Galois Theory

Prof. A.J. Scholl Michaelmas 2005

L T Xed by Sebastian Pancratz E

ii
These notes are based on a course of lectures given by Prof. A.J. Scholl in Part II of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge in the academic year 20052006. These notes have not been checked by Prof. A.J. Scholl and should not be regarded as ocial notes for the course. In particular, the responsibility for any errors is mine  please email Sebastian Pancratz (sfp25) with any comments or corrections.

Contents

1 Polynomials 2 Symmetric Polynomials 3 Fields and Extensions 4 Algebraic Elements and Extensions 5 Algebraic and Transcendental Numbers in 6 Splitting Fields 7 Separability 8 Algebraic Closure 9 Field Automorphisms and Galois Extensions 10 The Characterisation of Finite Galois Extensions 11 The Galois Correspondence 12 Finite Fields 13 Cyclotomic and Kummer Extensions 14 Trace and Norm 15 Solving Equations by Radicals
R

1 3 7 11 and C 15 21 25 27 31 35 37 41 45 51 55

Chapter 1 Polynomials

Let

be any commutative ring with an identity element

1.

The ring of polynomials is

R[X] =
i=0
More generally, If

ai X i : n N a1 , . . . , an R .
is the ring of polynomials in several variables. It is

R[X1 , . . . , Xn ]

important to distinguish between a polynomial and the function that it might represent.

f (X) = n ai X i R[X] then it determines a function R R, b n ai bi = i=0 i=0 f (b). The function b f (b) does not in general determine f (X) uniquely, e.g. if Z R = Fp = pZ , f (X) = X p , g(X) = X then by Fermat's Little Theorem f (b) = g(b) for all b Fp but f = g .
Here, we are mostly interested in the case Euclidean domain, so if such that (i) (ii)

f, g K[X]

with

R = K , a eld. Recall that K[X] is a g = 0 then there exist unique q, r K[X]

f = qg + r; deg r < deg g . r

is constant as

A particular case is when since

g = X a is linear, then we get f (X) = (X a)q(X) + f (a), deg r < 1 = deg(X a). This is known as the remainder theorem.
is a unique factorisation domain (UFD) and a principal

As a consequence,

K[X]

ideal domain (PID), so that greatest common divisors exist, and if

f, g K[X] deg f

then

gcd(f, g) = pf + qg

for some Let

p, q K[X]. 0 = f K[X].
Then

Proposition 1.1.
K.

be a eld,

has at most

roots in

Proof.

If f has no roots, there is nothing to prove. Otherwise, let c K be a root. So f (X) = (X c)q(X) by the division algorithm, and deg q = deg f 1. So if b is any root of f , then (b c)q(b) = 0, so c = b or b is a root of q (as K is a eld). So

|{roots

of

f }| 1 + |{roots 1 + deg q = deg f

of

q}|

by induction on the degree of

f.
This has four roots

Remark.

Consider

X 2 1 R[X], R = Z/8Z.

1, 3,

so the

assumption

a eld is essential.

Lecture 1

Lecture 1

Chapter 2 Symmetric Polynomials

For

n 1 {1, . . . , n}.

let

Sn

denote the symmetry group of degree

n,

i.e. the permutations of

Denition.

Let R be a ring, X1 , . . . , Xn f (X1 , . . . , Xn ) R[X1 , . . . , Xn ] is symmetric if

be

indeterminates.

polynomial

Sn
If

f (X(1) , . . . , X(n) ) = f (X1 , . . . , Xn ). f +g

and

f, g

are symmetric, clearly so are

f g.

Also constant polynomials are

symmetric. So the set of symmetric polynomials is a subring of

R[X1 , . . . , Xn ] containing

R.

Example.

Power sums

r r pr = X 1 + + X n

for any

r 0.
The group

Another way of expressing the denition is as follows.

Sn

acts on

R[X1 , . . . , Xn ] by : f f (X(1) , . . . , X(n) ) = f , say. This (f ) = f . The ring of symmetric polynomials is just the R[X1 , . . . , Xn ] xed by Sn , called invariants.

is a group action, set of elements of

Elementary Symmetric Polynomials

Consider

(T + Xi ) = (T + X1 )(T + X2 ) (T + Xn )
i=1

= T n + (X1 + + Xn )T n1 + + X1 Xn
Dene

sr = sr,n

to be the coecient of

T nr .

So

sr =
1i1 <<ir n
For example, if We always

Xi1 Xir .

n = 3 then s1 = X1 +X2 +X3 , s2 = X1 X2 +X1 X3 +X2 X3 , s3 = X1 X2 X3 . have s0,n = 1 and by convention sr,n = 0 if r > n.
(i) Every sym-

Theorem 2.1 (Newton, Main Theorem of Symmetric Functions).

metric polynomial in in

R[X1 , . . . , Xn ]

is a polynomial in

{sr,n }n r=0

with coecients

R.

Lecture 2

Symmetric Polynomials
(ii) There are no non-trivial relations between the elementary symmetric polynomials.

The meaning of (ii) is the following. Consider the map

: R[Y1 , . . . , Yn ] R[X1 , . . . , Xn ], G(Y1 , . . . , Yn ) G(s1 , . . . , sn ).

This clearly is a homomorphism. (ii) means that phism between

ker = {0},

so

denes an isomor-

R[Y1 , . . . , Yn ]

and the ring of symmetric polynomials in

X1 , . . . , X n .

Proof.

(i) If

i X11
in

R[X1 , . . . , Xn ] are just R-linear combinations of monomials. The degree of XI is i1 + + in . A polynomial is said to be homogenous if all the monomials occurring in it (i.e. with non-zero coecients) have the same degree. If f R[X1 , . . . , Xn ], we can uniquely write f = f0 + f1 + + fd for some d where each fk is either 0 or is homogeneous of degree k . Permuting {X1 , . . . , Xn } does not change the degree of the monomials, so if f is symmetric, so are the homogeneous parts f0 , f1 , . . . , fd . So to prove (i), we may assume without loss of generality that f is homogeneous of degree d, say. Dene an ordering on the set of all monomials {XI } as follows. We say XI > XJ if either i1 > j1 or if for some p > 1, i1 = j1 , . . . , ip1 = jp1 and ip > jp . (This is called the lexicographical ordering.) This is a total ordering on {XI }, i.e. for a pair I, J exactly one of XI > XJ , XI < XJ , XI = XJ holds. Suppose f is homogeneous of degree d and symmetric. Consider the monomial XI occurring in f which is greatest for lexicographical ordering, and let c R be its coecient. We claim that i1 i2 in ; if not, say ip < ip+1 , then if we interchange Xp and Xp+1 then the new monomial XI has exponents I = (i1 , . . . , ip1 , ip+1 , ip , ip+2 , . . . ), so XI > XI . So
i XI = X11 i2 (X1 X2 )i2 i3 (X1 Xn1 )in1 in (X1 Xn )in .
Let
n1 g = si1 i2 si2 i3 sn1 1 2

I = (i1 , . . . , in ) with ik 0 for all k = 1, . . . , n, write XI = in . Any polynomial of this form is called a monomial. The polynomials Xn

in in sn , which is symmetric, homogeneous of degree

is just

XI (since the highest monomial in X1 X2 Xr ). Consider h = f cg . If h is non-zero, then h is homogeneous of degree d, symmetric, and its highest monomial is less than XI . As the number of monomials of given
and its leading term (highest monomial) is degree is nite, repeating this process ultimately terminates and we have expressed

d sr

(ii) Suppose

{sr }. G R[Y1 , . . . , Yn ] such that G(s1,n , . . . , sn,n ) = 0. We want to show by induction on n that G = 0. If n = 1, there is nothing to prove. k k If Yn divides G for some k > 0 then H = G/Yn is also a relation (H(s1,n , . . . , sn,n ) = 0). So dividing by powers of Yn , we may assume Yn G. Now substitute Xn = 0 to get f
as a polynomial in

sr,n (X1 , . . . , Xn1 , 0) =

and

sr,n1 0

r<n r=n G(Y1 , . . . , Yn1 , 0) =

0,

in other words,

G(s1,n1 , . . . , sn1,n1 , 0) = 0. Yn | G. So there

By induction, this means are no non-zero relations.

Lecture 2

5 Example.
X1 (X1 X2 ).
Consider We have

i=j

Xi2 Xj .

The

highest

monomial

occurring

is

2 X1 X2 =

s1 s2 =
i j<k

Xi Xj Xk Xi2 Xj + 3
i=j i<j<k

=
So

Xi Xj Xk .

i=j

Xi2 Xj = s1 s2 3s3 .
5 i Xi leads to Newton's identities.

Considering similarly

Theorem 2.2
k 1,
Note that

(Newton's Formula)

Let

n 1.

Let

k k pk = X 1 + + X n .

Then for all

pk s1 pk1 + + (1)k1 sk1 p1 + (1)k ksk = 0 k = p0

and by convention

sr = 0

if

r > n.
n r r r=0 (1) sr T . We have

Proof.

Consider

F (T ) =
n i=1

n i=1 (1

Xi T ) =

F (T ) = F (T )

Xi 1 Xi T
n

1 = T = 1 T

(Xi T )r
i=1 r=1

pr T r
r=1

T F (T ) = s1 T 2s2 T 2 + + (1)n1 nsn T n = F (T )

r=1

pr T r

= (s0 s1 T + s2 T 2 + + (1)n sn T n )(p1 T + p2 T 2 + )

Comparing coecients of

Tk

gives the identity

k1

(1)k1 ksk =
r=0

(1)r sr pkr

Discriminant
Consider

(X1 , . . . , Xn ) =
i<j

(Xi Xj )

(X(1) , . . . , X(n) ) = sgn()(X1 , . . . , Xn )

for all

Sn ,

so

2 (X1 , . . . , Xn ) =
i<j

(Xi Xj )2

Lecture 3

6
= (1)n(n1)/2
i=j
is a symmetric polynomial.

Symmetric Polynomials
(Xi Xj )

Example.

Let

n = 2.

Then

2 (X1 , X2 ) = (X1 X2 )2 = (X1 + X2 )2 4X1 X2 = s2 4s2 . 1

Let

f (T ) =
i=1

(T i )

= T n c1 T n1 + + (1)n cn
where

cr = sr (1 , . . . , n ).

Then the discrimant of

Disc(f ) = 2 (1 , . . . , n ) =
i<j
is a polynomial in

(i j )2 f
has a repeated root.

{ci }

and vanishes if and only if

s2 1

Example.
4s2
as

n = 2, f (T ) = T 2 + bT + c then Disc(f ) = b2 4c. (Note that Disc(f ) = above. But then s1 (1 , 2 ) = 1 + 2 = b and s2 (1 , 2 ) = 1 2 = c.)
If

Lecture 3

Chapter 3 Fields and Extensions

Recall that a

eld

is a commutative ring with an identity element

1, 1 = 0,

in which

every non-zero element is invertible. If

is a eld then one of the followings holds. For every

n Z, n = 0, n.1K = 0K n.1K =

where

1K + + 1K (n).1K

n>0 n<0

In this case, we say

There exists there exists

K has characteristic 0. n Z, n = 0, with n.1K = 0K , Then because K has no zero-divisors, a unique prime p such that p.1K = 0K . We say K has characteristic

p.
In each case,

has a minimal subeld, called the this is

prime subeld
Q =

of

K.

If

char K = 0,

m.1K |n=0 n.1K

If

char K = p > 0,

this is

{m.1K | 0 m p 1} Z/pZ = Fp =

Denition.
in

Let

L.

We say

is an

K L be elds with the eld operations in K extension of K , written L/K .

Let

being the same as those

Example.

rational functions

Q R C are extensions. f g : f, g K[X], g = 0

be any eld; then the eld

K(X)

of

is an extension of

K.

Actually, in practice we use something more general. If elds (which is necessarily injective since we will also say that

is an extension of

i : K L is a homomorphism of K has no proper ideals other than {0}), then K , and even identify K with its image in L. +, ,
let

Example.
Let

Let

C = {(x, y) : x, y R}

with suitable

i = (0, 1).

Then

R =

{(x, 0) : x R}. L/K

be a eld extension. Addition and multiplication in

by elements of

turn

into a vector space over

K.

Lecture 3

8 Denition.
If

Fields and Extensions

L
is nite-dimensional as a vector space over

K , we say that L/K is a nite extension and set [L : K] = dimK L, called the degree of L/K . If not, we say L/K is an innite extension and write [L : K] = .
So if

[L : K] = n N
(i)

then

L Kn =

as a

K -vector

space.

Example.
R.
(ii) For any (iii)

C/R

is a nite extension of degree because

since

{1, i}

is a basis for

over

K , [K(X) : K] =

1, X, X 2 , . . .

are linearly independent over

K. R/Q

is an innite extension. (This is left as an exercise.) An extension of degree

Remark.
sion.

2, (3,

etc.) is called a quadratic, (cubic, etc.) exten-

Theorem 3.1.
n1
with

K be n = [K : Fp ].
Let

a nite eld of characteristic

p > 0.

Then

|K| = pn

for some

Proof.

Let

Fp -vector

n = [K : Fp ] = dimFp K . n spaces, so |K| = p .

Let

This is nite since

is nite. Then

K Fn = p

as

L/K be a nite extension L. Then dimK V = n dimL V , and V is nite nite-dimensional over L.

Theorem 3.2.

of degree

n,

and

dimensional

V a vector space over K if and only if

over it is

dimL V = d < , so V Ld = L L as an L-vector space, hence = also as a K -vector space. So V L K = d = nd as K -vector spaces, so dimK V = nd < . Conversely, if dimK V < then any K -basis for V span V over L, so dimL V < .
Suppose

Proof.

Corollary 3.3
only if both

(Tower Law) and

Let

M/L/K

be extensions. Then

M/L

L/K

are nite, and if so,

M/K is [M : K] = [M : L][L : K].

nite if and

Proof.

If

L/K

is not nite, then

L/K is nite. Then by Theorem so [M : K] = [M : L][L : K].

M/K is certainly not nite as L M . So suppose 3.2, M/L is nite if and only if M/K is nite, and if F = F \ {0} F

Proposition 3.4.
As a special case, if

Let

non-zero elements. Let

F be a G F

eld.

is the multiplicative group of its

be a nite subgroup. Then is cyclic.

is cyclic.

is a nite eld then

G = C1 Ck say, where each Ci is a cyclic G, |Ci | = di with 1 = d1 | d2 | | dk and |G| = n = k di . G is cyclic i=1 d if and only if k = 1. But if k > 1 then dk < n, and for every x G, x k = 1. So d the polynomial X k 1 has at least n roots in F , contradicting that F is a eld (see
is a nite abelian group, so subgroup of Proposition 1.1).

Proof. G

Proposition 3.5.
the map

Let

be a ring of characteristic

endomorphism

p : R R of R.

given by

p (x) =

p, a prime, i.e. p.1R = 0R . Then p is a ring homomorphism called the Frobenius x

Lecture 4

9
Proof.
p (y).
We have to prove that

p (1) = 1, p (xy) = p (x)p (y)

and

p (x + y) = p (x) +

Only the last one of these is non-trivial. We have

p (x + y) = (x + y)p
p1

=x + =x +y
p r=1 p

p r pr x y + yp r

= p (x) + p (y)
since, if

1 r < p,

p r

0 (mod p). p,

Example.

Fermat's Little Theorem states that for prime

a Z ap a (mod p)
It can be proved by induction on

since

(a + 1)p ap + 1

by the above.

Lecture 4

Lecture 4

Chapter 4 Algebraic Elements and Extensions

Let

L/K

be an extension of elds,

x L.

We dene

K[x] =
i=0

ai xi : n 0 a1 , . . . , an K y : y, z K[x] z = 0 L. z

L,

K(x) =
Clearly and

subring of

K[x] is a subring of L, and K(x) is a subeld of L. Moreover, K[x] is the smallest L containing K and x, and K(x) is the smallest subeld of L containing K x. We say K[x], K(x) are obtained by adjoining x to K .
Consider

Example.
since

C/Q. Q[i] = {a + bi : a, b Q} (a + bi)1 =

is already a eld, so

Q[i] = Q(i)

a b i a2 + b2 a2 + b2

if

a + bi = 0.
We say

Denition.
Suppose

is

algebraic over K

if there exists a non-constant polynomial

f (X) K[X]

such that

f (x) = 0.

If not, we say that

is

transcendental over K .

x is algebraic over K . Choose a monic polynomial m(X) K[X] of least degree m(x) = 0. Then m(X) is irreducible: if m = f g with deg f, deg g < deg m then one of f (x) or g(x) would be 0. Also, if f (X) K[X] with f (x) = 0, then m | f , since by the Euclidean division algorithm, we can write f (X) = q(X)m(X) + g(X) with deg g < deg m and then g(x) = 0, so g(X) must be the zero polynomial. In particular, m(X) is unique, it is called the minimal polynomial.
such that Another way of seeing this is the following. The map

x : K[X] L f (X) f (x)

is clearly a homomorphism. Then so, then eld), so

is algebraic over

if and only if

ker(x ) = {0}.

If

ker(x ) is a non-zero prime ideal of K[X] (prime as the image is embedded in a ker(x ) = (m) for some irreducible polynomial m(X) K[X], which is unique K[x] L.

if required to be monic. It is then the minimal polynomial. Note also that the image of

is just

Lecture 4

12 Theorem 4.1.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Let

Algebraic Elements and Extensions

L/K
be an extension,

x L.

The following are equivalent.

x is algebraic over K ; [K(x) : K] < ; dimK K[x] < ; K[x] = K(x); K[x] is a eld.

If they hold, then called the

degree of x over K degK (x).

[K(x) : K]

equals the degree of the minimal polynomial of

over

K,

Proof.

The proof proceeds as follows. degree formula

ks

w 7? w www w www  ww w +3 (iii) ks

(i)

ks

(iv)

ks

+3

(v)

(ii)

[(ii) [(iii)

(iii), (iv)

(v).] These are obvious. Let is is

0 = g(X) K[x]. Then multiplication by g(x) an injective linear map K[x] K[x], so as dimK K[x] < , it is surjective, so it invertible, hence (iv) and (v), and clearly (iii) and (iv) = (ii). =
(iv) and (ii).] [(iv)

= (i).] If x = 0, write x1 = a0 + a1 x + + an1 xn1 K[x] = K(x), an1 xn + + a1 x2 + a0 x 1 = 0, so x is algebraic over K .

[(i)

hence

(iii), degree formula] It is enough to show that if

minimal polynomial But

m(X),

then

1, x, . . . , xn1

is a basis for relation So

x is algebraic of degree n with K[x] as a K -vector space.

{xi : i 0}

spans

linear combination of

K[x] over K and the 1, x, . . . , xr1 for r n.

m(X) = 0 shows that xr is a {1, x, . . . , xn1 } spans K[x], and by

denition of the minimal polynomial, it is a linear independent set as well.

Example.
let

Note that the minimal polynomial depends on the eld

L = C, x = i = K = Q or K = Q[i]. Over Q, the minimal 4 +1, which is irreducible over Q. But over Q[i], X 4 +1 = (X 2 +i)(X 2 i), polynomial is X 2 and the minimal polynomial is X i.

K.

As an example,

2 2 (1 + i), and consider

Corollary 4.2.
(ii)

(i) Let L/K be a eld extension, x1 , . . . , xn L. Then K(x1 , . . . , xn )/K is a nite extension if and only if x1 , . . . , xn are algebraic over K. 1 are also algebraic If x, y L are algebraic over K , then x y , xy and, if x = 0, x over K .

Proof.

(ii)

[K(x1 , . . . , xn ) : K] < then for all i = 1, . . . , n, [K(xi ) : K] < , so by Theorem 4.1 xi is algebraic over K . Conversely, if xn is algebraic over K then it is certainly algebraic over K(x1 , . . . , xn1 ), so [K(x1 , . . . , xn ) : K(x1 , . . . , xn1 )] < . By the induction hypothesis, [K(x1 , . . . , xn1 ) : K] < , so by the tower law, [K(x1 , . . . , xn ) : K] < . x, y are algebraic, so by (i) [K(x, y) : K] < . If z is x y , xy , or x1 then z K(x, y), so [K(z) : K] < and so z is algebraic over K .
(i) If

Lecture 5

13
If we are not using (i) to prove (ii), we have polynomials

f (X), g(X) such that f (x) = 0,

g(y) = 0,

h(x + y) = 0? Example. Let K = Q, m, n Z. Let x = m, y = n, f (X) = X 2 m, g(X) = X 2 n; z = x + y = m + n. Then z 2 = m + 2 mn + n, so (z 2 m n)2 = 4mn. Therefore, there is a quartic polynomial satised by x + y .
so do we have such that

h(X)

x is a root of X 3 + X + 3, y a root of X 4 + 2X 3 + 2, then it is not easy to compute f (X) such that f (x + y) = 0. Example. Let a, b K , = a, = b. We try to nd a polynomial with root = + .
But if

2 = ( + )2 = a + b + 2 4 = (a + b)2 + 4(a + b) + 42 2 = (a2 + 6ab + b2 ) + 4(a + b)

Eliminating

we obtain

4 2(a + b) 2 = (a b)2
i.e.,

is a root of

f (X) = X 4 2(a + b)X 2 + (a b)2 .

degK = m, degK = n, the monomials i j , 0 i < m, 0 j < n span K[, ]. So given any K[, ], there is a linear combination of these, and so there 2 mn , and this is our relation of algebraic must be a linear relation between 1, , , . . . ,
In general, if dependence, although it is not necessarily the minimal one. So far, we have shown that

K=Q

and suppose

[K() : K] | 4. The m, n, mn are all non-squares. L/K

is

following is left as an exercise. Then

[Q( m + n) : Q] = 4.
is algebraic over

Let

Denition.
(ii)

An extension

algebraic
x

if every

xL

K. K(x)/K

Proposition 4.3.
K(x)/K
is nite. (iii) Let

(i) Any nite extension is algebraic. is algebraic over

is algebraic if and only if

K,

so if and only if

M/L/K be extensions of M/L and L/K are algebraic.

(i) Suppose

elds. Then

M/K

is algebraic if and only if both

Proof.
K.

L/K

is nite,

This holds for all

x L. x L, so L/K

Then

K(x)/K

is nite, so

x is algebraic over

is algebraic.

(ii) Suppose (iii)

K(x)/K is algebraic. Then x is algebraic over K , so K(x)/K is nite and by (i) K(x)/K is algebraic. Suppose M/K is algebraic. So every x M is algebraic over K , hence L/K is algebraic. Also x M will be algebraic over L K , so M/L is algebraic. The
converse follows from the following lemma.

Lemma 4.4.
Then

Let

is algebraic over

M/L/K be extensions of elds. Suppose L/K L if and only if x is algebraic over K .

is algebraic, let

x M.

Proof.

One direction is immediate from the denition. Conversely, suppose

braic over

L,

so

f (x) = 0

for some

f (X) =

Xd

+ a1

X d1

x is alge+ + ad L[X]. Let

Lecture 5

14

Algebraic Elements and Extensions

L0 = K(a1 , . . . , ad ); as L/K is algebraic, a1 , . . . , ad are algebraic over K , so by Corollary 4.2 (i), L0 /K is a nite extension. As f L0 [X], x is algebraic over L0 , hence [L0 (x) : L0 ] < . So by the tower law [L0 (x) : K] < and so [K(x) : K] < , i.e. x is algebraic over K . Q = {x C : x is algebraic over Q}. Then by Corollary 4.2 (ii), if x, y Q then x y, xy, x1 Q, hence Q is a subeld of C and so Q is an algebraic is not a nite extension of Q, e.g. Q Q( n 2) and as X n 2 is extension of Q. Q n 2. So [Q( n 2) : Q] = n. As this irreducible over Q, it is the minimal polynomial of holds for any n N, [Q : Q] = . 3 Example. Let L = Q( 3 2, 4 5). We claim that [L : Q] = 12. Note [Q( 2) : Q] = 3 as 4 X 3 2 is irreducible. By the tower law, 3 | [L : Q]. Also, [Q( 5) : Q] = 4 as X 4 5 is irreducible, so 4 | [L : Q]. Hence 12 | [L : Q]. 4 4 Note X 5 is the minimal polynomial for 5 over Q, so some factor of it is a minimal 4 polynomial for 5 over Q( 3 2), i.e. [L : Q] | 12.
Let

Example.

Example.
=

Let

e2i/p , so

= e2i/p + e2i/p , = 1 and is a root

where of

is an odd prime. We nd

degQ .

Write

Xp 1 = 1 + X + + X p1 = f (X) X 1 f (X) is irreducible over Q. So [Q() : Q] = p 1. Now Q(), = + 1 . Hence Q Q() Q(), so the tower law implies degQ | p 1.
Note

= 2 + 1, i.e. is a root of X 2 X + 1 in Q()[X] of degree 2. But Q() as Q() R. So this polynomial is a polynomial for over Q(), i.e. [Q() : Q()] = 2. The tower law gives [Q() : Q] = (p 1)/2.
We also have

Lecture 5

Chapter 5 Algebraic and Transcendental Numbers in R and C

Classically,

xR

is transcendental

xC over Q.
or

is

algebraic

if it is algebraic over

and

transcendental

if it

In a certain sense, most numbers are transcendental. Suppose for some

and

f (X) = f (X) an irreducible

cd X d +cd1 X d1 + +c0 with c0 , . . . , cd

can then dene the

height of x as

polynomial. These conditions

x is algebraic, so f (x) = 0 Z, cd > 0, gcd(c0 , . . . , cd ) = determine f (X) uniquely. We

H(x) = d + |c0 | + + |cd | N

For given

C N,

the set of polynomials

hence there exists only nitely many

f (X) as above with d + x Q with H(x) C . So Q

d i=0 |ci |

is nite,

is countable and the

set of transcendental numbers is uncountable. Exhibiting transcendental numbers is non-trivial. We will see that

n=1

1
2 22n

is transcendental. Showing that a particular number, e.g.

is transcendental is harder.

History
e and are tran20th century Gelfond and Schneider showed that xy is transcendental = (1)i is transcendenif x, y are algebraic, x = 0 and y Q. In particular, e y1 ym tal. Alan Baker (1967) showed that x1 xm is transcendental if xi , yi are algebraic, xi = 0 and 1, y1 , . . . , ym are linearly independent over Q. It is not known whether e is
In the century, it was proved by Hermite and Lindemann that scendental. In the transcendental, though.

19th

Example
Proposition 5.1.
The number

x=
n=1
is transcendental.

1
2 22 n

Lecture 6

16
Proof.
that Write
2

Algebraic and Transcendental Numbers in R and C

k(n) = 2n . Supopse f (X) = Z[X] is a polynomial of degree d > 0 1 f (x) = 0. We will obtain a contradiction. Let xn = n m=1 2k(m) . Then

such

|x xn | =
m=n+1
Consider

1 2k(m)

j=0

1 2k(n+1)+j

2 2k(n+1)

n, f (xn ) = 0 since f (X) is a k(n) , the denominator polynomial. But f (xn ) is rational, and as the denominator of xn is 2 1 dk(n) . Therefore, for all suciently large n, |f (x )| of f (xn ) is at most 2 . n 2dk(n)
For all but a nite number of values of Since

f (xn ).

f (x) = 0,

we can write

f (X) = (X x)g(X), |g(xn )| = |f (xn )| |xn x| 1

for some

g(X) R[X],

so

2k(n+1) 2 2dk(n) k(n+1)dk(n)1 =2

and

k(n + 1) dk(n) = 2(n+1) d2n = 2n (22n+1 d)

i.e.

as

|g(xn )|

as

n ,

contradicting

lim g(xn ) = g

lim xn = g(x) = k(n).

In

Remark.

From the proof, we see that this works for a wide range of functions

fact, all we need is

k(n + 1) dk(n) as n , e.g. k(n) = n! (n + 1)! dn! = (n + 1 d)n!, so 21 is transcendental too. n=1 n!

will also work as

Ruler and Compass Constructions

In this section we consider the following three classical problems:

trisecting the angle, duplicating the cube, and squaring the circle

using only a ruler, i.e. a straight edge, and a compass. We rst dene the notion of a ruler and compass construction. Assume a nite set of points

(x1 , y1 ), . . . , (xm , ym ) R2

is given. The following constructions are permitted.

(A) From (B)

(C)

P1 , P2 , Q1 , Q2 with Pi = Qi we can construct the point of intersection of lines P1 Q1 and P2 Q2 , if they are not parallel. From P1 , P2 , Q1 , Q2 with Pi = Qi we may construct the one or two points of intersection of the circles with centres Pi passing through Qi , assuming they intersect and P1 = P2 . From P1 , P2 , Q1 , Q2 with Pi = Qi we can construct the one or two points of intersection of the line P1 Q1 and the circle with centre P2 passing through Q2 .
The construction (C) to construct the intersection of a line and a circle can

Remark.
exercise.)

be reduced to a sequence of constructions of the type (A) and (B). (This is left as an

Lecture 6

17 Example.
(i) We can draw a line perpendicular to a constructed line

= QR

and

through a construced point First consider the case desired line. (a) Construct (b) construct (c) construct line

P.
. The following sequence of constructions yields the

circ(P, Q); circ(Q, Q ); circ(Q , Q); S, T

of the previous two circles. The

(d) construct the two points of intersection

ST

is the desired line.

Now consider the case (a) Construct

(ii)

(iii)

p . We construct the line as follows. circ(P, Q), let Q denote the intersection of and this circle; (b) construct circ(Q, P ); (c) construct circ(Q , P ); let S denote the intersection of the previous two circles. The line P S is the desired line. Given a line , we can draw a line parallel two through a constructed point P . (a) Construct the line perpendicular to through P , denote this by ; (b) construct the line perpendicular to through P . This is the desired line. We can mark o a given length dened by two points R, S on a constructed line = P Q, starting at P . (a) Construct the line parallel to through R, denote this by ; (b) construct circ(R, S), denote the intersection with by T ; (c) construct the line P R; (d) construct the line parallel to P R through T , let P denote the intersection of this line with . Then the line segment P P has the same length as the segment RS .

As a consequence of the constructions described above, we can set up cartesian coordinates given initial points

(0, 0), (0, 1).

Denition. We say that the point (x, y) R2 is constructible from (x1 , y1 ), . . . , (xm , ym )
if it can be obtained from them by a nite sequence of constructions of types (A) and (B). We say

xR

is

constructible

if

(x, 0)

is constructible from

(0, 0)

and

(1, 0).
are con-

Proposition 5.2.
structible.

P = (a, b) R2

is constructible if and only if

a, b R

Proof.
y -axis. (a, b).

Given

versely, given

P , we get its a, b, we rst

coordinates by dropping perpendiculars to the axis. mark o the distance through

Con-

along the

Next we construct the perpendicular to the

x-axis

x-axis and b along the through (a, 0) and likewise

the perpendicular to the

y -axis

(0, b).

Their intersection is the desired point

Proposition 5.3.
Proof.
If Note that

The set of constructible numbers forms a subeld of

R.

a, b are constructible, we have to show that a+b, ab, a and a+b

and

1 a are constructible.

are obvious from the third example given above. To show it

is closed under multiplication and division, we construct similar right-angled triangles. Given one of the triangles and a side of the other, we construct the other triangle by drawing parallel lines. If

r, s

and

r ,s

are the lengths of the catheti, then similarity

r implies s

r s .

Lecture 6

18 Proposition 5.4.
Proof.
If

Algebraic and Transcendental Numbers in R and C

a>0
is constructible then so is

a.

Draw a circle of radius

a+1 2 as shown in the following gure.

G ooo GG GG ooo ooo GG ooo GG a ooo o GG ooo GG ooo ooo o

a 1

Then the line segment perpendicular to the hypotenuse has length

a. n0

Denition.

Let

be a subeld of

R.

We say

is

constructible

is there exists

and a chain of subelds of

such that

Q = F0 F1 Fn R
and elements (i) (ii) (iii)

ai Fi , 1 i n,

such that

K Fn ; Fi = Fi1 (ai ); a2 Fi1 . i

Note that (ii) and (iii) imply that then

Remark.
Fi1 ] = 2

Fi = Fi1 ( b) K

[Fi : Fi1 ] {1, 2}.

see Example Sheet 1.

Conversely, if

[Fi :

for some

b Fi ,

So by the tower law, if

is constructible then is constructible, then

K/Q is nite and [K : Q] is a power of 2. Q(x)

is constructible.

Theorem 5.5.

If

xR

In fact, the converse is also true. It is sucient to show that using ruler and compass, we can construct

x y , xy ,

x y and

from

x, y . (x, y)
can be constructed in at most

Proof.

We will prove by induction on

that if

steps from

(0, 0), (0, 1)

then

Q(x, y)

is constructible.

Assume there exists a sequence of elds constructions lie in

and (iii) and such that the coordinates of all points obtained from

Q = F0 F1 Fn R satisfying (ii) (0, 0), (0, 1) after k

Fn .

Elementary coordinate geometry implies that in constructions of type (A), coordinates of the new point are rational expressions of the coordinates of the four starting points, with rational coecients. So of type (A), then already

(x, y) is constructible x, y Fn .

in

k+1

steps and the last construction is

After constructions of type (B), the coordinates of the new point are of the form

a b e, y = c d e, where a, b, c, d, e starting points. So x, y Fn ( e).

By induction, the desired result follows.

x=

are rational functions of coordinates of the four

Lecture 6

19 Corollary 5.6.
power of If

xR

is constructible then

is algebraic and its degree over

is a

2.

We now return to the three classical problems mentioned earlier.

Duplicating the Cube

One would like to construct a cube whose volume is twice the volume of a given cube. This is equivalent to the constructibility of this is impossible.

2.

As

degQ

2=3

is not a power of

2,

Squaring the Circle

This means constructing a square with area the same as the area of a circle of radius This is equivalent to the constructibility of hence it is not constructible.

As

is transcendental, so is

1.

and

Trisecting the Angle

To show this is impossible in general, it is enough to show one cannot trisect a particular constructed angle using ruler and compass. We will show this for the angle Since we can construct the angle to showing that the angle

2/3. cos 2/9,

2/3

easily by an equilateral triangle, this is reduced

2/9

can not be constructed, i.e., that the numbers

sin 2/9
From

are not constructible.

cos 3 = 4 cos3 3 cos we nd that cos 2/9 is a root of 8X 3 6X + 1 and 2 (cos 2/9 1) is a root of X 3 + 6X 2 + 9X + 3, which is irreducible. Now [Q (cos 2/9) : Q] = 3 is not a power of 2, so the number is not constructible.
A regular

Proposition 5.7.
compass if

p1

is not a power of

p-gon, where p 2.

is prime, is not constructible by ruler and

Proof.

Constructing a regular

is equivalent to constructing

(p 1)/2.

p-gon is equivalent to constructing the angle 2/p, which cos 2/p. But in an earlier example, we showed degQ 2/p = n-gon is constructible if and only if n = 2p1 pl 2 k + 1. form 2

Indeed, Gauss showed that a regular

for

p1 , . . . , p l

distinct primes of the

Lecture 7

Lecture 7

Chapter 6 Splitting Fields

Basic Construction
f (X) K[X] be an irreducible polynomial of degree d. Then there extension L/K of degree d in which f (X) has a root, constructed as follows. the ideal (f ) K[X] which is maximal since f (X) is irreducible. Therefore,
Let exists an Consider

Lf = K[X]/(f )
is a eld, and the inclusion K K[X] gives a eld homomorphism K Lf . x = X + (f ) Lf . Then f (x) = f (X) + (f ) = 0 in Lf . So x is a root of f in Lf . say Lf is obtained from K by adjoining a root of f . Let We

Recall that a eld homomorphism is necessarily injective. We call a eld homomorphism an

embedding

of elds. (i) Let

Denition.
(ii)

which is the identity map on

A homomorphism L M K -homomorphism or K -embedding. Let L/K and L /K be extensions of elds. Suppose : K K is an embedding. A homomorphism : L L such that

L/K, M/K

be extensions of elds. is called a

x K
is called a

(x) = (x)
we say

-embedding of L into L , or restriction of to K , written = |K .

Let

extends , f (X) K[X]

and that

is the

Theorem 6.1.
(i) If

L/K

be an extension of elds, and

irreducible. Then

xL

is a root of

f (X),

there exists a unique

K -embedding

: Lf = K[X]/(f ) L
sending (ii) Every

X + (f ) to x. K -embedding Lf L

arises in this way. In particular, the number of such

equals the number of distinct roots of

f (X)

in

L,

hence is at most

deg f .

Proof.

By the First Isomorphism Theorem, to give a

equivalent to giving a homomorphism of rings

K -homomorphism : Lf L is : K[X] L such that (a) = a for all

Lecture 7

22
aK
and

Splitting Fields
(f ) = 0,
i.e.

ker = (f ). Lf = K[X]/(f )
O

K[X]
Such a

/ o7 L ooo o ooo ooo =

is uniquely determined by

(X)

since

if

ai X i = (f ) = 0

(ai )(X)i =
is equivalent to

ai (X)i f ((X)) = 0.
So we have a

ai K ,

and the condition

bijection

: K[X] L s.t. (f ) = 0 1
from which everything else follows.

roots of

f (X)

in

/ (X)

Corollary 6.2.
mial of to

If L = K(x) is a nite extension of K and f (X) is the minimal polyno x over K , then there exists a unique K -isomorphism : Lf L sending X +(f )

x.
By Theorem 6.1 (i), there exists a unique is an isomorphism. be algebraic over

Proof.

K -homomorphism .

But as

[Lf :

K] = [L : K] = deg f ,

Corollary 6.3.
nomial over to

Let

x, y

if and only if there exists a

y.

(We say

x, y

are

K -conjugate
then

K . Then x, y have the same minimal poly K -isomorphism : K(x) K(y) sending x

if they have the same minimal polynomial.)

Proof.

If there exists such

{f (X) K[X] : f (x) = 0} = {f (X) K[X] : f (y) = 0}

so they have the same minimal polynomial. Conversely, if mial of both

f (X)

is the minimal polyno-

x, y

then

K(y) o yo
giving the required

Lf = K[X]/(f )
1

/ K(x) /x

X + (f ) 1

.
have minimal polynomial

Example.
(ii)

X 2 + 1 over Q. By Corollary 6.3, there exists a unique isomorphism : Q(i) Q(i) such that (i) = i. Here is complex conjugation. 3 Let x = 2, y = e2i/3 3 2. The minimal polynomial is X 3 2, x, y are so 3 2i/3 3 2) sending conjugate over Q and there exists an isomorphism Q( 2) Q(e 3 2 to e2i/3 3 2.
(i)

x = i, y = i

The following theorem is a variant of Theorem 6.1.

Lecture 8

23 Theorem 6.4.
f L[X]
(i) If (ii) Let

be the

f (X) K[X] be irreducible, and : K L be any embedding. polynomial obtained by applying to the coecients of f .

Let

f , there is a unique -embedding : Lf = K[X]/(f ) L such that : X + (f ) x. Every -embedding : Lf L is obtained in this way. In particular, the number of such equals the number of distinct roots of f in L.
is a root of This is analogous to the proof of Theorem 6.1. Let

xL

Proof.
f (X)
(i)

Denition.
if (ii) If

be a eld,

f (X) K[X].

An extension

L/K

is a

splitting eld

for

f (X) splits into linear factors in L[X]. x1 , . . . , xn L are the roots of f (X)
(ii) is equivalent to saying that

in

then

L = K(x1 , . . . , xn ).

Remark. Example.
(i) If (ii)

f (X)

does not split into linear factors over

any smaller extension. Let

K = Q.

(iii)

f (X) = X 2 + 1, then f (X) = (X + i)(X i), so Q(i)/Q is a splitting eld for f (X). Note that Q(i) is obtained by adjoining just one root of f (X). 2i/3 3 3 If f (X) = X 2 then L = Q 2, e is a splitting eld for f (X) over Q. We 3 2i/3 Q( 3 2) R and 2 + + 1 = 0, we have have [Q( 2 : Q] = 3. As = e [L : Q( 3 2)] = 2. So [L : Q] = 6. In particular, L is not obtained by adjoining just one root of f (X) since that gives an extension of degree 3. 5 4 3 2 Let f (X) = (X 1)/(X 1) = X + X + X + X + 1. Then f (Y + 1) = (Y + 1)5 1 = Y 4 + 5Y 3 + 10Y 2 + 10Y + 5 Y
So

is irreducible by Eisenstein's criterion. roots of

f (X)

in

are

2, 3, 4. K.

= e2i/5 is a root of f (X), and the other L = Q() is a splitting eld for f (X) over Q.

Theorem 6.5
Proof.
Let

(Existence of Splitting Fields)

Let

f (X) K[X].

Then there exists a

splitting eld for

f (X)

over

We prove this by induction, adjoining roots of and assume that over

f (X)

to

one by one.

d has a d = 1. Let deg f = d + 1, and let g(X) be any irreducible factor of f (X) with deg g 1. Let K1 = K[X]/(g), and x1 = X + (g) K1 . Then g(x1 ) = 0, so f (x1 ) = 0, hence f (X) = (X x1 )f1 (X), say, with deg f1 = d, f1 K1 [X]. By induction, f1 (X) has a splitting eld over K1 , call it L = K1 (x2 , . . . , xn ) where x2 , . . . , xn are the roots of f1 (X) in L. Then f (X) also splits into linear factors in L[X] and L = K(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), and x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are the roots of f (X) in L. So L is a splitting eld for f (X) over K .
eld, every polynomial of degree at most splitting eld. This is clearly true for

d1

any

Remark.
eld for in

If

KC

this just follows from the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.

Theorem 6.6 (Uniqueness of Splitting Fields). Let f (X) K[X], let L/K be a splitting
f (X). Let : K M be any M [X]. Then the following hold.
embedding such that

splits into linear factors

Lecture 8

24
(i) There exists at least one embedding (ii) The number of (iii) If

Splitting Fields
: L M extending . most [L : K] with equality holding

as in (i) is at

if

f (X)

has no

repeated roots in

L,

i.e., if it splits into distinct linear factors.

is a splitting eld for

over

In particular, any two splitting

(K), then any as in (i) is an isomorphism. elds for f (X) over K are isomorphic.
If

n = 1 then f (X) is a product of linear n > 1, so L = K . Let x1 , . . . , xm be the distinct roots of f (X) in L; then at least one of them, say x1 , is not in K . Let K1 = K(x1 ), d = degK (x1 ) = [K1 : K] > 1. The minimal polynomial g(X) of x1 over K is an irreducible factor of f (X), so if f (X) has no repeated roots in L, neither does g(X). By Theorem 6.4, : K M extends to an embedding 1 : K1 M , and the number of such 1 is at most d, with equality if and only if g(X) has no repeated roots. By induction, 1 extends to at least one and at most [L : K1 ] embeddings 1 : L M .
We proceed by induction on factors over

Proof.

n = [L : K].

K,

and (i)(iii) hold trivially. So assume

This proves (i).

[L : K1 ][K1 : K] = [L : K] we obtain the rst part of (ii). If f (X) has no repeated roots in L, then each 1 extends to [L : K1 ] embeddings by induction, giving [L : K1 ]d = [L : K] embeddings in all.
Since Finally, pick any

is a splitting eld for

: L M f

as in (i). Then the roots of over

(K),

we have

f in M are just {(xi )}, so if M = (K)( (x1 ), . . . , (xm )) = (L),

Then there exists

i.e.,

is an isomorphism. Let

Corollary 6.7.

a nite extension

K be a eld and L/K, M/K be nite extensions. N/M and a K -embedding : L N . K

Loosly speaking, any two nite extensions of

are contained in a bigger one.

Proof.
f (X)

Let over

be the product of the minimal polynomials of

L = K(x1 , . . . , xn ) for some nite subset {x1 , . . . , xn } L. Let f (X) K[X] x1 , . . . , xn . Let L be a splitting eld for L, and let N be a splitting eld for f (X) over M . L
 

/N {{ }{{

L ff

ff !

L is also a splitting eld for f (X) over K since L = K(x1 , . . . , xn ), where x1 , . . . , xn are among the roots of f (X). As f (X) splits into linear factors in N [X], by Theorem 6.6, there exists a K -embedding : L N . Comparing with the inclusion L L gives .
Then

Remark.

The eld

constructed in the proof is called the

normal closure

of

L/K .

Lecture 9

Chapter 7 Separability

Over

R, or C, a polynomial f (X) has a repeated roots at X = a if and only f (a) = 0. The same is true over any eld if we replace calculus by algebra.

if

f (a) =

Denition.

Let

be a ring,

formal derivative

is the

f (X) R[X] polynomial f (X) =

be a polynomial,

f (X) =

d i1 . i=0 iai X

d i i=0 ai X . Its

Exercise 1.
Then

Check that Let

(f + g) = f + g , (f g) = f g + f g , (f n ) = nf f n1 .

Proposition 7.1.
x
is a

f (X) K[X], L/K an extension of elds, x L a root of f (X). simple root of f (X), i.e. (X x)2 f (X), if and only if f (x) = 0.

Proof.

Write

if and only

f (X) = (X x)g(X) where g(X) L[X]. Then x is a simple root of f (X) if g(x) = 0. But f (X) = g(X) + (X x)g (X), so f (x) = g(x).
Let

Example.
a

pth

power in

K be a eld K.

of characteristic

p > 0.

Let

b K,

and assume that

b is not

f (X) = X p b K[X], let L/K be a splitting eld for f (X), and let a L p1 = 0, so X = a is a multiple root. In be a root of f (X) in L. Note f (X) = pX p = b, in L[X] we have f (X) = X p ap = (X a)p , so X = a is the only fact, since a root of f (X). Finally, f (X) is irreducible over K . If not, write f (X) = g(X)h(X) with g(X), h(X) K[X] monic and then in L[X], g(X) = (X a)m for some 0 < m < p, so g(X) = X m maX m1 + K[X]. Hence ma K , so since m 0 (mod p), this implies a K , i.e. b is a pth power. Contradiction.
Consider

Example.

As an example of a pair A polynomial

(K, b),

take

K = Fp (X)

and

b = X.

Denition.

a splitting eld. If not, we say

f (X) is separable if it splits f (X) is inseparable.

into distinct linear factors over

Corollary 7.2. Remark.

extension

f (X)

is separable if and only if

gcd(f (X), f (X)) = 1.

Proof. f (X) is separable if and only if f (X), f (X) have no common zeros.
If f, g K[X], gcd(f, f ) is the L/K . This follows from Euclid's (i) Let same computed in

K[X]

or in

L[X]

for any

algorithm for greatest common divisors.

Theorem 7.3.
(ii)

f K[X]

be irreducible. Then

is separable if and only if

f = 0, i.e. not the If char K = 0 then

zero polynomial. every irreducible

f K[X]

is separable.

Lecture 9

26
(iii) If

Separability
char K = p > 0 then an irreducible f K[X] is inseparable f (X) = g(X p ) for some neccessarily irreducible g K[X].
(i) We may assume if and only if

Proof.

f is monic. Then as gcd(f, f ) | f , gcd(f, f ) {1, f }. If f = 0 then gcd(f, f ) = f , so f is inseparable. If f = 0 then gcd(f, f ) | f , so deg gcd(f, f ) deg f < deg f , hence gcd(f, f ) = 1, i.e. f is separable. d i (ii),(iii) Let f (X) = i=0 ai X . Then f = 0 if and only if iai = 0 for all 1 i d. If char K = 0 this holds if and only if ai = 0 for all i 1, i.e. f is constant. If char K = p > 0 this holds if and only if ai = 0 whenever p i, i.e. f (X) = g(X p ) i where g(X) = 0jd/p apj X .

Denition.
(ii) If

(i) Let

x be algebraic over K .

We say

x is separable

over

if its minimal

polynomial is separable.

L/K
If

is an algebraic extension, then

L/K K

is said to be

separable

if every

xL

is separable over

K. x
is separable over as the minimal polynomial is

Remark.
Also, if

x K char K = 0

then

X x.

then any algebraic

is separable over

by Theorem 7.3 (ii), so

every algebraic extension of elds of characteristic

is separable.

The following is an immediate consequence of the denition and Theorem 6.1.

Proposition 7.4.
and

Suppose

is algebraic over

is any extension over which

if and only if there are exactly

K , has minimal polynomial f K[X], f splits into linear factors. Then x is separable over deg f K -embeddings K(x) L.

Theorem 7.5

L = K(x1 , . . . , xr , y) be a nite extension of K . Assume that each xi is separable over K , and that K is innite. Then there exists c1 , . . . , cr K such that L = K(z) where z = y + c1 x1 + + cr xr .
(Primitive Element Theorem) Let By induction on

r = 1. So assume L = K(x, y), K . Let f, g be the minimal polynomials of x, y , and let M/L be a splitting eld for f g . Let x = x1 , x2 , . . . , xm be the distinct roots of g in M . (So as x is separable, f (X) = n (X xi ).) There is only a nite number of i=1 c K for which two of the mn numbers yj + cxi are equal. As K is innite, we may then choose c such that no two of them are equal, and let z = y + ck . Consider the polynomials f (X) K[X], g(z cX) K(z)[X]. They both have x as a root, since z cx = y . We claim that they have no other common root.
it suces to consider the case

Proof.

r,

separable over

K, y

algebraic over

Roots of f are xi , so if they do have a root in common z cxi = yj yj + cxi = z = y1 + cx1 , which forces i = 1, i.e. xi = x, by choice of c. So the greatest common divisor of But since

for some

j,

i.e.

f (X) and g(z cX) is X x as f is separable. f (X), g(z cX) K(z)[X], their greatest common divisor is in K(z)[X], so x K(z). So y = z cx K(z), i.e. K(z) = L.
If

Corollary 7.6.
L/K

L/K

is nite and separable, then

L = K(x)

for some

x L.

We say

is a simple extension. If

Proof.
let

is innite then

the result follows by Theorem 7.5. If

be a generator. Then

L = K(x1 , . . . , xr ) with x1 , . . . , xr separable over K , hence K is nite, then so is L. The group L is cyclic, certainly L = K(x).

Lecture 10

Chapter 8 Algebraic Closure

Denition.
f K[X]

A eld

is said to be

algebraically closed
K[X].

if every non-constant polynomial

splits into linear factors in

Example.

is algebraically closed. We will see later that

is algebraically closed. As

an exercise, show that no nite eld is algebraically closed.

Proposition 8.1.
(i)

The following are equivalent.

is algebraically closed.

(ii) If (iii) If

L/K L/K

is any extension and is algebraic then (ii)] Suppose

xL L = K.

is algebraic over

then

x K.

Proof.
[(iii)

[(i)

splits into linear factors over

x is algebraic over K . Then K , so is linear, i.e. x K .

a splitting eld for

the minimal polynomial of

= (i)] Let f K[X], let L be L = K , so f splits already in K[X]. = L = K.

[(ii) (iii)] If

over

K.

Then if (iii) holds,

L/K
Let

is algebraic, then by (ii) every

xL

is an element of

K,

i.e.

Proposition 8.2.
nomial in

L/K
of

be an algebraic extension such that every irreducible poly-

is an

algebraic closure
L /L

K[X]

splits into linear factors over

L.

Then

is algebraically closed. We say

K.

L = L. Let x L . Then as L /L and L/K are algebraic, x is algebraic over K . Let f K[X] be its minimal polynomial. By hypothesis, f splits into linear factors in L[X], so x L. Hence L = L .
Let be an algebraic extension. It is sucient to prove that Apply this with

Proof.

K = Q, L = Q
Let

to see that

is algebraically closed.

Proposition 8.3.
ding of

L/K

be an algebraic extension, and let

: K M

be an embed-

K into : L M.

an algebraically closed eld. Then

can be extended to an embedding

Proof.

Suppose that

y M be a root K(x) M such

L = K(x), and let f be the minimal polynomial of x over K . Let of f M [X]. Then we know that extends to a unique embedding that x y .

We can move from nite to innite extensions using Zorn's lemma.

Lecture 11

28 Denition.
A

Algebraic Closure partially ordered set S

is a non-empty set with a relation

such that

x S x x; x, y S x y y x = x = y ; x, y, z S x y y z = x z .

Denition.
ordered
by

chain

in a partially ordered set

is a subset

T S

which is

totally

i.e.

x, y T
Zorn's lemma tells us when

x y y x.

S has a maximal element, i.e. z S such that if z x then z = x. If every chain T S has an upper bound, i.e. there exists z S such that for all x T we have x z , then S has maximal elements.
As a consequence, every ring

has a maximal ideal.

Proof of Proposition 8.3 continued.

L/K be an arbitrary algebraic extension. Let S = {(L1 , 1 )} where K L1 L and 1 : L1 M is a -embedding. Dene (L1 , 1 ) (L2 , 2 ) if L1 L2 and 2 |L1 = 1 , i.e. 2 (x) = 1 (x) for all x L1 . This is a partial order on S .
Let

{(Li , i ) : i I} be a chain in S , where I is some index set. Let L = iI Li which is a eld: if x Li , y Lj then without loss of generality Li Lj , so x, y Lj , hence x y, x , xy Lj as well. Dene : L M as follows: (x) = i (x) for any i I y such that x Li . (If x Li and x Lj then without loss of generality Li Lj and j |Li = i , so i (x) = j (x).) Then for all i I , (Li , i ) (L , ).
Let So

(L , ) S

is an upper bound for the chain, so by Zorn's lemma,

has maximal

elements.

(L , ) be a maximal element. If (L L, then there exists x L \ L algebraic L . By the rst part, : L M extends to an embedding : L (x) M , i.e. (L , ) (L (x), ) and L = L (x), contradicting the maximality of (L , ). So L = L and = is the desired embedding.
Let over

Theorem 8.4.
if

: K K K. : K

Let

and

K be a K is an

eld. Then

has an algebraic closure,

say. Moreover,

algebraic closure of

, then there exists a

-isomorphism

Recall that to say

is an algebraic closure means that

is an algebraic extension of

and

is algebraically closed.

Proof.
If

The idea is to construct a splitting eld for all irreducible polynomials in

K[X].

K[X] = {f1 , f2 , . . . } is also countable. We could then inductively K = K0 K1 by letting Kn be the splitting eld of fn over Kn1 . Then setting K = nN Kn , every polynomial in K[X] splits in K , hence by Proposition 8.2, K is an algebraic closure of K . K
is countable then dene a sequence of extensions

f K[X], let Mf d(f ) be a splitting eld for f over K . Write Mf = K(xf,1 , . . . , xf,d(f ) ) where {xf,i }i=1 are the roots of f in Mf . Hence Mf Rf /If where Rf = K[Xf,1 , . . . , Xf,d(f ) ] and If is the = kernel of the map Rf Mf , Xf,i xf,i .
We now consider the general case. For each irreducible polynomial

Lecture 11

29
For any set

of irreducible polynomials in

K[X],

dene

RS = K[{Xf,i }f S,1id(f ) ]
and

IS

to be the ideal of

Rs

generated by

{If }f S .

Notice that nite

RS = T RT , IS = subsets T S . IS = RS .

IT ,

where in each case the union is taken over all

Lemma 8.5.
Proof.
a

If S is nite, let M be the splitting eld for fS = f S f . Then for each f , choose K -embedding f : Mf M , hence a K -homomorphism Rf M, Xf,i f (xf,i ). These give a homomorphism RS M whose kernel contains each If , hence contains IS . So IS = RS . In general, if

IS = RS

then

1 IS ,

so

1 IT

for some nite subset

T S,

so

IT = RT ,

which we have just proved cannot happen.

K[X]. J RS containing IS . (Equivalently, this is a maximal ideal of RS /IS .) Let K = RS /J , this is a eld and comes with an , so we can view it as an extension of K . embedding K K For each f , the inclusion Rf RS gives a homomorphism Rf RS /J = K whose kernal contains (and therefore equals) If , hence by the First Isomorphism Theorem there is a K -embedding Mf = Rf /If K , so f splits into linear factors in K ; and K is algebraic over K , i.e. K is an algebraic is generated by the image of the Mf , so K closure of K . Finally, let : K K K . By Proposition 8.3, extends to : K K and K , so K / (K) is algebraic. But K is algebraically closed, so (K) = K , K (K)
Let be the set of all irreducible polynomials in By Zorn's lemma, there exists a maximal ideal i.e.

Proof of Theorem 8.4 continued.

is an isomorphism.

Lecture 11

Lecture 11

Chapter 9 Field Automorphisms and Galois Extensions

R = {z C : z = z } is the set of complex numbers xed by the automorphism z z . In this chapter, we consider automorphisms of general elds and their xed point
Note sets.

Denition.
of

tive homomorphism

L/K

is a

L/K be an extension of elds. An automorphism of L over K is a bijec : L L which is the identity on K . The set of all automorphisms group under composition, denoted Aut(L/K).
Let (i) If

Example.
(ii)

Aut(C/R) then (i)2 = (i2 ) = (1) = 1, so (i) = 1. Hence either (x + iy) = x iy for all x, y R. So Aut(C/R) = {,}. The same argument shows that |Aut(Q(i)/Q)| = 2 and the non-trivial element is

(iii) Consider

(iv)

Q( 3)/Q. is an automorphism, then (x + y 3) = x y( 3) for If + 2 all x, y Q. Also ( 3) = (3) = 3, so ( 3) = 3. So |Aut(Q( 3)/Q)| 2. Both occur since as 3, 3 are conjugate over Q (i.e. they have the same minimal polynomial), there exists : Q( 3) Q( 3) = Q( 3) mapping 3 to 3. b Let K be any eld, L = K(X) the eld of rational functions. Then a d = g c GL2 (K), the set of invertible matrices over K , denes a map L L given by f (X) f aX + b cX + d . L
and that every , so by the

complex conjugation.

It is left as an exercises to check this is an automorphism of automorphism of morphism

L over K is of this form and that GL2 (K) Aut(L/K) whose kernel is

this gives a surjective homo-

a0 0a

: a K

First Isomorphism Theorem,

(v)

0 Aut(L/K) GL2 (K)/ a a : a K = P GL2 (K). = 0 3 Consider L = Q( 2) over K = Q. If : L L is an automorphism of L over Q, 3 3 then ( 2) = (2) = 2 but since L R, there exists only one cube root of 2 in L, so ( 3 2) = 3 2, i.e. Aut(L/K) = {}, despite the fact that L/K is a non-trivial
extension.

Denition.

Let

be a eld,

any set of automorphisms of

L.

The

xed eld of S

is

LS = {x L : (x) = x S}
This is a subeld of and If

L. We say that an algebraic extension L/K is Galois if it is algebraic K = LAut(L/K) , i.e. if x L\K then there exists Aut(L/K) such that (x) = x. this holds, we write Gal(L/K) for Aut(L/K), the Galois group of L/K .

Lecture 12

32 Remark. Example.
(i) (ii) (iii) We always have

Field Automorphisms and Galois Extensions

K LAut(L/K) .

Let us again consider the previous set of examples.

(v)

CAut(C/R) = R since z R if and only if z = z . Q(i)Aut(Q(i)/Q) = Q. 2)/Q) = Q as if is a non-trivial automorphism of Q( 2), (x + Q( 2)Aut(Q( y 2) = x y 2, so this is equal to x + y 2 if and only if y = 0, i.e. the xed eld is Q. Aut(Q( 2)/Q) 3 3 3 As Aut(Q( 2)/Q) = {}, we have Q( 2) = Q( 3 2).
Note (iv) is not a Galois extension

So (i), (ii), (iii) are Galois extensions, (v) is not. because it is not algebraic. (vi) Let

char K = 2 containing some element b which is not a 2 square, e.g. K = F2 ( ), and let L = K(x) where x = b, i.e. L is the splitting eld 2 b. Then [L : K] = 2. If : L L is a K -automorphism, then of f (X) = X (x)2 = (x2 ) = b, so (x) = x = x as char K = 2. (Note also X 2 b = (Xx)2 .) So Aut(L/K) = {}.
be any eld with be nite. We consider the size of

Let

L/K

and Corollary 9.6) that

Aut(L/K) and we will show (see Corollary 9.3 |Aut(L/K)| [L : K] with equality if and only if L/K is Galois.
If

Theorem 9.1 (Linear Independence of Field Automorphisms).

automorphisms of a eld

L,

then they are linearly independent

1 , . . . , n are distinct over L, meaning that if

y1 , . . . , y n L

such that for all

xL

y1 1 (x) + + yn n (x) = 0
then

y1 = = yn = 0.

This follows from the following theorem.

Theorem 9.2 (Linear Independence of Characters).

pose

Let

be a eld,

a group. Sup-

1 , . . . , n : G L

are distinct homomorphisms. (These are called

characters.)

Then they are linearly independent over

L.
and note that any automorphism

To prove Theorem 9.1 from this, take

G = L

of

restricts to a homomorphism L

L . 1 , . . . , n : G L which are n > 0 minimal. So there exists

Proof.

Assume we have

distinct homomorphisms

linearly dependent, choose such a collection with

y1 , . . . , y n L

such that for all

gG
() then

y1 1 (g) + + yn n (g) = 0
By minimality,

y 1 , . . . , y n = 0. g
by

Also

n>1

since if

n=1

y1 1 (g) = 0

so

1 (g) =

0
Let

L . h G.
Replacing

gh

in (), since

1 , . . . , n

are homomorphisms, we have

y1 1 (h)1 (g) + + yn n (h)n (g) = 0

Lecture 13

33
Now multiply () by

1 (h)

and subtract to obtain

y2 2 (g) + + yn n (g) = 0
where of

()

we must have

for all

yi = yi (i (h) 1 (h)) for 2 i n. As () holds for all g G, by minimality y2 = = yn = 0. As y1 , . . . , yn = 0, we deduce that i (h) = 1 (h) h G contradicting the assumption that 1 , . . . , n are distinct.
Let

Corollary 9.3.
Proof.
Let be distinct

L/K

be a nite extension. Then

|Aut(L/K)| [L : K].

x1 , . . . , xn L form a basis for L/K where n = [L : K]. Let 1 , . . . , m K -automorphisms of L. Suppose m > n, and consider the m n matrix (i (xj )). Then the rows of this are linearly dependent since m > n. So there exists y1 , . . . , ym L not all zero such that for all j = 1, . . . , n y1 1 (xj ) + + ym m (xj ) = 0
But any

xL

can be written as

x=

n i=1 ai xi where m n

ai K

and then

yi i (x) =
i=1

yi i (aj xj ) i=1 j=1 n m aj

j=1 i=1

= = 0,
contradicting Theorem 9.1.

yi i (xj )

Theorem 9.4
of

(Artin's Theorem)

L.

Then

[L :

LG ]

|G|, and L/LG is a Galois extension with Galois group < ,

which is far from obvious.

Let

be a eld,

a nite group of automorphisms

G.

In particular,

[L :

LG ]

K = LG , m = |G|. We will show that L/K is nite and [L : K] m. Then m = |G| Aut(L/K) [L : K] m as G Aut(L/K) and by Corollary 9.3, so we have equality at each stage, i.e. m = [L : K] and G = Aut(L/K), which means that L/K is Galois with Galois group G. (It is Galois since K LAut(L/K) LG K , so
Let we have equality.) Let

Proof.

x L, and let {x1 , . . . , xd } = {g(x) : g G} where 1 d m and x1 = x, xi = xj d if i = j , i.e. the orbit of x under G. The polynomial f (X) = i=1 (X xi ) is then separable, and is invariant under G which permutes its roots. So f K[X]. So x is algebraic and separable over K , and [K(x) : K] m. L/K
is a separable algebraic extension.

In particular, Let

be an intermediate eld, nite over

the Primitive Element Theorem 7.5,

K. K = K(x)

Then

for some

K /K is separable, hence by x L. So by the above,

[K : K] m.
Choose any such

y L, then K (y) is a nite extension of K since y is algebraic over K , so [K (y) : K] m. So by maximality of [K : K], K (y) = K , i.e. y K . So K = L, hence [L : K] m. K
with

[K : K]

maximal.

Suppose

Lecture 13

34 Remark.

Field Automorphisms and Galois Extensions

Artin used linear algebra to prove this, his proof is nice but slightly longer.

Let L/K be a nite Galois extension with Galois group G. Let {x1 , . . . , xd } = {(x) : G} be the orbit under G of some x L, and f (X) = d i=1 (X xi ). Then f K[X] and it is the minimal polynomial of x over K . In particular, f is irreducible, x is separable of degree d over K and its minimal polynomial splits into linear factors in L.

Corollary 9.5.

Proof.

K = LG , so Theorem 9.4 applies. We have proved everything except the irreducibility of f . But its linear factors are permuted transitively by G since its roots are a G-orbit, so it has no monic factor other than 1 and f which is G invariant under G, i.e. no proper factor in K[X] since K = L .
Since

L/K

is Galois,

Corollary 9.6.
Proof.
L/K
Let

A nite extension

L/K

is Galois if and only if

[L : K] = |Aut(L/K)|. |G| = [L : LG ] by = K , i.e. if and only if

G = Aut(L/K),

which is nite by Corollary 9.3. Then

Theorem 9.4, so by the tower law is Galois.

|G| = [L : K]

G if and only if L

Lecture 13

Chapter 10 The Characterisation of Finite Galois Extensions

Denition.

An extension

L/K

is

normal

if it is algebraic and for all

x L, the minimal

polynomial of

over

splits into linear factors in

L[X].

The following are equivalent ways of saying this.

is algebraic and for all

xL

with minimal polynomial

f K[X], L

contains a

splitting eld for

f.

L is algebraic and if f K[X] is irreducible and has a root in L, then it splits into linear factors over L.
So if

xL
If If

has minimal polynomial

f K[X] f

with

deg f = n

the following holds.

L/K L/K

is separable then the roots of is normal then

in a splitting eld are distinct.

splits into linear factors in

L[X].

Together, both imply that

has

distinct roots in

L.

Theorem 10.1.
(i) (ii) (iii)

Let

L/K

be a nite extension. The following are equivalent.

L/K is Galois. L/K is normal and separable. L is the splitting eld of some
[(i)

separable polynomial over

K.

Proof.
[(ii)

(ii)] This is Corollary 9.5.

xi .

= (iii)] Let L = K(x1 , . . . , xn ), let fi K[X] be the minimal polynomial of L/K is separable, fi is separable for i = 1, . . . , n, then so is the least common multiple f , say. As L/K is normal, f splits into linear factors in L and x1 , . . . , xn are among the roots of f , so L/K is a splitting eld for f .
As [(iii)

(i)] By Corollary 9.6, it is enough to show that if

of a separable polynomial, then Theorem 6.6 (Uniqueness of

L is the splitting eld |Aut(L/K)| = [L : K]. This follows from part (ii) of Splitting Fields), taking M = L and = .
Then there exists a nite such that

Theorem 10.2.
extension (i)

Let

L/K

M/L,

called the

Galois closure, or Galios hull, of L/K

M
containing

be a nite separable extension.

M/K

is Galois;

(ii) no proper subeld of Moreover, if

is Galois over

K. L,
then there exists an

homomorphism

M /K is any M M,

Galois extension containing i.e.

L-

is the smallest Galois extension of

containing

L.

Lecture 14

36
Proof.
Let

The Characterisation of Finite Galois Extensions

L = K(x) by the Primitive Element Theorem 7.5 and f be the minimal polynomial of x over K , which is separable. Let M be a splitting eld of f over L. Then M is also a splitting eld for f over K , as f (x) = 0. By Theorem 10.1, M/K is Galois.
If

K L M1 M

and

splits into linear factors in Finally, if

M1 /K is Galois, M1 , so M = M1 . f

then

M1 /K

is normal and

x M1 .

So

M L K,

then

splits into linear factors over

, so by Uniqueness of

Splitting Fields, there exists an

L-homomorphism M M

Lecture 14

Chapter 11 The Galois Correspondence

M/K be a nite Galois extension, G = Gal(M/K). Consider an intermediate eld K L M . Then M is a splitting eld of some separable f over K , so M is also a splitting eld for f over L, so M/L is also Galois, and Gal(M/L) = { Aut(M ) : |L = L } is a subgroup of G.
Let

Theorem 11.1 (Fundamental Theorem of Galois Theory).

: L Gal(M/L) G : H MH
give a bijection intermediate elds

The maps

o
and

subgroups

KLM LL

HG L H
then

which is inclusion-reversing, i.e. if

LL

is equivalent to

HH
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

, and satises

K L L M = [L : L] = (Gal(M/L) : Gal(M/L )); K corresponds to G, M corresponds to {1} G; 1 ; if L corresponds to H and G, then (L) corresponds to H L is Galois over K if and only if Gal(M/L) G and if so then Gal(L/K) = G/ Gal(M/L).
As

Proof.

Theorem,

M/L is Galois, we Gal(M/M H ) = H .

have

M Gal(M/L) = L and so (L) = L. By Artin's Hence (H) = H . Thus we have a bijection and the
So by the tower law,

inclusion-reversing property is immediate. (i)

|Gal(M/L)| = [M : L], |Gal(M/L )| = [M : L ]. [L : L] =

[M : L] |Gal(M/L)| = = (Gal(M/L) : Gal(M/L )) [M : L ] |Gal(M/L )|

(ii) Trivial. (iii) Let (iv)

x M, G. Then ( 1 )((x)) = ( (x)), so xes x if and only if 1 (x), i.e. x M H if and only if (x) M H . 1 = H , so (L) = L by Suppose H = Gal(M/L) G. Then for all G, H (iii), so is an automorphism of L, and we have a homomorphism 1 xes : G = Gal(M/K) Aut(L/K), |L

Lecture 14

38
whose kernel is

The Galois Correspondence

{ G : |L = } = Gal(M/L),
so using (i)

[L : K] =
So

|G| = |Im()| |Aut(L/K)| [L : K] |Gal(M/L)|

|Aut(L/K) = [L : K]|, i.e. L/K is Galois and |Im()| = |Aut(L/K)|, i.e. is surjective, and so Gal(L/K) G/ Gal(M/L). = Conversely, suppose L/K is Galois, H = Gal(L/K), x L, f its minimal polynomial over K . Then if G, 0 = (f (x)) = f ((x)). As L/K is normal, (x) L, 1 = H for all G. so (L) = L for all G, i.e. H Example. K = Q, M a splitting eld of X 3 2 over Q, so M = Q( 3 2, 3 2, 2 3 2) = Q( 3 2, ) where = e2i/3 . Set xj = j 3 2. Note 2 ++1 = 0. So X 3 2 2 (X xj ) j=0 is irreducible over Q. 3 Let Lj = Q(xj ). So L0 = Q( 2), M = L0 (), [Lj : Q] = 3, [M : L0 ] = 2 as L0 .
So

[M : Q] = 6 and is Galois, {x0 , x1 , x2 } and for all G,

so

G = Gal(M/Q)

has order

6. G

permutes the roots

(j = 0, 1, 2 (xj ) = xj )
So

= .

is isomorphic to a subgroup of subgroups are

S3 ,

so

G S3 . =

S3 = Sym{0, 1, 2},

S3 , {1}, {1, (ab)} = (ab) , {1, (012), (021)} = A3 .

| || || }||
3

A3 a

1 ii

ii 2 ii i"

Mq q

aa 2 aa a

S3

3 zzz zz |zz

o Galois (a b) correspondence / M A3f f

qq2 qq q#

ff2 Galois fff

x xx xx Galois x not {xx

3

(a b)

(a b) represents three dierent subgroups. So M A3 has degree 2 over Q, so must (a b) = Q(x ) for dierent x s, depending on (a b) . Complex conjugation be Q(). M j j (1 2) = Q(x ), for example. xes x0 and permutes x1 , x2 , so M 0
where

Theorem 11.2.
Proof.
(i) If (ii) If

is algebraically closed.

We will use the following.

f R[X] f C[X] K/R

has odd degree, then

has a root in

R.

(This is an application of the

Intermediate Value Theorem.) is quadratic, then it splits into linear factors.

Now (i) and (ii), respectively, imply (i') If is nite and

[K : R] K/C

odd, then

K = R,

since if

x K,

its minimal

polynomial is irreducible of odd degree, hence has degree (ii') There is no extension of degree

1.

2. gcd(p, m) = 1,
then

Furthermore, we use the following two facts from group theory. (a) If

is a nite group,

|G| = pn m

where

has a subgroup

P p.

n of order p . (This is part of Sylow's theorem.) n (b) If H is a nite group of order p = 1, then H as a (normal) subgroup of index

Lecture 15

39
|H| = p. Suppose |H| H has a non-trivial centre Z(H) = {x H : xy = yx y H} = {1}. Let x Z(H) be of order p, consider H = H/ x . (This exists since x is a normal subgroup.) By induction, H has a (normal) subgroup K H of index p, which by the First Isomorphism Theorem corresponds to a (normal) subgroup of H of index p containing x .
Statement (b) can be proved by induction on as follows. It is clear for

|H|

p2 . Then

Let

K/C

such that

C
So

K = C. Choose a nite extension L/K L/R is Galois, e.g. the Galois closure of K/R. Let G = Gal(L/R), then since R, L R we have that [L : R] is even. Let P G a Sylow 2-subgroup.
be a nite extension. We must prove i.e. be the Fundamental Theorem of Galois

[LP : R] = (G : P ) is odd, so LP = R, n Theory, G = P is a group of order 2 .

Therefore, be a (ii').

H = Gal(L/C) is a 2-group, i.e. has order a power of 2, as well. Let H1 H H subgroup of index 2 (if it exists). Then [L 1 : C] = (H : H1 ) = 2, contradicting So H = {1}, i.e. L = C and hence K = C.

Galois Groups of Polynomials

Let

n. Let L/K be a splitting eld for f , and x1 , . . . , xn L the roots of f . So L = K(x1 , . . . , xn ) is a nite Galois extension of K , let G = Gal(L/K). If G, then f ((xi )) = (f (xi )) = 0, so permutes the roots of f . Also, if (xi ) = xi for each i, then (x) = x for all x L, i.e. = . So we may regards G as a subgroup of the symmetric group Sn . We call G the Galois group of f over K , written Gal(f /K).
be a separable non-constant polynomial of degree Since

f K[X]

G Sn , |G| = [L : K]

divides

n!.
such that

Denition.
Equivalently,

H Sn is transitive if for all i, j [n] there exists g H H has exactly one orbit. f
is irreducible over

g(i) = j .

Proposition 11.3.
Proof.
G,

if and only if

is a transitive subgroup.

We know from Corollary 9.5 that if

then the minimal polynomial of

over

y L and {y1 , . . . , yd } is the orbit of y K is d (X yi ). i=1

for all

under

So the minimal polynomial of the form

(x1 )

for some

x1 is the product of (X xj ) G. So f , which may be assumed

xj

which are of is of the form

to be monic, equals die

minimal polynomial of

(x1 ),

i.e. if and only

x1 (and hence is irreducible) if and only if every xj if G is transitive. G = {1}

if

Suppose Suppose for

deg f = 2.

Then

is reducible, and

G = S2

if

is irreducible.

deg f = 3. If f (X) = (X a)g(X) reducible, a K , then L is a splitting eld g over K , so the problem is reduced to the degree 2 case, when |G| = 1 or |G| = 2. If f is irreducible, then G = Gal(f /K) is a transitive subgroup of S3 , so G = S3 or G = A3 .
Recall the following.

(X1 , . . . , Xn ) =

(Xi Xj )
1i<jn

Lecture 15

40
Disc(X1 , . . . , Xn ) = 2 = (1)n(n1)/2

The Galois Correspondence

(Xi Xj )
1i,jn i=j

(X(1) , . . . , X(n) = sgn()(X1 , . . . , Xn )

For a monic separable polynomial

f=

n i=1 (X

xi )

with splitting eld

L,

dene

f = (x1 , . . . , xn ) L \ {0} Disc(f ) = 2 f

which is independent of the listing of roots.

Theorem 11.4.
(ii) In particular,

(i)

K(f ) = LGAn f K ,

Disc(f ) K ; where G = Gal(f /K) = Gal(L/K).

i.e.

Disc(f )

is a square in

K,

if and only if

G An .

G. Then (f ) = ((x1 ), . . . , (xn )) = sgn()f and hence (Disc(f )) = (f )2 = Disc(f ). So by the Fundamental Theorem of Galois Theory, Disc(f ) K , and (f ) = f if and only if G An since we can divide by f = 0.
Let

Proof.

Remark.

For any monic polynomial, separable or not, we may dene

Disc(f )

by the

same formula as

Disc(f ) =
where

(xi xj )2
1i<jn
if and only if

f (X) =

n i=1 (X

xi ),

and

Disc(f ) = 0

is separable.

Consider the formal derivate of

f (X) =
n

n i=1 (X

xi ) K[X].

f (X) =
i=1 j=i

(X xj ) (xi xj )
j=i n

f (xi ) =

Disc(f ) = (1)n(n1)/2
i=1

f (xi )
expressed as a

Remark.

Disc(f )
n

is a symmetric function of

polynomial in the elementary symmetric functions

x1 , . . . , xn , so it can be s(x1 , . . . , xn ). But

f (X) =
i=1
i.e.

(X xi ) = X n s1 (x1 , . . . , xn )X n1 + + (1)n sn (x1 , . . . , xn ),

polynomial (with to compute.

sr (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (1)r (coecient of X nr ). So Disc(f ) is a integer coecients) in the coecients of f , and in principle it is easy

Lecture 16

Chapter 12 Finite Fields

Let

be a prime number. We will describe all nite elds of characteristic

and their

Galois groups. Let

be a nite eld of characteristic

p.

We know the following.

|F | = pn where n = [F : Fp ] = dimFp F . (Theorem 3.1) F is cyclic of order pn 1. (Proposition 3.4) p : F F, x xp is a homomorphism from f to itself. It is injective is bijective, i.e. it is an automorphism of F . (Proposition 3.5)

and hence

Theorem 12.1.
of order

For every

such eld is a splitting

n 1, there exists a nite eld Fpn with pn elements. Any pn X over F . In particular, any two elds eld for fn (X) = X p
n n

pn

are isomorphic.

|F | = pn . Then for all x F , xp 1 = 1, so for all x F , xp = x, i.e. fn (x) = 0. So fn has pn roots in F , and obviously no proper subeld of F contains them. So F is a splitting eld for fn .
Let

Proof.

F be a splitting eld for fn over Fp . So F is a nite eld of characteristic n p, and p Aut(F /Fp ). Let F be the xed eld of n . So F = {x F : xp = x} is p the set of roots of fn in F . So by denition of splitting elds, F = F , and it is a eld n with p elements.
Conversely, let

Remark.

This remark claries the last setence in the previous proof.

Fp F , and so F F = F , as claimed. n Since fn (X) = pn X p 1 1 = 1, we have gcd(fn , fn ) = 1, n hence has p distinct roots.
By construction, we have . Also a splitting eld, contradiction. Hence

F F

F
so

implies

is not

fn

is separable and

Theorem 12.2.
generated by (ii)

(i)

Fpn

is a Galois extension of order

Fp ,

whose Galois group is cyclic, and has no such subeld if

p . Fpn contains a unique subeld of m n, and Gal(Fpn /Fpm ) = m . p

(i)

pm

if

m | n,

Proof.

fn

is separable since it has

pn

roots in

Fp

and also

fn = 1,

so

splitting eld of a separable polynomial, hence is a Galois extension of We have

Fpn Fp .

is the

p Gal(Fpn /Fp ) = G. Since n = [Fpn : Fp ] = |G|, it is enough to show m that the order of p in G is n. If not, p = for some m with 1 m < n, i.e. for pm = x, which is impossible (as this polynomial has too many roots all x Fpn , x
given its degree).

Lecture 16

42
(ii) If

Finite Fields
Fpm Fpn , then let r = [Fpn : Fpm ], so that as vector spaces Fpn = (Fpm )r . So n = (pm )r , i.e. m | n and r = m . p n m Gal(F n /F ); |H| = m , so the eld (F n )H If m | n, then consider H = p p p p n m elements. has degree m = (Gal(Fpn /Fp ) : H) over Fp , so has p

Galois Group of Polynomials over Fp

Let

f Fq [X] be monic and separable, where q = pn , deg(f ) = d. Let L be the splitting eld of f over Fq , so L = Fq m for some m 1. G = Gal(f /Fq ) = Gal(Fq m /Fq ), regarded n as a subgroup of Sd , acts on roots x1 , . . . , xd L of f . G is cyclic, generated by q = p by Theorem 12.2, so as a subgroup of Sd , G is determined up to conjugacy by the cycle type of d .
Let

Proposition 12.3.
ducibles in

Fq [X],

and let

disjoint cycles of lengths

f = f1 f2 fr be the factorisation of f as a di = deg(fi ). Then, as a permutation, q d1 , . . . , d r . fi ,

for

product of irreis a product of

Proof.
sets

Let so

Si q

be the set of roots of

i = 1, . . . , r.

Then since

fi

is irreducible,

permutes the elements of

Si

transitively. So the orbits of

on the roots of

are the

Si ,

has cycle type

(d1 , . . . , dr ).
So

Example.
i.e.

Let

f = X d 1 over Fp where d 1, p d.

f = dX d1 and gcd(f, f ) = 1,

is separable.

When is

Gal(f /Fp ) Ad Sd ?

Reduction modulo p
Suppose in fact

f Z[X]. g, h Z[X].

Gauss's lemma states that if (Note

f = gh

with

g, h Q[X]

monic, then

Z[X]

is a UFD.) In particular, for a primitive polynomial

f,

is irreducible over

if and only if

is irreducible over

So if

is prime and

denotes reduction modulo

Z. p, then f = g h Fp [X].

So if

f is

irreducible, so is

f.

Example 12.4.
f (X) = X 4 + 5X 2 2X 3
So

X 4 + X 2 + 1 (X 2 + X + 1)2 X 4 + 2X 2 + X X(X 3 + 2X + 1)
or

(mod 2) (mod 3)

is irreducible, since

reduction modulo

and

f = gh implies deg g = 1 3, respectively.

deg g = 2,

which is impossible by

Remark.

This does not always work (see Example Sheet 3 Question 7).

The same idea can be applied to Galois groups.

Theorem 12.5.
Lecture 17

Let

f Z[X]

be monic,

separable. Then as subgroups of

Sn ,

p prime. Assume f and f f (mod p) are where n = deg f , Gal(f /Q) contains Gal(f /Fp ).

43
Proof.
Gal(f /Q) and Gal(f /Fp ). Let L = Q(x1 , . . . , xn ) be a xi ) and N = [L : Q], G = Gal(L/Q) = Gal(f /Q) splitting eld for f (X) = Sn by action on {x1 , . . . , xn }. Let R = Z[x1 , . . . , xn ]. A basic fact from Algebraic Number Theory is that R is a free Z-module of rank N , contained in the ring of algebraic N elements, since as a group R/pR integers of L. So R/pR is a nite ring with p = N /pZN . Let P , . . . , P Z be the maximal ideals of R containing pR. (These are in a 1 m bijective correspondence with the maximal ideals of R/pR.) Let k = R/P1 , a nite eld l with p elements, say. Let : R k = R/P1 be the quotient homomorphism and let xi = (xi ). Then
The idea is to relate

n i=1 (X

f (X) = f (X) =
i=1
Clearly

(X xi ) =
i=1

(X xi )

k = Fp [1 , . . . , xn ] by denition of R. So k is a splitting eld for f over Fp . x over Fp , so by uniqueness of splitting elds, Similarly, each R/Pj is a splitting eld for f |R/Pj | = pl for all j = 1, . . . , m. G maps R to itself, so permutes P1 , . . . , Pm . Let H = StabG (P1 ) = { G : (P1 ) = P1 }. H then acts on R/P1 = k , since if x y mod P1 and H , then (x) (y) mod P1 = (P1 ). And if (xi ) = xj then (i ) = xj (as xi xi mod Pi x etc.). So H is a subgroup of Gal(f /Fp ) Sn acting on {1 , . . . , xn }. x
The group

Fact.

H = Gal(f /Fp ).

Then we have identied

Gal(f /Fp )

with a subgroup of

G.

(CRT). Let R be a commutative ring with a multi1, and let I1 , . . . , Im be ideals in R such that for all i, j with i = j , Ii +Ij = R. Then : R R/I1 R/Im , the product of quotient maps, is surjective with kernel I1 Im . So R/(I1 Im ) R/I1 R/Im . = plicative identity

Chinese Remainder Theorem

Proof.

The kernel is clearly such that

I1 Im .

We proof the result in the case

then the general case follows by induction. Suppose

I1 + I2 = R,
for

so there exist

m = 2 and bi Ii ,
() So letting

i = 1, 2,

b1 + b2 = 1. a1 , a2 R

is surjective if and only if

x R

x ai

mod Ii

i = 1, 2

Notice

bi 0 mod Ii , i = 1, 2 and b1 = 1 b2 1 mod I2 , b2 1 mod I1 . x = b2 a1 + b1 a2 , x satises ().

Proof of Fact.
maximality of

Apply the CRT with

Ij = Pj .

Then if

i = j , Pi

Pi + Pj R ,

so by

Pi , Pi + Pj = R.

So we can apply the CRT in this case.

plm = |R/P1 R/Pm | = |R/(P1 Pm )| |R/pR| =p

i.e. since

P1 Pm pR

(1)

N m

l. (G : H) |H|
is the length of the orbit of

By the Orbit-Stabiliser Theorem, so

containing

P1 ,
(2)

(G : H) M ,

i.e.

|G| N = l. m m

Lecture 17

44
H Gal(f /Fp ) = Gal(k/Fp ) /Fp ). H = Gal(f
and which has order

Finite Fields
l.
So we must have

|H| = l,
and

i.e.

Remark.

We must also have equality in (1) and (2), i.e.

P1 Pm = pR

G acts
then

transitively on

{P1 , . . . , Pm }.
If

Corollary 12.6.
Gal(f /Q)

f = g1 gr

where

contains an element of cycle

gi Fp [X] is type (d1 , . . . , dr ).

irreducible of degree

di ,

Proof.
p

Let

acts as

K/Fp be a splitting eld for f . Then on the roots of gi , the Frobenius map a di -cycle. So the cycle type of p acting on roots of f is (d1 , . . . , dr ). Then
The converse of Corollary 12.6 holds as well. If

apply Theorem 12.5.

Remark.

Gal(f /Q)

contains a per-

mutation of cycle type

f = g1 gr ,

(d1 , . . . , dr )

say, then there exists innitely many

such that

where

gi

is irreducible of degree

di .

This is the Chebotarev Density Theo-

rem, which belongs to algebraic and analytical number theory. As a special case, if that

f splits

into linear factors in

(d1 , . . . , dr ) = (1, . . . , 1) Fp .

then there exists innitely many

such

Recall Example 12.4,

f (X) = X 4 + 5X 2 2X 3
We have already shown

(X 2 + X + 1)2 X(X 3 + 2X + 1)

(mod 2) (mod 3)

Gal(f /F3 ) is cyclic of order 3 (as X 3 X + 1 is irreducible). So by Theorem 12.5, Gal(f /Q) contains a 3-cycle, say (1 2 3) = . As f is irreducible, Gal(f /Q) is transitive, so for each i = 1, 2, 3 there exists with (4) = i. 1 is a 3-cycle xing i. So taking these elements and their inverses, Gal(f /Q) Then contains all 3-cycles, hence Gal(f /Q) A4 . So Gal(f /Q) is either A4 or S4 . Notice that f has two real and two complex roots, so complex conjugation is a 2-cycle on the roots. So Gal(f /Q) = S4 . f
is irreducible.

Lecture 18

Chapter 13 Cyclotomic and Kummer Extensions

These are two important classes of Galois extensions with abelian Galois groups.

Roots of Unity
Let

be a eld,

m1

an integer. Dene

m (K) = {x K : xm = 1}
the group of

m-th roots of 1 in K . Since m (K) is nite, it is cyclic of order dividing m. We say x m (K) is a primitive m-th roots of 1 if x has order exactly m. In this i case, m (K) = x = {x : 0 i m} has order m.
The polynomial

mX m1 , so f separable if and only if m is nonzero in K , i.e., if and only if char K = 0 or char K = p m. So if char K = p and p | m, there cannot exist a primitive m-th root of 1 in K .
has derivative Assume until the end of this chapter that

Xm 1

char K = 0

or

char K = p, p m,

i.e. assume

is separable.

Let

be a splitting eld for

order

m.

Fix a generator (i)

X m 1. Then m (L), the set of roots of X m 1 m (L) which is a primitive m-th root of 1. L = K() : G = Gal(L/K) (Z/mZ)

in

L,

has

Proposition 13.1.

(ii) There is an injective homomorphism

given by (iii)

() = a (mod m)
roots of unity in

if

() = a . G
acts transitively on the set of

primitive

is surjective, i.e. an isomorphism, if and only if

L.

Proof.

(i) We have

m1

Xm 1 =
xm (L)
so

(X x) =
a=0

(X a )

L = K().

Lecture 18

46
(ii) The primitive

Cyclotomic and Kummer Extensions

m-th roots of 1 in L are { a : gcd(a, m) = 1} and a = b if and a only if a b (mod m). Let G. Then () = for some a Z, gcd(a, m) = 1 and = if and only if () = , i.e. if and only if a 1 (mod m). b Suppose () = , then () = ( b ) = ()b = ab
So we have an injective homomorphism

(iii)

is surjective () = a , i.e.
If

G (Z/mZ) , a (mod m). if and only i for all a with gcd(a, m) = 1 there exists G a if and only if G acts transitively on { : gcd(a, m) = 1}.
then

with

Remark.

KLC
The

m (L) = {e2ia/m }, = e2i/m

is

for example.

Denition.

m-th cyclotomic polynomial m (X) =

(X a )
0am gcd(a,m)=1

Note

m (X) K[X] = L[X]G

since

permutes

{ a : gcd(a, m) = 1}.
is an isomorphism if and only if

We can restate (iii) in Proposition 13.1 as follows.

m (X) m

is irreducible over

K. K . In fact, any m-th root of unity is a primitive d-th root 1 = d|m d (X). So m is determined inductively by 1 (X) = X 1

does not really depend on

of unity for some

d|

m, so X m

and for all

m>1 m (X) =

Xm 1 1d<m d (X)
d|m
e.g.

and so is the image of a polynomial in

Z[X],

p (X) =
There are two important cases.

Xp 1 = X p1 + X p2 + + 1 X 1

(Z/mZ) .

Proposition 13.2.

Let

K = Fq , q = pn , p

m.

Then

(G)

is the subgroup

Proof. Gal(L/K) = q
endomorphism,

where

q () =
Let

q . So

q (x) = xq , i.e. q = n , p (q ) = q (mod m). Gal(L/Q) (Z/mZ) =

where

is the Frobenius

Theorem 13.3.

K = Q.

Then

by

In particular,

[Q() : Q] = (m) = |(Z/mZ) |,

where

is Euler's phi function, and

m (X)

is irreducible over

Q.

Lecture 18

47
Proof.
write We have to show that if

aN

with

() = a. a=

It is enough to do this for

gcd(a, m) = 1, then there exists G with a = p, p prime, since in the general case we can

pr i . i

Let f be the minimal polynomial of over Q, so f (X) | m (X), by Gauss's lemma f Z[X]. Let g Z[X] be the minimal polynomial of p . Then g( p ) = 0 implies p p that f (X) | g(X ). Reducing modulo p, f (X) | g (X ) = g (X) . Now f divides P m 1 F [X] which is separable, so f (X) | g (X), so f 2 | f g . If f = g then X p f g | X m 1, so f 2 | f g | X m 1, contradicting that X m 1 is separable. So f = g , p p hence f ( ) = 0, so there exists G such that () = .

We now present a second proof of the irreducibility of cyclotomic polynomials over

Q.

Proof.

Suppose

(Z/mZ) such that

m 1, a primitive mth root of unity, L = Q(), and G = Gal(L/Q) a mod m if () = a .

is surjective. Then

It is sucient to prove

irreducible. For this, it is sucient to show Let

[L : Q] = (m) = deg m , so m is Im() p mod m for any prime p, p m.

R = Z[] as in the proof of Theorem 12.5; choose a prime ideal P of Z[] containing p, then k = R/P = Fp (), where is the image of under R k , is a splitting eld for m 1 over F . So its Galois group is generated by the Frobenius map : p . So X p as in the proof of Theorem 12.5, p mod m Im().

Applications
Construction of Regular Polygons by Ruler and Compass
To construct a regular

n-gon

is equivalent to constructing the real number

cos 2 . n
is a product

Theorem 13.4
of a power of

(Gauss)

A regular

n-gon

is constructible if and only if

and distinct primes of the form

22 + 1.
We will show that this number is

Proof.
Since

Let

= e2i/n,
2 n )]

so that

cos 2 = 1 ( + 1 ). n 2

constructible if and only if

has the form stated.

[Q() : Q(cos = 2, then is constructible if and only if cos 2 is. Now if is n constructible, [Q() : Q] must be a power of 2. Conversely, if [Q() : Q] is a power of 2, then since G = Gal(Q()/Q) is abelian, it is easy to see that one can nd subgroups G = H0 H1 Hm = {1} such that (Hs : Hs+1 ) = 2. Then we get a chain of
subelds

Q() = Fm Fm1 F1 F0 = Q,
where

Fr = Q()Hr

and

constructible if and only

[Fr : Fr1 ] = 2, hence is constructible. if [Q() : Q] = (n) = |(Z/nZ) | is a power n= pei i

for distinct primes

That is, of

cos 2 n

is

2.
and

By the Chinese Remained Theorem, if

pi

ei 1,

then

(n) = |(Z/nZ) | =
i

|(Z/pei Z) | i
e pei pi i 1 i i

Lecture 19

48
=
i
If

Cyclotomic and Kummer Extensions

pei 1 (pi 1). i

pe1 is a power of 2. If p is an odd prime, then pe1 (p 1) is a power of 2 if and only if e = 1 and p = 2m + 1 for some m. If m = rs with r, s > 1, r odd, then 2rs + 1 = (2s + 1)(2(r1)s 2(r2)s + 2s + 1) is not prime. So m must be a power of 2. p=2
then

22 + 1 are called Fermat primes ; Fk = 22 + 1. F1 = 5, F2 = 17, F3 = 257, F4 = 65537 are prime. Fermat guessed that Fk is prime for all k 1. But 641 is a non-trivial factor of F5 , as shown by Euler in 1732. Not k 5 is known for which Fk is prime.
Primes of the form
k k

Quadratic Reciprocity
Let

be an odd prime. The

Legendre symbol
+1 1
if if

for

a Z, (a, p) = 1
is a square is a non-square

is

a p
Since

a (mod p) a (mod p)

(Z/pZ)

is cyclic of order

p 1, 1

we can easily see the following.

(p 1)/2 numbers Euler's criterion,

between

and

p1

are squares, the others are non-squares.

a p
in particular

= a(p1)/2

(mod p),

1 p
ab p

= (1)(p1)/2 =

+1 1

if if

p1 p3

(mod 4) . (mod 4)

a p

b p .
Let

Theorem 13.5 (Gauss, Quadratic Reciprocity Law).

p q q p = 1 +1
if

p=q

be odd primes. Then

pq3

(mod 4)

otherwise eld

fq (X) = X q 1 Fp [X], which has splitting Gal(fq /Fp ) contained in Aq ? We present two answers.
Consider Firstly, if and only if

Proof.

L = Fp ().

When is

i are {

Disc(fq ) is : 0 i q 1}, we have Disc(fq ) = (1) = (1)

a square in

Fp .

Since

fq = qX q1
q1

and the roots of

fq

q1 q(q1)/2

fq ( ) = (1)

(q1)/2

q i(q1) q . (1)(q1)/2 q
is a

i=0 (q1)/2 q (q1)/2(q1)q

= (1) F p

i=0 (q1)/2 q

Dividing out the square square.

q q1 , Disc(fq )

is a square in

if and only if

Lecture 19

49
1, , . . . , q1 is even. p (1) = 1, p () = p . So we have one orbit of length 1 and (q 1)/m orbits of length m the order of p in F . So p is even if and only if (m 1)(q 1)/m is even if and only q if (q 1)/m is even if and only if p is a square in Fq .
Secondly, if and only if the cycle type of

acting on the roots

Kummer Extensions
K(x) with xm K . Example. Q( 3 2). The splitting
Consider Suppose

eld of

X3 2
or

is

Q( 3 2, e2i/3 ).
with

is a eld,

contains a primitive

m 1, char K = 0 mth root of unity .

char K = p

(p, m) = 1.

Assume

X m a, so is Galois;

Theorem 13.6.

Let

L = K(x) where xm = a K . Then L/K is a splitting eld for [L : K] is the least d 1 such that xd K and Gal(L/K) is cyclic. i x), so L/K is a separable, so L/K is Galois.
m1 i=0 (X
splitting eld for

Xm
Let

Proof. X m a = X m xm =
a.
As

f (X) =

f =

mX m1 ,

is

Gal(L/K). Then f ((x)) = 0, so (x) = i x for some i. Put () = (x)/x = m (K), which is cyclic of order m. This denes a map : Gal(L/K) m (K) = Z/mZ. is a homomorphism. , Gal(L/K), (x) = i x, (x) = j x. ( j x) = j (x) = i+j x, i.e. ( ) = ()( ). is injective. If () = 1 then (x) = x, i.e. = .
So So

( (x)) =

Gal(L/K) and a subgroup of m (K), so Gal(L/K) is n 1, xn K if and only if for all , (xn ) = xn . So xn K if and n only if for all , () = 1, i.e., if and only if Im n (K). So Im = d (K) where d d is the least integer such that x K .
is an isomorphism between cyclic. Finally, if

Corollary 13.7.
K
for any

Xm a d | m, d = 1.

is irreducible in

K[X]

if and only if

is not a

dth

power in

Proof.

Let

and only

L = K(x), xm = a. Then X m a is irreducible if and only if [L : K] = m m/d K for any d | m, d = 1 if and only if a is not a dth power. if x
Let

if

Theorem 13.8.
L/K is Galois xm = a K .

be as above, i.e.,

a primitive

of degree

m,

with cyclic Galois group. Then

mth root of unity. Suppose L = K(x) for some x with

Proof. Let G = Gal(L/K) = { i : 0 i m 1}. resolvent

Then

Let

y L and consider the Lagrange

x = R(y) = y + 1 (y) + + (m1) m1 (y)

(x) = (y) + 1 2 (y) + + m+1 m (y) = x

Lecture 20

50

i.e.

Cyclotomic and Kummer Extensions

(xm ) = (x)m = xm

a = xm K . By Theorem 9.1 (Independence of Field Automorphisms), there exists y L such that x = R(y) = 0. For this choice, we have i (x) = i x = x if 0 < i < m, i so L = K(x) (e.g. since i (X (x)) is irreducible by the transitivity of Gal(L/K) on
the roots). If

does not contain a primitive

For example, degree

3,

e.g.

Q( 2)/Q is not Galois, but there exist other Q(cos 2 ) = Q( + 1 ) where = e2/7 . 7 Q()
2 6

mth

root of unity, these all fail in various ways. Galois extensions of

of

Q( + 1 )
3

Q
where

Gal(Q()/Q) = F Z/6Z. 7 = X 4 + 4 Q[X]

is reducible, although

Corollary 13.7 also fails, e.g.

is not a square in

Q.

Lecture 20

Chapter 14 Trace and Norm

Let

L/K

be nite of degree

n.

Then

is a

K -vector

space of dimension

n.

If

x L,

the map

Tx : L L, Tx (y) = xy
is a

K -linear

map. The

Denition.

trace

and

norm

of

are

TrL/K (x) = tr(Tx ),

The

NL/K (x) = det(Tx ).

is the characteristic polynomial of

characteristic polynomial fx,L/K

K
such that

of

Tx . (aij )

Explicitly, choose a basis with entries in

e1 , . . . , en xej =

for

L/K .
n

Then there exists a unique matrix

n i=1 aij ei for all

and then

TrL/K (x) =
i=1

aii

NL/K (x) = det(aij ) fx,L/K = det(IX (aij ))

Example.

L = K(y), y 2 = d K, y K . x = a + by . The matrix of Tx is a bd b a

Let

Taking the basis to be

{1, y},

let

since

xy = ay + by 2 = bd + ay ,
If

so

TrL/K (x) = 2a, NL/K (x) = a2 db2 .

then

Lemma 14.1.
(i) (ii) (iii) So

x, y L, a K ,

TrL/K (x + y) = TrL/K (x) + TrL/K (y), NL/K (xy) = NL/K (x)NL/K (y). NL/K (x) = 0 if and only if x = 0. TrL/K (ax) = a TrL/K (x), NL/K (ax) = a[L:K] NL/K (x).
is a homomorphism of additive groups,

TL/K : L K

NL/K : L K

is an injective

homomorphism of multiplicative groups.

Proof.
(ii)

(i) This follows from is

clearly

Tx

tr(A + B) = tr A + tr B , det(AB) = det(A) det(B), Tx+y = Tx + Ty , Txy = Tx Ty . invertible if and only if x L .

since

Lecture 21

52
(iii)

Trace and Norm

Tax = aTx .
Suppose

Proposition 14.2.

be the minimal polynomial

L = K(x), and let f (X) = X n + cn1 X n1 + + c1 X + c0 of x over K . Then fx,L/K = f , and TrL/K (x) = cn1 ,

NL/K (x) = (1)n c0 .

Proof.

Consider the basis

{1, x, . . . , xn1 } for L/K . In terms of this basis, Tx 0 0 . . . 0 0 c0 1 0 0 0 c1 0 1 0 0 c2 .. . 0 0 1 0 cn2 0 0 . . . 0 1 cn1 f.

So

has matrix

which has characteristic polynomial

fx,L/K = f ;

as

det(Tx ) = (1)n c0 , tr(Tx ) =

where

cn1 ,

the rest follows. Let

Example.
[L : k] = p.
Let

have characteristic

p > 0, L = K(x)

xp K, x K .

So

y K , NL/K (y) = y [L:K] = y p , TrL/K (y) = [L : K]y = 0. On the other hand, if y inK , then y = bi xi , y p = bp (xp )i K , so L = K(y) and y i p p p has minimal polynomial X y , so NL/K (y) = y and TrL/K (y) = 0. So in every case TrL/K (y) = 0, i.e. TrL/K is the zero map. y L.
Then if For which extensions is

TrL/K = 0

or

L/K is TrL/K TrL/K (L) = K .

Suppose

non-zero? Since

TrL/K : L K

is

K -linear, either

Proposition 14.3.
Assume there exists

distinct

L/K is nite of degree n, M a normal closure of L/K . K -embeddings 1 , . . . , n : L M . Then for all x L,
n n

TrL/K (x) =
i=1
The condition on

i (x),

NL/K (x) =
i=1

i (x). y K, M

L/K

holds if for example

splitting eld of the minimal polynomial of

L = K(y) y.

with

separable over

Proof.

Let

{e1 , . . . , en } be a basis for L/K . A = (aij ), aij K ,

Then the matrix

P = (i (ej )) is non-singular Tx .
So

since its rows are linear independent over Automorphisms). Let

K,

by Theorem 9.1 (Independence of Field

be the matrix of

Tx ej = xej =
r=1 n

arj er

i (x)i (ej ) =
r=1

i (er )arj

SP = P A S = diag{i (x)}. So P AP 1 = S , eigenvalues of A, hence the result.

where i.e.

diagonalises

A.

So

{i (x)}

are the

Lecture 21

53 Theorem 14.4.
Let

M/L/K

be nite. Then for all

x M,

TrM/K (x) = TrL/K (TrM/L (x)),

NM/K (x) = NL/K (NM/L (x))

Proof.
be

We consider the trace only.

Choose bases

(aij ) with Taij ,L/K , so

{u1 , . . . , um } for M/L, {v1 , . . . , vn } for L/K . Let the matrix for Tx,M/L aij L, so TrM/L (x) = m aii . For each (i, j) let Aij be the matrix of i=1
m m

TrL/K (TrM/L (x)) =

i=1
In terms of the basis

TrL/K (aii ) =
i=1

tr(Aii ).
for

{u1 v1 , . . . , u1 vn , u2 v1 , . . . , u2 vn , . . . , um vn } A11
. . .

M/K ,

the matrix of

Tx,M/K

is

...

A1m
. . .

Am1 . . . Amm
whose trace is

m i=1 tr Aii .
Let

Theorem 14.5.
(i) Suppose (ii) Suppose

L/K

be nite. is surjective.

L = K(x) where x separable over K . Then TrL/K TrL/K is surjective. Then L/K is separable.

Proof.
the

(i) The case

x = 0 is trivial. Assume x = 0, let n = [L : K]. Let x1 , . . . , xn be K -conjugates of x (in some splitting eld). We want to nd k 0 such that TrL/K (xk ) = xk + + xk = 0 1 n

by Proposition 14.3. Recall from the proof of Newton's Formula that if

f (T ) =

i (1

xi T ),

then

f (T ) = T 1 f (T )
where (ii)

pk T k
k=1

x1 , . . . , xn are distinct and non-zero, so the LHS is non-zero, hence there exists k with pk = 0. It suces to prove that if L/K is inseparable then TrL/K = 0. So let p = char K > 0. Let x L be inseparable over K ; its minimal polynomial is of the form g(X p ) p where g(X) K[X] is irreducible. So the minimal polynomial of x over K is p ) K with [K(x) : K(xp )] = p. As shown in the g(X), hence L K(x) K(x Example after Proposition 14.2, TrK(x)/K(xp ) = 0. So by Theorem 14.4,
is separable, since

pk =

xk 1

+ +

xk . Now n

TrL/K (y) = TrK(xp )/K (TrK(x)/K(xp ) (TrL/K(x) (y))) = 0.

Corollary 14.6. Corollary 14.7.

(ii)

A nite extension

L/K

is separable if and only if Then Then

TrL/K

is non-zero.

(i) Let M/L/K be nite. M/L and L/K are separable. Let L = K(x1 , . . . , xn ) be nite over K . x1 , . . . , xn are separable over K .

M/K L/K

is separable if and only if is separable if and only if

Lecture 21

54
Proof.
(i)

Trace and Norm

TrM/K = TrL/K = TrM/L , K = K(x1 , . . . , xn1 )
so this follows from Corollary 14.6.

(ii) One direction is clear by denition. To prove the converse by induction, we may assume over is separable over

K.

Then

L = K (xn )

is separable

by Theorem 14.5 since

xn

is separable over

. Then conclude by (i).

Lecture 21

Chapter 15 Solving Equations by Radicals

We consider the following problem. Given a polynomial formula for roots of

f (X),

involving elds operations and

f (X) Q[X], nth roots.

say, try to nd a

Denition.

(ii)

L/K is an extension by radicals if there exists extensions K = K0 K1 Kr = L such that Ki = Ki1 (xi ) with xm Ki1 for some m 1 for i i = 1, . . . , r. (Taking m to be the least common multiple, we may assume m is the same for all i. Notice that if m = 2 we would have a constructible extension.) Let f K[X]. f is soluble, or solvable, by radicals if there exists an extension by radicals L/K in which f splits into linear factors.
(i) Let

Lemma 15.1.
by radicals.

M/L, L/K

be extensions by radicals. Then

M/K

is an extension

Small Degrees
Degree 2
Suppose If

deg f = 2, f (X) = X 2 + aX + b, a, b K .

f is reducible, there is nothing to do. Otherwise, f has discriminant a2 4b = Disc(f ). If Disc(f ) = 0 then f is separable, and the splitting eld of f is just K( a2 4b), which is an extension by radicals (here char K = 2). If Disc(f ) = 0 then either f is reducible 2 or f is irreducible and inseparable in which case f (X) = (X + ) where K (here char K = 2). (The dicult case is when char K = 2 and f is irreducible and separable, since if char K = 2 and L/K is a separable extension of degree 2, then L = K( ) for any K since K( ) is inseparable.)

Degree 3
Assume assume If

char K = 2, 3, f (X) = X 3 + aX 2 + bX + c. a = 0, f (X) = X 3 + bX + c.

Replacing

by

X 1 a, 3

we can

K does not contain a primitive cube root of unity, replace K by K() 1 = 3 , so 2 + + 1 = 0, as char K = 2, K()/K is an extension (K() = K( 3). So without loss of generality, we may assume K . splitting eld for f over K .

where Let

=
be a

by radicals

Lecture 22

56
If

Solving Equations by Radicals

is reducible over

then we can nd all roots of

by solving a quadratic over

K,

hence we have solutions by radicals.

f is irreducible. Then Gal(f /K) is A3 or S3 . Write f (X) = i (X xi ), = (x1 x2 )(x1 x3 )(x2 x3 ), so 2 = Disc(f ) K ; then Disc(f ) is a square in K if and only if Gal(f /K) = A3 , so if K1 = K() then Gal(L/K1 ) = A3 (and K1 = K if and only if Gal(f /K) = A3 ). But A3 is cyclic, and K1 . Theorem 13.6 then says 3 3 that L = K1 ( d) for some d K1 . So L = K1 ( d) K1 = K() K is an extension by radicals in which f splits.
Assume We can compute the solutions explicitly as follows. (i) Suppose (ii)

b = 0 = c, f = X 3 + c. Then if K , L = K( 3 c) since f factorises as f = (X + 3 c)(X + 3 c)(X + 2 3 c). If K , L = K(, 3 c). Suppose b = 0. Then if K , we know by the proof of Theorem 13.6 that 3 d = z + (z) + 2 2 (z) for some z L where {1, , 2 } = A3 = Gal(L/K1 ). 2 2 So consider {z, (z), (z)} = {x1 , x2 , x3 } roots of f and let y = x1 + x2 + x3 , 3 K . We know that x + x + x = a = 0, so y = (1 )(x x ). Let so y 1 2 3 1 2 y = x1 + x2 + 2 x3 = (1 2 )(x1 2 x2 ) yy = (1 )(1 2 )(x1 x2 )(x1 2 x2 ) = 3(x2 + x2 + x1 x2 ) 1 2 = 3b
as

b = x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x2 x3 = x2 x2 x1 x2 . 1 2

Therefore,

y = 3b/y , y, y = 0.

y + y = y + y + (x1 + x2 + x3 ) = 3x1
because

1 + + 2 = 0.

So

L = K1 (y) since y = 0 (see the proof of Theorem 13.8), (y 3b y

1 1 x1 = (y + y ) = 3 3
Finally,

y 3 = (1 )3 (x1 x2 )3 1 = (3 3 + 27c) K1 2
using

= (1 +

3)/2

and

= (x1 x2 )(x1 x3 )(x2 x3 ) = 2x3 + 3x2 x2 3x1 x2 2x3 1 1 2 2 2 = 4b3 27c2 .

Theorem 15.2 Denition.

0 i < r.
Let

(Runi, Abel's Theorem)

The general equation of degree

or more

cannot be solved by radicals.

chain of subgroups

G be a nite group. Then G is soluble, or solvable, if there exists a {1} = Hr Hr1 H1 H0 = G such that Hi /Hi+1 is cyclic, for

Lecture 23

57 Remark.
Here is an equivalent denition.

groups, each normal in is abelian, for

G is soluble if there exists a chain of subG, {1} = Ns < Ns1 < < N1 < N0 = G such that Ni /Ni+1
(The proof of this statement uses commutator subgroups.)

0 i < s.

Proposition 15.3.
of (ii) If

(i) If

G is soluble, then so is any subgroup and any quotient group

are soluble, then so is

G. N G

and

N, G/N

G.

Proof.

(i) Let

K<G

be a subgroup. Suppose we have subgroups

denition of a soluble group. Consider is the kernel of the map is cyclic. Let

Hi G as in the {K Hi }. Then K Hi+1 K Hi since it K Hi Hi /Hi+1 , so (K Hi )/(K Hi+1 ) < Hi /Hi+1

G;

then consider the subgroups

= G = G/N > (Hi N )/N = Hi Hi /(N Hi ),

so

Hi /Hi+1 (Hi N )/(Hi+1 N ) Hi /(Hi Hi+1 N ) = = Hi /Hi+1 , hence N, G/N are soluble,
is cyclic and (i) follows.

is a quotient of (ii) Suppose

{1} = Hr Hr1 H0 = N, {1} = Ks Ks1 K0 = G = G/N Ki = Ki /N for some subgroup Ki < G containing N and Ki+1 Ki , K0 = G, Ks = N , Ki /Ki+1 Ki /Ki+1 . Therefore, we have the chain of subgroups =
So

{1} = Hr
showing that

Hr1 H0 = N = Ks Ks1 K0 = G

is soluble.

Example.
(ii) (iii) (iv)

(i) Any nite abelian group is soluble.

S3 is soluble, {1} A3 S3 . S4 is soluble. {1} (12)(34) V4 = (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23) A4 S4 where A4 /V4 Z/3Z. = Sn or An are not soluble if n 5. In fact, A5 has no non-trivial normal subgroup, A5 is simple so cannot be soluble, hence by (i) neither are Sn , An for n 5.
Let

Theorem 15.4.
radicals over

be a eld with

if and only if If

char K = 0 and f K[X]. Gal(f /K) is a soluble group.

and

Then

is soluble by

Corollary 15.5. Lemma 15.6.

deg f 5

Gal(f /K) = A5

then

is not soluble by radicals.

For the proof of Theorem 15.4 we need the following lemma.

M/K a Galois closure of L/K . Then M/K is also an extension by radicals. (If L = K(x), then M is the splitting eld of the minimal polynomial of x over K , containing L.)
Let be an extension by radicals, and

L/K

Proof. L = Kr Kr1 K0 = K
i = 1, . . . , r. Let G = Gal(M/K). Let Mi = Mi1 ({(xi ) : G}). Then

where

us dene

Ki = Ki1 (xi ), xm Ki1 for all i M0 = K , and inductively for 1 i r,

Lecture 23

58

Solving Equations by Radicals

Mi Ki , clear. Mi /K is Galois, clear. Mi /Mi1 is an extension by radicals: (xi )m = (xm ) (Ki1 ) Mi1 as i Mi1 /K is Galois (hence normal since char K = 0), so Mi /Mi1 is an extension
by radicals.

Therefore,

M/K

is an extension by radicals. Assume is soluble. Let

Proof (of Theorem 15.4).

f
over Suppose rst that

Gal(f /K) K , G = Gal(L/K), m = |G|.

be the splitting eld for

K contains a primitive mth root of unity. Then we have {1} = Hr Hr1 H0 = G with Hi /Hi+1 cyclic of order dividing m. Let Ki = LHi . Then by the Fundamental Theory of Galois Theory, L = Kr Kr1 K0 = K and each Ki+1 /Ki is Galois with Galois group Hi /Hi+1 . So by Theorem 13.6, Ki+1 = Ki (xi ) m where xi+1 Ki (as m K ). So L/K is an extension by radicals. K = K(m ) where m is a primitive mth root of unity, i.e. K is the m 1, m = |Gal(L/K)|. Then the Galois group Gal(f /K ) is a splitting eld for X subgroup of Gal(f /K), so by the above, L = L(m ) is an extension by radicals of K . But K /K is an extension by radicals, hence L /K is an extension by radicals in which f splits.
In general, let Now assume

is soluble by radicals over

K.

Then by denition of solubility by radicals is a quotient of

and by Lemma 15.6, there exists a nite Galois extension radicals and in which

splits, so

Gal(f /K)

L/K which is an extension by Gal(L/K).

So it is sucient to prove

Gal(L/K)

is soluble. Say

L = Kr K1 K0 = K, Ki = Ki1 (xi ), xm Ki1 . i

Suppose so if

m K . Then by Theorem 13.6, Ki /Ki1 is Galois with Hi = Gal(L/Ki ), then {Hi } gives solubility of Gal(L/K).
nn nnn nnn nn L Ki = Ki (m )

cyclic Galois group,

In general, we have

L = L(m )

K0 = K(m ) = K K m is a primitive mth root of unity. Gal(L /K ) is soluble by the previous argument, as Ki /Ki1 has a cyclic Galois group, Gal(K /K) is abelian, so soluble, then by Proposition 15.3 (ii), Gal(L /K) is soluble, so by Proposition 15.3 (i), Gal(L/K) is soluble.

Degree 4
Consider an irreducible quartic radicals.

f K[X],

where

char K = 2, 3.

We can solve

by

Lecture 24

59
Let

L be f (X) = S4

the splitting eld of

over

4 i=1 (X

K , G = Gal(L/K) = Gal(f /K) S4 .

Write

xi ), xi L.

a = {12}{(34}, b = {13}{24}, c = {14}{23} of {1, 2, 3, 4} into two subsets of size 2. These are permuted by S4 , e.g. (12) (b, c), giving a homomorphism : S4 S3 , which is surjective, e.g. since it contains all 2cycles, and its kernel is V4 = {, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)} Z/2Z Z/2Z. Therefore, = S4 /V4 S3 . = L
is soluble. Consider the three partitions

LGV4 = F K
By the Fundamental Theorem of Galois Theory,

L/F is Galois, Gal(L/F ) = V G V ; F/K is Galois, Gal(F/K) = G/(G V ) (G) S3 . =

We can write ways.

F/K

explicitly as the splitting eld of a certain cubic, in fact in various

Example.
stituting

f (X) = X 4 + aX 2 + bX + c, after removing the X 3 X X + a. Then x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0. Let yij = xi + xj , i.e.

Suppose

term by sub-

y12 = x1 + x2 = (x3 + x4 ) = y34 y23 = y14 y13 = y24

2 2 2 G permutes the six quantities yij , so permutes {y12 , y13 , y23 }. 2 2 y13 )(T y23 ), then g LG [T ] = K[T ].
What is the Galois group So if

2 g(T ) = (T y12 )(T

G V . Then as xes the partitions 2 2 {12}{34} etc., (yij ) = = yij , i.e. yij F . Conversely, it is easy to see 2 , y 2 , y 2 are distinct, if G xes each y 2 then it xes the partitions, i.e. that since y12 23 13 ij 2 2 2 G V , i.e. F = K(y12 , y23 , y13 ). G?
Suppose

2 yij , so (yij )

2 2 y12 y13 = (x1 + x2 )(x3 + x4 ) + (x1 + x3 )(x2 + x4 )

= x1 x2 + x3 x4 x1 x3 x2 x4 = (x1 x4 )(x2 x3 ) = 0
and similarly for all other pairs.

g(T ) = T 3 + 2aT 2 + (a2 4c)T b2 , and y12 y13 y23 = b. So 2 2 2 2 F = K(y12 , y13 ). Now x1 = 1 (y12 + y13 y23 ) etc., so L = K(y12 , y13 ), y12 , y13 F and 2 we can explicitly solve f (after rst solving g ) by radicals.
A simple calculation gives Here is an alternative way. (This works for any quartic, without the assumption that the coecient of

X3

is zero.) Consider instead

z12 = x1 x2 + x3 x4 z13 = x1 x3 + x2 x4 z23 = x2 x3 + x1 x4

Lecture 24

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as the three quantities permuted by

Solving Equations by Radicals

G.

z12 z13 = x1 x2 x1 x3 + x3 x4 x2 x4 = (x1 x4 )(x2 x3 ) = 0

The same argument shows

F = K(z12 , z13 , z23 )

K,

call it

h. (g, h

are called

resolvent cubics.)
xi

and

{zij }

are the roots of a cubic over

The advantage of using However, given Consider

is that we do not require the coecient of are not quite as simple.

X3

to be zero.

zij ,

the formulae for

L LGV4 = F K
where if

F is the splitting eld of g (or h). From this, it follows that G V4 F = K if and only if the resolvent cubic splits into linear factors over K . 4 | |G|
by the Orbit-Stabiliser Theorem, so

if and only

Suppose the resolvent cubic is irreducible. Then transitive,

3 | |Gal(f /K)|, so 3 | |G|; as G S4 12 | |G|, so G is A4 or S4 .

is

If the resolvent cubic has one root in

is a subset of a conjugate of the dihedral group

K , [F : K] = 2, so |G| = 2|G V |, so |G| | 8, i.e. G D4 of order 8 (2-Sylow subgroup of S4 ).

Computing a Galois Group

Given a monic polynomial

f (X) Z[X], An

say, how do we nd or

Gal(f /Q)?

If you expect the Galois group to be

Sn ,

where

n = deg f , An
or

compute compute

Disc(f ) to see whether it is a square; f mod p for lots of primes p to try to

force the Galois group to be

Sn .
For example, if

deg f = l prime and there exists p such that f mod p is irreducible, then Gal(f /Q) contains an l-cycle. If it also contains a transposition, then Gal(f /Q) = Sl .

Algorithms
Let

f (X) = n (X xi ) Q[X], G Sn . i=1 Q[X1 , . . . , Xn ]H .

To illustrate this, take

Consider

H Sn ,

and

P (X1 , . . . , Xn )
,

H = An , P = ,

and if

n = 4 then H = D4 = (1234), (12)(34)

P = X1 X3 + X2 X4 .
Then form

g(Y ) =
Sn /H

(Y P (x1 , . . . , xn )) (Y P (x1 , . . . , xn )) |H|

Sn
1

Lecture 24

61
where in the rst line we consider the coset representations of Then

in

G.

P Q[Y ]

 in the example above, we have

respectively  and

has a simple root in

if

Y 2 Disc(f ) or the resolvent cubic h and only if G H (up to conjugacy).

List all transitive

H Sn ; P; xi C
approximately);

nd some invariant polynomials compute the resolvents nd if

(numerically: nd

has a rational root.

Lecture 24