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SORPTION AND ION EX CHANGE M ETHODS These physical methods may be based on the different electric charge of the heavy metal ions and the functional reversible exchangeable groups of the sorbents. In the case of ion exchange, mineral ions can react with these groups and form stable compounds. These compounds are then subjected to eluation of metals by suitable reagents. In this way the functional groups of sorbents are liberated and can adsorb new portions of heavy metal ions. These processes are used in the ion exchange systems. Ion exchange resins are the most common ion exchange materials. They are classified according to their functionality and the physical properties of their support matrix. Considering their ability to exchange positively or negatively charged species they are classified as cation and anion exchange resins and according to the pH range where they are effective, they are classified as strongly acidic and strongly basic, weakly acidic and weakly basic. The strongly acidic and strongly basic ion resins are effective at almost all pH values. The weakly acidic ion resins are typically effective in the range of pH 5 14, and weakly basic ion resins are effective in the range of pH 0 9. The most common resin support matrices are styrene-divinilbenzene (DVB), acrylDVB, and polyacryl-amide-DVB. Solvent extraction, i.e. liquid ion exchange, involves extracting the metal by contacting the solution with an organic reagent that will react with the metal ion and result in its conversion to a dissolved form in the solvent (Mack et al., 2004). High initial metal concentrations are needed for the optimal operation of this method (Kentish and Stevens, 2001). However, the environmental standards for permissible metal levels in discharged water cannot be met with this method alone. It is preferable to utilize it in combination with other treatment systems such as membranes (Kentish and Stevens, 2001). Currently, solvent extraction of metals is widely employed for selective recovery from pregnant solutions after leaching of various metal-bearing solid sources (mineral raw materials, industrial wastes, etc.) or from pretreated natural waters and industrial wastewaters. The pretreatment is usually carried out by means of atmospheric evaporation of the water and, occasionally, by means of vacuum evaporation at lower temperatures or by means of membrane processes. In any case, the pretreatment increases the concentration of the dissolved metals. The application of ion-exchange resins in conjunction with solvent extraction can be very effective but is quite expensive and requires elaborate equipment and large energy input. Treatment of acid mine water by use of heavy metal precipitation and ion exchange Acid mine water from a South African gold mine was characterised and treated by the precipitation of heavy metals with lime and sulphides, followed by ion exchange. The novelty of the proposed process lies in the use of carrier magnetic materials for more effective separation of water and solids, as well as the oxidation pretreatment that is also used to sterilize the water. The process can generate very pure water from acid mine water with a great flexibility and an acceptable cost. The oxidation and precipitation of heavy metals with lime and subsequent sulphide-carrier magnetic separation appeared to be particularly suitable for the removal of heavy metal ions from the effluent of the particular gold mine that was investigated. The cation exchange resin IR120 can be used to reduce the salinity of the effluent of mine water after removal of heavy metals by precipitation. Low cost sulphuric acid can be used as the cation resin regenerator. The anion exchange resin A375 could reduce the anions (sulphate, chloride, bromide and fluoride) to acceptably low levels in the mine water after precipitation of heavy metals. A combination of sodium hydroxide and saturated lime solution can be used as the anion resin regenerator. A mixture of acidic gypsum from the cation elution section and alkaline gypsum from the anion elution section could generate high quality gypsum as byproduct, which could be sold as a valuable raw material to the gypsum
D.3.1 Review of the techniques for prevention and abatement of pollution generated by mining wastes 1

Safe Management of Mining Waste and Waste Facilities

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industry, to offset process cost. Although these experiments were conducted on the acid mine water of a specific mine, the process could be extended to other mine waters contaminated with heavy metals and high salinities. (Feng et. al., 2000) Various inorganic and organic materials can efficiently remove metals from waters by means of the different sorption mechanisms. Clay minerals, natural and modified zeolites, iron hydroxides, activated carbon, living and dead plant and microbial biomass are among the most efficient sorbents towards the heavy metal ions. Despite the high adsorption capacities of some of these materials, in some cases they are not able to reduce the heavy metal concentrations below the relevant permissible levels established in environmental legislation (Bayhan, 2001). Furthermore, the application of some sorbents such as activated carbon is limited due to their relatively high costs. For that reason, most of the recent efforts have been focused on using cheap adsorbents based on natural wastes as well as to improve existing adsorbents like granular activated carbon and natural zeolites by different chemical modifications. At the same time, a great attention is still paid to the application of natural zeolites which is regarded by some authors as the remediation technology for the 21st century (Stead et al., 2000). Natural zeolites are a natural plentiful resource, and are inexpensive to mine, since the majority of deposits are found close to the earths surface. Another advantage of the natural zeolites is the possibility for their regeneration. Once exhausted, regeneration not only allows for the continual use of the zeolites but produces a waste which is smaller in volume, easier to handle and in some cases the pollutants may be retrievable. The future potential of using these materials has not been fully appreciated, and there is an urgent need to undertake field trials and evaluate the in-situ efficiency for the remediation purpose (Stead et al., 2000). Removal of heavy metals from acid mine drainage (AMD) using coal fly ash, natural clinker and synthetic zeolites A study carried out by Rios et. al. aimed at evaluating the use of low-cost sorbents like coal fly ash, natural clinker and synthetic zeolites to clean-up AMD generated at the Parys Mountain copperleadzinc deposit, Anglesey (North Wales), and to remove heavy metals and ammonium from AMD. pH played a very important role in the sorption/removal of the contaminants and a higher adsorbent ratio in the treatment of AMD promoted the increase of the pH, particularly using natural clinker-based faujasite (7.709.43) and the reduction of metal concentration. Na-phillipsite showed a lower efficiency as compared to that of faujasite. Selectivity of faujasite for metal removal was, in decreasing order, Fe > As > Pb > Zn > Cu > Ni > Cr. Based on these results, the use of these materials has the potential to provide improved methods for the treatment of AMD. (Rios et. al. 2007) Removal and recovery of metal ions from acid mine drainage using ligniteA low cost sorbent A study was carried out to remove and recover metal ions from acid mine drainage (AMD) by using lignite, a low cost sorbent. Lignite has been characterized and used for the AMD treatment. Sorption of ferrous, ferric, manganese, zinc and calcium in multi-component aqueous systems was investigated. Studies were performed at different pH to find optimum pH. To simulate industrial conditions for acid mine wastewater treatment, all the studies were performed using single and multi-columns setup in down flow mode. The empty bed contact time (EBCT) model was used for minimizing the sorbent usage. Recovery of the metal ions as well as regeneration of sorbent was achieved successfully using 0.1 M nitric acid without dismantling the columns. (Mohan and Chander 2006)
D.3.1 Review of the techniques for prevention and abatement of pollution generated by mining wastes 2