Microstructure and Hardness of Large Diameter Wire Ropes

George F. Vander Voort and Gabriel M. Lucas

Buehler Ltd Lake Bluff, Illinois USA

Wire Rope Golden Gate Suspension Bridge

Support Cables for Main Deck

A Section From a Main Cable

Suspension Bridge in Dubrovnik, Croatia

Bridge from Rosario to Victoria (Argentina)

One of about 12 spans

Radio Telescope, Arecibo, Puerto Rico

8 Large Diameter Ropes Moor the Ocean America to the Sea Floor Gulf of Mexico

Wire Rope Recovered from Ocean America

Ocean America Wire Ropes Broken During Hurricane Ivan

Another View of Broken Ropes

Sections from 11 Used Wire Mooring Ropes

Rope 1 (Right Regular Lay)

Rope 1 Taken Apart to show 6 Outer Strands and 1 IWRC

IWRC

Identification Tape

6 Strands and the IWRC of a 6 x 47 Rope

IWRC

Broken End of an Outer Strand

3.5 Diam. Galvanized 6 x 47 Rope

IWRC
Outer Strand
(47 wires)
(7 x 19 wires)

Bridon Intl. (UK) Winch 2, Ocean America

3.5 Diam. Galvanized 6 x 47 Rope

IWRC Outer Strand

Bridon Intl. (UK) Rope Winch 7, Ocean America

Cross Section of the IWRC for a Bridon Intl. 6 x 47 Wire Rope

3.5 Diam. Galvanized 6 x 47 Rope

IWRC Outer Strand

Unknown Manufacturer, Found on Sea Floor, Gulf of Mexico

Outer Strand Rope 1 (6 x 55 Rope)

Outer Strand Rope 3 (6 x 55 Rope)

Ocean America, Winch 2, Outer Strand

Transverse Plane, Galvanized Surface and Knoop Traverse

Ocean America, Winch 2, Outer Strand

Transverse Plane, Zinc Coating

Ocean America, Winch 7, Outer Strand

Galvanized Coating, 500x, 4% Picral

20 m

20 m

20 m

1070 CS, 900 F, 482 C

1072 CS, 900 F, 482 C

1072 CS, 950 F, 510 C

0.67 m

1 m 1 m

1080 CS, 900 F, 482 C

1070 CS, 900 F, 482 C Cold Drawn

Light micrographs (4% picral) and TEM replicas of patented carbon steel wire. Wire was 0.161 (4.1 mm) diam., except for cold drawn wire (0.08, 2 mm diam.)

Ocean America, Winch 7, Outer Strand

500x 4% Picral Longitudinal Plane

Ocean America, Winch 7, IWRC

500x, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Ocean America, Winch 7, IWRC

Pearlite, 500x, Klemms I, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor Rope Outer Strand

Zn Coating, 4% Picral, 500x, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor Rope Outer Strand

Zn Coating, 500x, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor Rope, Outer Strand

No Zn Coating, 200X, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor Rope, Outer Strand

Pearlite, 500x, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor, IWRC

Zn Coating, 200x, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor Wire, IWRC

No Zn Coating, 200x, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor, IWRC

Pearlite, 500x, 4% Picral, Longitudinal Plane

Sea Floor Rope, IWRC

Pearlite, 500x, Klemms I, Longitudinal Plane

Knoop Hardness Traverse

Outer Strand, OA Winch 7 vs Unknown Rope
OA-7 Outer Strand LD 0.1659" Vs. SF Outer Strand LD 0.1669"
560 540 520 500 480 460 440 420 400 380 360 340 320 300 0 10 20

Knoop Hardness Values 500 gf

OA -7- LD 0.1659 SF LD 0.1669

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Thousandths of an Inch, mils

Wires are same approximate diameter, 0.1659 vs 0.1669 diameter

Knoop Hardness Traverse

IWRC of OA Winch 2 vs IWRC of Unknown Rope
OA-2 IWRC TD 0.1786" Vs. SF IWRC TD 0.1773
Knoop Hardness Values 500 gf

600 580 560 540 520 500 480 460 440 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Thousandths of an Inch, mils OA-2 IWRC TD 0.1786 SF IWRC TD 0.1773

Wires are the same approximate size, 0.1786 and 0.1773 in diameter

Knoop Hardness Traverse

Outer Strand of OA Winch 2 vs Unknown Rope
OA-2 Outer Strand TD 0.1148" Vs. SF Outer Strand TD 0.1148"
Knoop Hardness Values 500gf
620 600 580 560 540 520 500 0 10 20 30 40 50 Thousandths of an Inch, mils OA-2 Strand T D 0.1148 SF Strand T D 0.1148

Wires are the same diameter, 0.1148

Knoop Hardness Traverse

IWRC of OA Winch 7 vs Unknown Rope
OA-7 IWRC LD 0.1143" Vs. SF IWRC LD 0.1143"
580

Knoop Hardness Values 500 gf

560 540 520 500 480 460 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Thousandths of an Inch, mils OA-7 IWRC LD1143 SF IWRC LD1143

Wires are the same diameter, 0.1143

Knoop Hardness Traverse

IWRC of OA Winch 2 vs. Unknown Rope
OA-2 IWRC T D 0.0727 Vs. SF IWRC T D 0.0732
Knopp Hardness Values 500 gf
620 600 580 560 540 520 500 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Thousandths of an Inch, mils OA-2 IWRC T D 0.0727 SF IWRC T D 0.0732

Wires are same approximate size, 0.0727 vs. 0.0732 diameter

Knoop Hardness Traverse

Kiswire IWRC, Various Sizes
KIS IWRC L D 0.084", 0.116", 0.152", 0.180"
Knoop Hardness Values 500 gf
580 560 540 520 500 480 460 440 420 400 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Thousandth of Inches

KIS KIS KIS KIS

IWRC L D 0.084" IWRC L D 0.116" IWRC L D 0.152" IWRC L D 0.180"

Knoop Hardness Traverses

Kiswire Outer Strands
KIS Outer L D 0.063", D 0.072", D 0.111", D 0.129", D 0.145"
KIS Outer L D 0.063" KIS Outer L D 0.072" KIS Outer L D 0.111" KIS Outer L D 0.129" KIS Outer L D 0.145"

Knoop Hardness Values 500 gf

580 560 540 520 500 480 460 440 420 400 0 20 40 Thousandth of Inches

60

80

Pearlite in Wire from Ocean America, Winch 7 (Bridon UK)

Pearlite in Wire from Sea Floor

1848 Delaware Aqueduct (Roebling Aqueduct)

Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania and Minisink Ford, New York, USA

Originally constructed to carry the Delaware and Hudson Canal. Converted to a one-lane vehicular bridge soon after the canal closed in 1898. Substantially restored in 1980's and 1990's, but retains original cables (2150 wires in 7 strands, surrounded by wrapping wires; 8.5-inch diameter). The oldest surviving suspension bridge in the USA.

The Restored Bridge with Ice Breakers

Photo by David Denenberg

Photo by Patrick S. ODonnell

Originally an aqueduct for canal boats, since converted for vehicular and foot traffic (one-lane, with walkway)

National Park Service

After the National Park Restoration

1923 Photograph of the bridge surface

Microstructure of Main Cable Wires

50 m 50 m

Transverse Plane

2% Nital

Longitudinal Plane

Microstructure of Wrapping Wires

50 m 50 m

Transverse Plane

2% Nital

Longitudinal Plane

1976 Tests of Wire from the Lackawaxen Bridge

Tensile Tests
Wire Diam. (inch) 0.139 0.0804 UTS (psi) 93,500 76,818 Breaking Strength, lbs. 1410 390 Elongation (% in 10) 7.0 Reduction of Area, % 53.1 40.1

Main Cable Wrapping Wire

The 2150 wires in the 8.5 diameter cable were required to have a UTS of 90,000 minimum psi

Chemical Analysis, Weight Percent

Wire Main Cable Wrapping Wire C 0.09 0.23 Mn <0.01 <0.01 P 0.26 0.09 S 0.014 0.021 Si 0.03 0.026 Ni 0.05 0.02 Cr <0.01 0.01 Mo 0.001 <0.01 Al 0.007 0.013 Mg Ca 0.001 0.005 0.031 0.10

IWRC Rope 2 (6 x 47 Rope)

Outer Strand Rope 2 (6 x 47 Rope)

Outer Strand Sea Floor Rope (6 x 47)

IWRC Deep Down (6 x 47 Rope)