Strength of Material and Engineering Material

Subject No.1 : Simple Stress and Strain

Analyzing and designing various machines and load bearing structures are the are the main objectives of the study of strength and mechanics of materials. Stress : A normal stress symbolized by the Greek letter "Sigma" is the internal resistance offered by a unit area of the material from which a member is subjected to an axial and externally applied load. The normal stress is the ratio of applied load (Force) to the cross sectional area resisting the force as in the following equation

Where :

F: Force in Newton (N) A: Area in m2 : Normal stress in N/m2 or called Pascal or in lb/in2 or called psi

or in kg/mm2 Consider the following free body diagram of a two-force member

Cross sectional area

A

F F
L Fig (1) As shown in Fig.(1) , the stress acts in a direction Perpendicular to the surface, it is referred to as a Normal Stress. Thus, normal stress may be either Tensile or Compressive. L Force perpendicular to area

Tensile stresses are positive (+)

lengthen an object shorten an object

Compressive Stresses are negative (-)

Directed Stress :- It is stress that varies with direction, there is a force in one direction but no counteracting forces perpendicular to it for example stress under a stone slab.

Strain
It is the deformation divided the original length of the bar, strain calculated using the following equation :

: Strain , dimensionless. Strain sometimes called longitudinal or linear strain, in which changes the length of a line without changing its direction, the strain can be either Compressional or Tensional. Compression Strain :- it shortens the object (-ve) Tension Strain :- it lengthens the object (+ve)

Classification of Materials :
Materials may be classified in to :1) Elastic Material :- It is material which undergoes a deformation when subjected to an external loading . this deformation disappears when loading removed (Rubber). 2) Plastic Material :- It undergoes a continuous deformation during the period of loading and the deformation is permanent and the material does not regain its original dimensions when removal of loading (Aluminum). 3) Rigid Material :- it does not undergo any deformation when subjected to an external loading (Glass and Cast Iron)

Loads :-There are many load effect the materials :1- Dead Loads :- Static in nature such as the self weight of the roof.

2- Live Loads :- It does not remain constant such as the weight of vehicle moving on a bridge. 3- Tensile Loads . 4- Compressive Loads. 5- Shearing Loads.

Load
Tensile

Stress
Tensile

Strain
Tensile

Compressive

Compressive

Compressive

Shearing

Shear Table (1)

Shear

Stress Strain Curve and Hookes Law :

Stress-Strain Curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between stress, derived from measuring the load applied on the sample and Strain, derived from measuring the deformation of the sample (deformation may be elongation, compression, or distortion) as shown in Fig(2).

Plastic Elastic
Upper yield pt.

6 4

Ultimate stress

Stress

Elastic limit

Breaking stress

5 2

Lower yield pt.

Strain
Fig.(2) Stress Strain Curve

Measurements of the change in length of the bar recorded throughout the loading operation by means of meters, and graph of stress against strain is produced as shown :1- The portion 12, the material behaves elastically and stress is proportional to strain, giving the straight line, material in this case obeys Hook's Law. Hook's Law is the statement of that proportionality as shown : E : Constant called elasticity modulus, Young's modulus, or tensile modulus and refer to materials stiffness. Unit of E is N/m2(GN/m2) or in terms of 106 psi or 103 kg/mm2 2- After 2 the linear nature of the graph disappears and this point is termed the proportional limit which it defined: the greatest stress at which a material is capable of sustaining the applied load without deviating from the proportionality of stress to strain. Expressed in psi . 3- Point 3 elastic limit, it is a point at which deformation are completely recovered when load is removed (i.e. Strain returns to zero), but Hook's Law does not apply . 4- After pt.3 plastic deformation occurs and strains are not totally recoverable, and relatively rapid increase in stain occur without correspondingly high increases in load or stress. 5- The stress beyond elastic limit increases and reach a point at which the material starts yielding, this stress called Yield Stress. 6- Pt. 4 is Upper yield Stress and pt.5 is the Lower yield Stress. 7- The region between pt.5 and pt.6 the material is said to be in the elastic plastic state. It is important to refer that beyond yield point some increase in load is required to take the strain to pt.6 which called ultimate stress (or strength or tensile). 8- Beyond pt.6 the cross sectional area of the bar begins to reduce rapidly over a relatively small length of the bar and the bar is said neck. This necking takes place whilst the load reduces, and fracture of the bar finally occurs at pt.7 which termed Breaking Stress. Ultimate Stress :- It is maximum load which can be placed prior to the breaking of the specimen. Value of Ultimate Stress =

Subject No.2 : Thermal Stress and Strain

Thermal stress (or shock) can lead to excessive thermal gradients on materials, which lead to excessive stresses, these stress can be Tensile stress and Compressive stress. Thermal Stress is caused by nonuniform heating or cooling of a uniform material, or uniform heating of nonuniform materials. The thermal expansion Coefficient (( relates the fractional change in length per degree T.

, called thermal strain, to the change in temperature

Where :L : Length (in) : Change in length (in) : Linear thermal expansion coefficient (F-1)

T : Change in temperature (F)

Table2 lists the coefficient of linear thermal expansion for several commonly encountered materials. Material Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Aluminum Copper Lead (F-1) 5.8 x 10-6 9.6 x 10-6 13.3 x 10-6 9.3 x 10-6 16.3 x 10-6

Table (2)

Thermal Stress can be calculated using Hook's Law by equating values of from equations 5,6 and 7

Or Where : F/A = Thermal Stress (psi) E = Elasticity modulus (psi) = Linear thermal expansion coefficient (F-1) T = Temperature change (F)

Subject No.3 : Elastic Constants :

Elastic Constants are used to express the relationship between stresses and Strains. Hook's Law, is Stress / Strain = a Constant, within a certain limit. This mean that any Stress/Corresponding Strain = a Constant , within certain limit. There are many different constants, most of them arise as constants arise as constants of proportionality between stress and strain for various loading conditions. The constants referred to below are :Symbol E Name Young's modulus Poisson ratio Shear modulus Bulk modulus Lame's Constant Other names Elastic modulus, tension modulus Rigidity modulus, 2nd Lam' Constant Compression modulus

G or k

Definition of Elastic Constants :

The most important of elastic constants are : Young's Modulus (E) :- It is the ratio of direct stress to corresponding linear strain within elastic limit (eq.3)

Shear Modulus (G or ) :- It is the ratio of shear stress ( ) to shear strain ( ) within elastic limit, Bulk Modulus (k) :- It is the ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain within the elastic limit Poisson's Ratio ( ) :- It is the ratio of lateral to longitudinal Strain.

Application of Elastic Constants :

These constant used to completely the properties of most metallic alloys and thermo set polymers (which called isotropic material).

Relation ship between Elastic Constant :For isotropic material there are set of equations needed for describing elastic constants relationship . The two elastic constants are usually expressed as the Young's modulus (E), and the Poisson's ratio ( ). However the alternative elastic constants K(bulk modulus) and/or G(Shear modulus) can also be used. In general G and K can be found from E and by a set of equations, and vice-versa as shown :

Subject No.4 : Principals Stresses and Strains

One of our principal concerns in this section is material behavior (strength), strength models often ultimately related to stress.

Normal Stress :
As we mentioned, a normal stress results when a member is subjected to an axial load applied through the centroid of the cross section, and its magnitude determined by dividing the force by the cross sectional area (eq.1) . In general, we assume the normal stress distribution in an axially loaded member is uniform, except near the vicinity of the applied load know as "Saint Venant's" principle. Centric Load :- Is one in which the resultant force passes through the centroid of the resisting section. If the resultant passes through the centroid of all resisting sections, the loading is termed Axial .

Shear Stress (Simple or direct shear) :

Its symbol , results when a member is subjected to force that is parallel or tangent to the surface. It is calculated from the equation :-

See the following example :

Shear Stresses on section mn Shear Stresses distributions is not uniform across the cross section. It will be highest near the center of the section and become zero at the edge. Simple shear or direct shear arises in the design of bolts, pins, rivets, keys, welds and joints. Single Shear Joint Fig.(3) Double Shear Joint Fig.(4)

Punching Shear Fig.(5) To calculate the magnitude of punching shear use the eq. :

Bearing Stress :It symbolized by the Greek letter Sigma b , is a compressive normal stress that occurs on the surface of contact between two interacting members. The average normal stress in the member is obtained by dividing the magnitude of the bearing force F by the area of interest . Bearing stress is :

Bolts, Pins and rivets creat bearing stresses along the surface of contact.

Fig.(6) p.5 opt/222

Stress distribution under axial loading (Saint Venant's principle)

As previously mentioned, we generally assume the normal stress distribution in an axially loaded member is uniform, except near the Vicinity of the applied load.

Subject No.5 : Strain Energy and Impact Load :

A load is said to be impact if it has Kinetic Energy and strikes instantaneously on a body. But this body if is loaded instantaneously with the load having no Kinetic Energy, the load is said to be sudden. In the case of impact loads based primarily on Kinetic Energy eg. Horizontal impacts, the kinetic energy is converted into stored energy due to elasticity of the resisting element as shown in Fig.(12-A).

V A M

(A)

(B)

In the case of gravity loads (see Fig.(12-B), it is obvious that the weight would impact on to the support which would elastically deform until all of the potential energy has been absorbed. The impact sudden load condition may occur in tension, compression, torsion or bending or combination of these. Whenever impact is produced, the energy of striking load is instantaneously given to the body struck. The resulting stresses caused by impact loads or sudden loads are cyclic stresses, these cyclic stresses caused tension and compression continuously with time as shown in the Fig.(13), it obvious that when load are applied suddenly and when the loads applied as impact the resulting transient stresses (and deformation) induced in the element are much higher than if the load are applied gradually (static) as shown below.

M max Static

min Time

The cyclic stresses caused Fatigue Failure (defined as, the failure of a material under fluctuating stresses), for example : The fluctuated cyclic stresses in leaf springs for cars. It is normal practice to design machines such that impact loads are eliminated or reduced by using shock absorbers which can eliminate the increased stresses and deformations resulting from impact loads.

Impact Loading Speed Effect :

Ductile materials are materials to allow large extensions, a quantitative value of ductility is obtained by measurements of the percentage elongation or % reduction in area. Most ductile materials have strength properties which are function of the loading speed. The more rapid the loading the higher the tensile and ultimate strength of material. To measure impact energy, there are two standard tests," charpy and Izod" Impact energy also called the notch toughness which defined as energy per unit volume necessary to rupture the material, and it represent the area under the entire stress-strain curve from zero to rupture as shown in Fig.(14)

Fig. (14) Toughness

The following equation used to determine the initial maximum deformation (Strain) due to impact loads.

Case of Linear impact deflections and stresses (gravity loads) :

As shown in Fig (12-b) In this case all of the potential energy has been absorbed . The support would then contract initiating damped oscillations until the system assumes a stable static position. ( )

max = maximum deformation due to impact loads (m) stat = deflection or deformation due to static loads (m) h = drop distance (m) To calculate maximum stress :( )

For calculation stress due to suddenly applied load with h = 0

Kinetic Impact Load Case :See Fig(12-A) V : Velocity g : acceleration Equivalent maximum stress :

Subject No.6 : Shear Force and Bending moment of Beams : Beams : Defined as a member whose length is relatively large in comparison with its thickness and depth, and which is loaded with transverse loads that produce significant bending effects as oppose to twisting or axial effects as shown in Fig(15)
- Beams can be Straight as in Fig(16) (member bde) Curved as in Fig(16) (member abc) - Beams are generally classified according to their geometry and the manner in which they are supported . - Geometrical classification includes such features as the shape of the cross section, whether the beam is : Straight or Curved Or whether the beam is tapered or Has a constant Cross - Section

- Beams can also be classified according to the manner in which they are supported as shown in Fig.(17)

(a) Cantilever

(b) Simply supported

(c) Overhanging

(d) Continuous

(e) Fixed ended

(f) Cantilever, Simply supported

Fig. (17)

Shearing Force (SF) :- It is internal forces at any section of beam acting

perpendicular to its longitudinal (x)axis due to transverse loading (Concentrated or distributed transverse load) which represent the tendency for the portion of the beam on one side of the section to slide or shear laterally relative to the other portion because of produce bending moment at this section, Fig.(18a,b).
P C L

A (a) P x C M A (b) P'

Fig.(18)

Fig.(18) Show the shear force and bending moment at section (c) Shear Force different from axial force in which it is internal forces produces due to Eccentric loading (or Axial loading), these forces acting parallel to longitudinal x axis as shown in Fig.(19)

Fig.(19)

Definition of transverse loads : Concentrated transverse loads : Is one which can be considered to
act at point distributed over a small area as shown in Fig.(20)

Fig. (20)

Distributed Loads : Is one which is spread in some manner over the

length or a significant length of beam as shown in Fig.(21)

Fig. (21)

Shear Force and Bending moment for simply supported beam under uniform distributed loads. Here we assume that beam is simply supported under uniform loads as shown in Fig. below:
W

Fig. (18)

This Fig. show a drawing of a simply-supported beam of length L under a uniform load W. The above beam has the following support reactions :
A W B

Fig. (19)
RAX RAY RBY

RAY and RBY are the reaction at the left and right ends of the beam respectively and equal to : The shear forces at the ends of beam are equal to the vertical forces of the support reactions. i.e. The shear force F(x) at any other point (x) on the beam can be found by using the following equation :( )

Where : X is the distance from the left end of the beam Shear force diagram for this type of beam is simply plots of shear force (on the y-axis) Versus the position of various points along the beam (on the x-axis) . The following is the generalized force diagram for the beam shown above.
F(x)

+ve x -ve

Fig. (20) Shear Force Diagram

Bending Moment (B.M):

B.M at any point along the beam is equal to the area under the shear force diagram up to that point.

Calculation of B.M :
1- For this type of beam , B.M at the ends of beam = zero 2- To calculate the bending moment m(x) the beam must be broken into two sections :(a) One from x=0 to x=L/2, and (b) The other from x=L/2 to x=L m(x) at any point (x) along the beam can be found by using the following equations :-

Bending moment diagrams are simply plots of the bending moment (on the yaxis) Versus the position of various points along the beam (on the x-axis). Thus, the following is the generalized bending moment diagram for the beam shown above.
M(x)

End A L/2 End B

Fig. (21)

Shear force and Bending moment for simply supported beam under concentrated loads :
W1 W2
Section A

W3

RAY

RBY

Fig. (22) Simply supported beam under concentrated loads

Fig.(22), a diagram shows a beam carrying loads W1, W2, W3 it is simply supported at two points where the reactions are RAY, RBY. To determine shear force at any section (A-A for example), we assume that beam is in equilibrium, then the resultant of loads and reaction acting on the left and right of A-A must be in equilibrium also. To calculate the values of shear force and (B.M) for the above beam. Follow the following procedure :Step 1 : Draw the free body diagram for the beam Step 2 : Calculate support reactions (RAY, RBY) using the following equilibrium procedure : In x direction : In y direction Take sum of moment at the two ends of beam : i.e. Step 3 : Compute values of shear force at section A-A which represent the algebraic sum of the lateral components of the forces acting on either side of the section. Step 4 : Compute values of B.M at section A-A which defined as algebraic sum of the moments about the section of all forces acting on either side of section.

Note :- B.M are +ve when moment on the left portion is clock wise and on the right anti-clock wise. +ve B moment called sagging bending tends to make the beam concave upward at A-A. -ve B.M called hogging.

Subject No.7 : Bending Stresses in Beams :

When the beam loaded with transverse loads produce significant bending effects as oppose to twisting the beam. When bending a beam, one surface of the beam stretches in tension while the opposite surface compresses. It follows that there is a line or region of zero stress between the two surfaces, called neutral surface or axis. Make the following assumption in simple bending theory : 1234The beam is initially straight, unstressed, and symmetric. The material of beam is linearly elastic, homogenous and isotropic. The proportional limit is not exceeded. Young's modulus for the material is the same in tension and compression.

When beam is bending as shown below :

y C

Fig.(23)
M'

B B'

A' x

The member remains symmetric, but many observation below: The beam bends uniformly to form a circular arc. Length of top decreases and length of bottom increases. A neutral surface must exist that is parallel to the upper and lower surfaces for which the length does not change.

 Stresses and strains are negative (Compressive) above the neutral plane and positive (tension) below it . The following relationship used to calculate bending stress of beam :Bending Stress, Where : P : normal force L : beam length W : beam width T : beam thickness The maximum stress occurs at the surface of the beam farthest from the neutral surface (axis) is :

Where :- M : bending moment C : Distance from neutral axis to outer surface where max stress occurs I : moment of inertia Which called section modulus

Subject No.8 : Shearing Stresses in Beams :

Shear Stress : It is stress occur when the material subjected to a set of equal opposite forces.
I

Fig. (24)

I
x L/2

There is a tendency for layer of the material to slide over another to produce the form of failure. Shear Stress in Beam : It is internal shear stress caused by shear force applied to the beam.

X x

Fig. (25)

This Fig show a portion of beam subject to a moment and shear force. Shear stresses on one side of an element are accompanied by shear stresses of equal magnitude acting on perpendicular faces of an element Fig.(26b). Thus there will be horizontal shear stresses between horizontal layers of beam as well as transverse shear stresses on the vertical cross section Fig.(26-c)

Subject No.9 : Deflection of Beams :

12345Beam length Cross- sectional shape The material Where the deflecting force is applied How beam is supported

Case 1
Center load on beam with two simple supports
L

L/2 F

Where : L = beam length = deflection of beam F = Force I = moment of inertia of beam E = Young's modulus

Case 2
Intermediate load on beam with two simple supports

Here the deflection at distance a from the left hand support

Case 3
Twin loads on beam with two simple supports

a
F F

Case 4
Intermediate/ Center load on beam with one fixed and one simple support.

a
F

Case 5
Center load on beam with 2 fixed supports.

L/2

Subject No.10 : Torsion of Circular Shafts : Shaft : It is a structural member which is long and slender and subject to a
torque (moment) acting about it's long axis, used to transmit power in machines. In this subject we will consider circular Cross-Section Shafts are : - Drive shafts for gas turbine engines. - Propeller driven aircraft and helicopters .
F

F d

As shown in Figure above, consider a shaft rigidly clamped at one end and twisted at the other end by a torque applied in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the bar, such a shaft is said to be in torsion. Effects of Torsion : 1- To import an angular displacement of one end Cross Section with respect to the other end 2- To setup shear stress on any cross section of the bar perpendicular to its axis. How shear stresses generated ? Assume a shaft is in static equilibrium where T is the resultant external torque acting on the shaft as shown in Figure below m

 Let the shaft be imagined to be cut by some imaginary plane "mn", we get the following Figure.

tr

In this Fig. because the entire member or shaft is in equilibrium, therefore, each portion must be in equilibrium, thus the member is in equilibrium under the action of resultant external torque T and developed resisting torque Tr, as shown below

x T

This Fig. show that Tr is produced by virtue of shear forces acting on the plane perpendicular to the axis of the shaft . These shear forces developed by virtue of shear stresses . Shaft : It is machine elements which are used to transmit power in machines. Twisting Moment (T):- Algebraic sum of the moments of the applied couples that lie to the one side of the section under consideration. Shearing Strain () :- it is angle measured in radians, between the final and original positions after the twisting moment as shown in the following Figure:
b' a b

Modulus of Elasticity in shear (G):- It is ratio of shear stress to shear strain.

Angle of twist () : see the Fig. below

Relation Ship of Torsion :a

r T (Torque)

a arc/length = L = r

But

To determine T :

Torque Equation

J = Polar moment of inertia (m4)

T = External Torque applied (Nm) G = Shear modulus of material under bending N/m2 L = Length of shaft under torsion in (m) being twisted through an angle of (radians) = Shear stress level in shaft (N/m2) at radius (m) T in KNm = 103 Nm J in cm4 = (10-2)4 = 10-8 m4 GN/m2 = 109 N/m2 degrees = mN/m2 = 106 N/m2 mm or cm [10-3 or 10-2 m]

G in in in in

Subject No.11 : Deflection of cantilevers :

Cantilever Beams

L x F Where : F : Load or Force in L : Length of beam in lbs or N in or m

E : Elasticity of modulus in Psi or N/m2 I : Moment of inertia in in4 or m4 in in or m

: deflection

Where : Z : Section modulus = Z = I/C C : Distance from neutral axis to outer surface where max stress occurs I : Moment of inertia Stress at specific point =

Subject No.12 : Buckling of Struts :

Struts : are long, slender columns subject to compressive loads, the term slender mean that cross section area is not large compared to the to the length, so we call it Slender struts or Slender Column. Column : Short, thick member The struts are generally fail by Buckling well before the compressive yield strength in compression is reached, the buckling occurs because of one of the following reasons :1- The strut may not perfectly straight initially . 2- The load may not be applied exactly along the axis of strut. 3- One part of material may yield in compression more readily than others owing to some lack of uniformity in the material properties through out the strut. Column fail by crushing when the yield stress of the material in compression is exceeded.

Struts Long , slender Fail by buckling before yield stress in compression is reached

Columns Short, thick Fail by crushing when yield stress in compression is exceeded

Buckling : Is characterized by a sudden failure of structural member subjected to high compressive stress, where the actual compressive stress at the point of failure is less than the ultimate compressive stresses that the material is capable of with standing.

Eulers Theory : Slenderness Ratio : Defined as effective length of the column to the least radius of gyration of its cross section.

Where : : Slenderness ratio L : Effective length R : Least radius of gyration cross-section. This ratio is numerical value indicates whether the member falls into the class of columns or struts, also it is important for design consideration as shown: Short steel columns Intermediate length steel column Long steel column

Euler assume that : 1- The column is long and slender 2- Ideal column which mean that column is perfectly straight, homogeneous, and free from initial stress. Note :- Homogenous mean that engineering materials used within the elastic operating range. Axial Load : The load an column applied through the center of gravity of it's cross section. Eccentric Load : A load at any other point in the cross section.

Where : Fe : Maximum or critical force (Vertical load on column), N . or sometimes called Euler end force on strut. E : Elasticity Modulus, N/m2 I : Area moment of inertia, m4

B : Effective length, it's the length taken as that between sections of Zero bending moment, b = KL Where : L: Actual length of strut K : Effective length factor whose value depends on the conditions of end support of the column as shown below

Pinned Pinned K= 1

Fixed Fixed K= 0.5

Free Fixed K= 2

Pinned Fixed K= 0.7

The value of F resulting from Euler equation is called the Euler load or Force, and failure of long slender beams due to bucking results from this much earlier than due pure compression.

Flexural rigidity = EI I = area of cross-section R = radius of gyration

e = Euler Stress N/m2

L/r = Slenderness ratio Note : Euler's theory can not be used for slenderness ratios less than 120.

Subject No.13 : Riveted Joints

A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener A rivet is a cylindrical body called Shank with a head, the cylindrical part is a smooth shaft, the head part is on one end. The end opposite the head is called Buck tail. On installation the rivet inserted into a hole (punched or pre drilled) passing through two clamped plates to be attached, and the head is supported whilst a head is formed on the other end of the shank using a hammer or a special shaped tool as shown in the following Figure. To distinguish between the ends of the rivet, the original head is called factory head and the deformed end is called the shop head or buck tail. Uses : Rivets have been used in many large scale applications including : Shipbuilding Boilers Pressure Vessels Bridges Buildings

Note : Because there is effectively a head on each end of an installed rivet, it can support tension loads (Loads parallel to the axis of the shaft), however, it is much more capable of supporting shear loads (Loads perpendicular to the axis of the shaft).

Types of Rivets :
There are many types of rivets, designed to meet different cost, accessibility, and strength requirements : 1- Solid rivets : They are one of the oldest and most reliable of fasteners. They consist simply of a shaft and head which are deformed with a hammer or rivet gun. The use of a rivet compression or crimping tool can also be used to deform this type of rivet.
H L

A typical technical drawing of a solid rivet

A typical application for solid rivets can be found within the structural parts of aircraft. Hundreds of thousands of solid rivets are used to assemble the frame of a modern craft. Steel rivets can be found in static structures such as bridges, cranes, and building frames. 2- Semi tubular rivets : Also known as tubular rivets, they are similar to solid rivets, except they have partial role (opposite the head) at the tip. The purpose of this hole is to reduce the amount of force needed for application by rolling the tubular portion outward.

Semi tubular rivet

3- Blind rivets :
Also known as pop rivets, they are tubular and are supplied with mandrel through the center. 1- Riveted Lap Joint

2- Riveted Butt Joint

4V Now we studied two principle objective : Basic failure mechanisms of riveted joints. Concepts of design of a riveted joint.

Failure Mechanisms :
There are four possible ways a single rivet joint may fail : a) Tearing of the plate : If the force is too large, the plate may fail in tension along the row as shown
Failure path in tension

Failure of plate in tension (tearing)

The maximum force allowed in this case is : Where : St = allowable tensile stress of the plate material. P : Pitch two joint d : diameter of the rivet hole t : thickness of the plate b) Shearing of the rivet : The rivet may shear as shown

Failure of rivet by shearing

The maximum force withstood by the joint to prevent this failure is : ( ( ) )

c) Crushing of the rivet : If the bearing stress on the rivet is too large the contact surface between the rivet and the plate may get damaged, as shown :