We can now comment quantitatively on the differences between biology and technology(figures2and3)Atsizelevelsofupto1m,wheremosttechnology is sited, the most important variable for the solution of a problem is manipulationofenergyusage(upto60%ofthetime),closelyfollowedbyuseof material(figure2).Thus,facedwithanengineeringproblem,ourtendencyisto achieveasolutionbychangingtheamountortypeofthematerialorchanging (usuallyincreasing)theenergyrequirement.Butinbiologythemostimportant variablesforthesolutionofproblemsatthesescalesareinformationandspace (figure3).Thiscanbeillustratedbycomparingthefunctionalityofbiologicaland manmade polymers, proteins and polysaccharides. People have produced over 300 polymers, but none of them is as versatile or responsive as these two biologicalpolymers.Forexample, at the primary level, proteins are remarkably similar in the energy required for their synthesis since the peptide bond is the pervasivemotif.However,thereisawiderangevaryingfrominertfibrous(such ascollagenorsilk)toresponsivefibrous(suchasmuscle)andfrominertglobular (suchasskeletalproteinsininsects)toresponsiveglobular(suchasenzymes). Thedifferencebetweentheseproteinsislesstodowiththeenergyrequiredfor their synthesis than the complement and order of the amino acids, which is a derivationofinformationstoredintheDNAofthenucleusorelsewhere.Spaceis

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alsorelevant,sincetheshapeoftheproteinisanessentialpartofitsfunction. Thesamestorypertainswhenconsideringbiologicalhardtissues. Calcium, and less commonly silicon, derivatives are commonest, and carbonates and phosphates are predominant. This limited range of chemicals (with the occasional addition of iron, zinc or manganese) suffices for nearly all biological hard materials. In insect cuticle, the main variety of function is achieved by makingcomplexcompositeswithanythingupto10constituentsandarangeof properties (like Young's modulus), thus covering several orders of magnitude withasinglematerial(Vincent&Wegst2004).
Figure2

EngineeringTRIZsolutions arrangedaccordingto size/hierarchy.

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Figure3

Biologicaleffectsarranged accordingtosize/hierarchy.

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Thiscomparisonbetweenthefewmaterialsofbiologyandthemanymaterialsof technologyhasbeenmadecommonly,butneverexplainedfunctionally.Wecan now do this. It appears that biological systems have developed relatively few syntheticprocessesatlowsizeatwhichthecontributionofenergyissignificant but the main variety of function is achieved by manipulations of shape and combinations of materials at larger sizes achieved by high levels of hierarchy, whereenergyisnotanissue.Thisisaverysubtlebiomimeticlesson.Insteadof developing new materials each time we want new functionality, we should be adaptingandcombiningthematerialswealreadyhave.Obviously,wearedoing this to an extent, but it is unclear whether we recognize this as a significant routeratherthanarouteofconvenience. In order to approach this, we note that engineering materials can be mapped with property dimensions, such as mechanical, thermal, electrical, optical and cost.Thesemapsshowsignificantgapsinpropertyspace,whichcansometimes be filled with hybrids of two or more materials (A,B) or of material and space (=A+B+ shape+scale Ashby & Brechet 2003). Particulate and fibrous composites are examples of one type of hybrid, but there are also sandwich structures,foams,latticestructuresandothers.Thestructuralvariablesexpand the design space of homogeneous materials, allowing the creation of new materials with specific property profiles. Although it can be difficult and expensivetomakeasuccessfulhybrid,soisthealternativeofdevelopinganew material. Both routes involve exploration of property space the hybrid will be more likely to deliver the required properties, but the quality may be compromisedbyfactors,suchaschemicalincompatibilityofthecomponents.We alreadyhavesometoolstoshortcircuitthisprocess:forinstance,adatabaseof composites, of reinforcing fibres, chemistries and choice of structure these methods allow promising hybrids to be identified. To go further, we should attenuate a significant number of our materials synthesis systems, concentrating on those with the least energy requirement and the greatest initialvariability,andgeneratetherequiredfunctionalitybyclosercontrolofthe informationcontent(e.g.monomersequence).Wecanalsorealizethepotential of nanotechnology, which is to escape from the nano approach as soon as possible,andprogresstomakinglargerstructureswhichcanselfassembleina programmedmannerusingtheinformationcapturedas,forinstance,thetype andarrangementofmonomersalongthepolymerchain.Anotherimplicationof thisargumentisthatweshouldhaveadatabaseoftheengineeringproperties and hybridization potential of both technical and biological materials. The

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database of technical materials is comparatively well known that of biological materialsisduealmostentirelytotheeffortsofWegst(Wegst & Ashby 2004) andisasyetunavailablegenerally. 5.Theexpansionoftriz InordertodevelopTRIZasaframeworkforbiomimetics,wefirsthavetomake biologicalinformationavailablewithinitsstructurebycataloguingandclassifying theeffectsoftheactions,andmechanismsoffunctioning,ofbiologicalsystems, andperhapsmodifyandexpandTRIZ,sothatitcancopewiththeextravarieties of input information. For this task, we need the framework to be suitable for describing and classifying both engineering and biological data. In general, we haveto: i.find patterns in the solution of problems in technology (the original TRIZ system) ii.find patterns in the solution of problems in biology (develop a modified, BioTRIZ,system) iii.makethesepatternscompatiblewithinanewgeneralBiomimeticTRIZ. The data from technology and biology present a continuum of variables and contradictions at different levels of complexityfrom a cellular organelle to an ecosystem,fromasingletransistorinamicrocontrollertoafleetofaircraft.The biologicaldata have to be structured into a framework that is compatible with technology to operate with this large amount of very varied information. Initially, we designed auxiliary conflict matrices for biological structures and environments, and for causes and limits of actions. These allow us to break naturaldataintoengineeringlikechunksofinformationandcovertheprimary TRIZ components of function, effect and conflict. The matrix we have developedtakesaccountof: i.an object and its parts (which are accounted for in the TRIZ contradiction matrix) ii.theenvironmentinwhichtheobjectoperates iii.thelimitsandcausesofaction iv.theultimatepurposeofaction v.theresourcesandauxiliarysystemsinvolved. ItincorporatestheideasofseveralTRIZtoolswithinasinglecontext,andisthus not only a database of physical effects, but also a database of intention and motivation.Thisisneededbecausebiologicalsystemsareteleological.Theirgoal is a condition that enhances the reproduction of the individual. Thus, no biologicalsystemcanbedescribedashavingonlyemergentbehaviour.Although acomputermodelcandescribethebehaviourofantsortermitesintheapparent absenceofatargetstate,thegoalhasbeensetbytheexperimenter.Inreallife, the goal is set implicitly by the individual organism or by its forbears, and the functionofabiologicalsystemistheactionneededtoachieveausefulordesired condition. In technical systems, the achievement of the goal is delegated to a technical device, but the goal remains the same: the future condition of the system.So,thefunctionofatechnicalsystemistheactionneededtoachievea useful or desired condition with the help of a technical device. The technical effect is equivalent to the use of tools, a phenomenon observed in many mammals, birds and insects. Technology is not uniquely human. An isolated technicalsystemcannotsetitsowngoals,althoughamachinewithembedded logicfunctionscouldtransgressthisdifferentiation(Vincentetal.2005). 6.BiomimeticsusingTRIZ WeneedtoshowthattheintroductionofbiologyintoTRIZdoesnotcompromise its ability to solve engineering problems and yet makes it compatible with the natural solutions to various problems from biology. This is best shown with a casestudy.Thesequenceofsolvingtheproblemis: definetheprobleminthemostgeneral,yetpreciseway.Itisessentialto avoidspecificdirectionsofthoughtorprematuresolutionoftheproblem.One should also avoid special terminology, because it inevitably confines the thinking space to the existing (i.e. conventional) sphere. Then list the desirableandundesirablepropertiesandfunctions analyseandunderstandtheproblemandsouncoverthemainconflictsor

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contradictions.ThetechnicalconflictsarethenidentifiedintheTRIZmatrix2 andlisted.Findthefunctionalanalogyinbiology(lookintothePRIZM)orgo tothebiologicalconflictmatrix(table2) compare the solutions recommended by biology and TRIZ. Find the commonsolutionsforbiologicalandengineeringfields.Listthetechnicaland biologicalprinciplesthusrecommended basedonthesecommonsolutions,buildabridgefromnaturaltotechnical design.Tomakethetechnicalandbiologicalsystemscompatible,makealist oftheirgeneralrecommendedcompositions to create a completely new technology, add to the basic TRIZ principles somepuretechnicalorpurebiologicalones(e.g.thoselistedinappendix1 electronicsupplementarymaterial). 6.1Casestudy:thecat'sclawwheel Inmanyareas,thewintertemperaturesgobelow0 C,leadingtodangerously icy road conditions. But the spikes or chains often attached to wheels for the whole winter damage icefree roads. It is inconvenient to be changing continuallybetweenspecialwinterandsummertyresorputtingchainsonand off the wheels. It would be better to have an instantly changing tyre, which would be a conventional rubber tyre on an icefree road and able to generate high friction on an icy surface. Thus, we have a typical TRIZ conflict, with requirements to be soft and smooth and to be solid, hard and sharp. It is also possible to formulate our problem as: we need adequate friction between a wheelandaroadundervariableroadsurfaceconditions.Thefrictionmustalso varywithouttheweightofthevehiclechanging.Nowfollowthestepsaboveand trytofindabiomimeticsolution.Howcanwemaximizethegripofthetyreto theroadsurfaceunderalldrivingconditions?Howcanwechangethegripping mode instantly when the type of surface changes? A relevant functional biological prototype would be a cat's paw with claws that can be withdrawn, allowing the soft pad to contact the ground. Let us compare the suggestions from the conventional 3939 TRIZ matrix with our 66 PRIZM TRIZ and biologicalmatrices(tables2and3).
Table3

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Thedegreeofsimilarityin theinventiveprinciples

betweentechnologyandbiology.

The conflict is that force in contact with the road should increase (feature 10) butnotbyincreasingtheweightofthevehicle(feature1),whichwouldbethe usual way to increase the normal force, with the TRIZ matrix suggesting IP 1 SegmentationIP8AntiweightIP18MechanicalvibrationandIP37Thermal expansion.ThesolutionssuggestedbynaturefromtheBioTRIZmatrixare: i.IP1Segmentation:thecat'spawissegmentedintoseveralpadsandclaws ii.IP 3 Local quality: the paw is not sharp in its entirety, but only at some pointsattheoperatingzonesoftheclaws iii.IP 14 Spheroidality or curvature: the pads are spheroidal, the claws are curved iv.IP15Dynamics:theclawscanbedeployedorretractedatwill v.IP17Anotherdimension:givingthecontactsurfaceathirddimension,i.e. thesoftpawpadwiththeretractedclawsisquasiplanarwhentheclawsare deployedthepawmovesintothethirdplane. Alternatively,wecanreducethecontactareatomaximizegroundcontactstress (feature 5) without changing the weight of the vehicle (feature 1): how to minimizecontactsurfaceareawithoutlosingweightoftheobjectthefield5/1 in the TRIZ matrix. In this case, TRIZ recommends IP 2 Taking out IP 4 Asymmetry IP 17 Another dimension and IP 29 Pneumatics and hydraulics. SolutionsfromtheBioTRIZmatrixrepeatthoseabove: i.IP3Localquality ii.IP15Dynamics iii.IP17Anotherdimension. These again suggest versatile claws, which can be retracted and protracted accordingtonecessity.

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Thethirdconflictcanbeformulatedas:howcanthewheelpossessthequality sharpnessonlyundericyconditionsand/orhowtogriptheroadsurface,orhow to reduce the ground contact area without losing adaptability and composition stability.Thispointstofields5/35and5/13intheTRIZconflictmatrix,andIP2 TakingoutIP11PriorcushioningIP13TheotherwayroundIP15Dynamics IP 30 Flexible shells and thin films and IP 39 Inert atmosphere. The BioTRIZ matrixrecommends i.IP1Segmentation ii.IP17Anotherdimension iii.IP19Periodicaction. Overall,theprinciplesheldincommonbetweenthethreeconflictpairsareIP1, IP15andIP17.Thissuggeststhatsharpandsoftpartsshouldbesegmented and/oralternatelystructured(arrangedinspace),perhapsasmultipleclawsand pads. These alternating units should be alternated in time as well, in other words, soft and sharp modes of operation of the wheel should be switched on and off in time. And eventually, IP 17 clearly indicates the necessity to design somespikes(claws,serrations,teethandsoon)toprovideadequategripforthe wheel. All this shows that we should design the wheel/tyre with spikes, which will operate like cat's clawsdynamically, according to the prevailing road conditions. The wheel and tyre already possesses IP 29 Pneumatics and hydraulicsandIP30Flexibleshellsandthinfilmstheflexiblepneumaticrubber tyre.IP2Takingoutshouldbealsoemployedasalreadyrecommendedabove.It means that the alternated segmented parts due to their dynamics should performthesoftandsharpmodesduetothetakingoutprinciple.Andthelast (but not least) point is that one should pay attention to IP 13 The other way round.Itmeansthatthesupposedwheelwiththeretractable/protractibleclaws is much easier to design vice versathe rigidly mounted claws are combined with the inflatable/deflatable soft part, the pneumatic tyre. Technically, it is muchmoreconvenienttoinflateanddeflateatyrethantomakesophisticated actuating protraction and retraction mechanism for numerous spikes. Eventually,thewheelwouldlooklikefigure4.
Figure4

Thecatpawwheel,(a) inflatedand(b)readyforicy surfaces.

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6.2OtherTRIZtoolsinbiomimetics WehavedescribedtherelevanceofonlyoneoftheTRIZtools,thecontradiction matrix, and related it to the System Operator and hierarchy. TRIZ offers more similaritiesbetweenbiologyandengineering,notablyinitsEvolutionary Trends series,wherethetendencyoftechnicalsystemsistoevolvetowardsincreased functional complexity and versatility, often with associated structural simplicity (Pahl & Vincent 2002). In both technology and biology, control systems tend towardsdecentralizedfeedbackskeletalstructurestendtowardscomplianceand flexibility(althoughobviouslygravityexertsaconstraintonthistendency).We havemerelyobservedtheseremarkableparallelswithoutattemptinganalysisof any sort. It would be a fruitful area for palaeontological comparisons and predictions, and could either highlight constraints in biology that had been overlooked,orcouldsuggestevolutionarytrendsintechnologywhichbiologyhas been able to exploit more effectively or which technology has ignored. A combination of functional analysis and the identification of inventive principles givesamoresophisticatedmethodcalledSubstanceField(orSuFieldorSField) analysis. OtherTRIZtoolsaremethodsmostlytohelpsharpenthedefinitionofaproblem andtoensurethattheproblemisnotwronglynamedoridentified,whichcould leadtotheadoptionofawrongorinappropriatesolution. 7.Conclusion

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Biomimeticsisnotanewwayofadaptingideasfrombiology,butitiscurrently empiricalinitsapproach.Ifitistobuildoncurrentsuccesses,andtobeableto serve our technological society, then it needs some sort of regularizing, best introducedasasetofcommonprinciples.SuchprinciplesexistinTRIZ,anditis in this area that there seems to be the most promise for establishing a transparent method for technologists to access biology, which they otherwise viewasanarcaneandcomplexworld.ThisisbecausewhileTRIZwasdeveloped asasystemsapproachforengineering,biologyis,itself,asystem.Thebenefits tobegainedfrombiomimeticsarenotyettotallyobvious,otherthantodeepen thehumanrace'sboxoftechnicaltricks.However if, as our study (and indeed manyotherstudies)suggests,biologicalfunctionsandprocessesarelessreliant onenergy, then the implications could be very significant. That this change in our approach to technology and engineering could be achieved by developing nanotechnology(seeabove)wouldsurelypleaseRichardFeynman(1959). Acknowledgments WethanktheEPSRCforfundingthisproject. Footnotes

Theelectronicsupplementarymaterialisavailableat http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2006.0127orvia http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk. InTRIZthesearecalledinventiveprinciples,ofwhichthereareabout40. Appendix1oftheelectronicsupplementarymateriallistsbothtechnicaland biologicalexamplesoftheprinciples. TheclassicalTRIZcontradictionmatrix,at3939elements,ismuchlarger thanthePRIZMmatrix,moredetailedandmoredifficulttouse.Itisavailable frommanysources(e.g.TRIZJournalontheInternet)andsoisnotprovided here.

ReceivedDecember21,2005. AcceptedMarch27,2006.
2006TheRoyalSociety

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