I

G
C
S
E
R Sureshbabu MSc BEd
EXAM FRIEND
MATHEMATICS
CONTENTS
Sr: No: Topic Page
1 Natural numbers 1
2 Whole numbers 1
3 Rational numbers 1
4 Rational numbers 1
5 Irrational numbers 1
6 Standard form 1
7 Rounding numbers 2
8 Factor of a number 2
9 Multiple 2
10 Prime numbers 2
11 BODMAS principle for the order of operation 3
12 Laws of indices 3
13 Algebraic identities 3
14 Factorisation 4
15 Fractions 4
16 Quadratic Equation 4
17 Inequalities 5
18 Simple interest 5
19 Compound interest 5
20 Percentages 5
21 Unit conversion 6
22 Ratio and proportion 7
23 Speed , Distance ,Time 7
24 Revolution of a wheel 7
25 Co-ordinate Geometry 8
26 Graphs in real life 8
27 Trigonometry 9
28 Bearing 10
29 Angle properties 11
30 Types of angles 15
31 Pythagoras theorem 16
32 Similarity 16
33 Congruency 17
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Sr: No: Topic Page
34 Volume and surface area 17
35 Sets 19
36 Vectors 20
37 Matrices 22
38 Loci and constructions 23
39 Statistics 23
40 Probability 25
41 Transformations 25
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Natural numbers
Counting numbers 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , ............... are called natural numbers
Whole numbers
Natural numbers together with zero are called whole numbers that is 0 ,1 , 2, ......
Rational numbers
Numbers can be written in the form
p
q
, where q0
are called rational numbers
This types of numbers have either a terminating representation or non terminating and
recurring decimal representation example
7
12
, 6 ,

9
49
,
22
7
.......
Rational numbers
Numbers which cannot be represented in the form
p
q
, where q0
are called
irrational numbers
This types of numbers have a non terminating non recurring decimal representation. Square
root of all non square numbers are irrational and cube root of all non cube numbers are
irrational also is irrational .
Example :
2 ,

9
48
, ,
3
9 ,....................
Standard form
Write the number in the form a10
n
Where a is a whole number between 1 and 9 both
inclusive
Example : 123.1675 , The decimal place have to move two places left so the number can be
written as 1.23167510
2
,
0.00312 ,The decimal place have to move three places right so the number
can be written as
3.1210
3
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Rounding numbers
To round a number to n decimal place , count n digits to the right of the decimal point . If the
digit following the n
th
digit is 5 , then the n
th
digit is raised by one .
34568=34570 correct to nearest 10 because 34568 is in between 34560 and 34570 , but it
is nearer to 34570 than 34560.
34568=34600 correct to nearest 100 because 34568 is in between 34500 and 34600 , but it
is nearer to 34600 than 34500.
34568=35000 correct to nearest 1000
34.568=35 correct to nearest whole number
34.568=34.6 correct to one decimal place
34.568=34.57 correct to two decimal place
34.568=30 correct to one significant figure , First significant figure is the first non zero
number in it , after first significant figure all the numbers are significant including zero .
34.568=34.6 correct to three significant figure
Factor of a number
A number y is said to be a factor of number x if y divides x without leaving a remainder
Example : 1 , 2 , 4 , 8 are factors of 8.
Multiple
A number y is said to be a multiple of x , If y is in the multiplication table of x.
3 , 9 , 12 , 15 , . are multiples of 3
Prime numbers
Numbers which cannot be divisible by any number other than one and that number . Or the
number which have exactly two factors that is one and that number
Example : 2, 3 , 5 , 7 , 9......
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To check whether a number is prime or not , take the square root of that number and take the
whole number part of it , divide the number by 2 ,3.. till the whole number part , if you get all
answers as fractions or decimal then it is prime , otherwise not.
BODMAS principle for the order of operation
Brackets
Powers Of
Divide
Multiply
Add
Subtract
Laws of indices
a
m
a
n
=a
m+n
a
m
a
n
=a
mn
(ab)
n
=a
n
b
n
(
a
b
)
n
=
a
n
b
n
1
a
n
=a
n
a
n
=
1
a
n
a
0
=1 , a0
n
.a=a
1
n
(
.a)
2
=a
.a
2
=a ( a
m
)
n
=a
mn
Algebraic identities
a(b+c)=ab+ac
(a+b)(c+d)=a(c+d)+b(c+d)=ac+ad+bc+bd
a(b+c+d)=ab+ac+ad
a
2
b
2
=(a+b)(ab)
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Factorisation
To factorise a quadratic polynomial ax
2
+bx+c , find two numbers whose sum is b and
product is ac , The with this numbers split the middle term and take common factors out
and represent as a product of two factors .
Example :Factorise
2x
2
7x+5
, two numbers whose sum 7 and product 10 are
5 and 2 , with this numbers split the middle term . That is
2x
2
7x+5=2x
2
5x2x+5
=x(2x5)1(2x5)
=(2x5)( x1)
Fractions
To add two fractions we can use the method
a
b
+
c
d
=
ad+bc
bd
Or make the denominator same and add or subtract .
For adding / subtracting algebraic fractions , it is better to factorise the denominator and take
common out then easily we can simplify them .
Quadratic Equation
An equation of the form ax
2
+bx+c=0 where a0 is called quadratic equation
we can solve quadratic equation using factorisation method or quadratic formula
To solve
2x
2
7x+5=0
we will write

(2x5)( x1)=0
(2x5)=0or (x1)=0
2x=5or x=1
x=
5
2
or x=1
Quadratic formula for solving ax
2
+bx+c=0 where a0 is
x=
b!b
2
4 ac
2a
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Completing squares
To write x
2
+ax+b in the form (x+p)
2
+q use the following formula
x
2
+ax+b=
(
x+
a
2
)
2

(
a
2
)
2
+b
Inequalities
Inequalities we can consider like equation the only thing is whenever we multiply or divide by
a negative quantity , we should flip the inequality .
Simple interest
I =
PRT
100
Where I is the interest , P is the principal (money investing or taking) , R is the rate
of interest , T is the number of years .
Compound interest
A=p
(
1+
R
100
)
n
Where A is the amount ( principal + interest ) , p is the principal (money
investing or taking) , R is the rate of interest , n is the number of times compounding .
Percentages
Percentage means per hundred
to write x as a percentage of y do
x
y
100
percentage increase or decrease is
difference
original
100
x increased by y% will be
100+y
100
x
x decreased by y% will be
100y
100
x
Profit = selling price - cost price
Loss = Cost price selling price
profit percentage =
profit
cost price
100
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loss percentage =
loss
cost price
100
Unit conversion
Weight
Time
Volume
Length
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hours Second minute
-60 -60
60 60
m
3
cm
3
litre
-1000 -1000
1000 1000
Kg mg g tonne
-1000 -1000 -1000
1000 1000 1000
m mm cm
Km
-10
-100
-1000
10 100
1000
Ratio and proportion
Ratio is a comparison between two or more amounts , A ratio of $ 4 to $ 18 is written as 4:18
Ratio can also be written as fractions that is
4: 18=
4
18
=
2
9
this means that ratio 4: 18 is
same as 2: 9
To increase a in the ratio
3: 2
we can do
a
3
2
To decrease a in the ratio
2: 3
we can do
a
2
3
Direct variation : x varies with y ( when x increases y is also increasing ) can be written as
x y or x=ky
Inverse variation : x varies inversely with y ( when x increases y decreases ) can be written as

x
1
y
or
x=
k
y
Speed , Distance ,Time
speed=
distance
time
time=
distance
speed
distance=speedtime
avarage speed =
total distance travelled
total time taken
Revolution of a wheel
D = Distance travelled N = Number of revolution C = Circumference of the wheel
D=NC
N=
D
C
C=
D
N
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D
S
T
D
N
C
Co-ordinate Geometry
Distance between the two points
( x
1
, y
1
)
and
( x
2,
y
2
)
is
.
( x
2
x
1
)
2
+( y
2
y
1
)
2
.
Mid point of the line segment joining
( x
1
, y
1
)
and
( x
2,
y
2
)
is
(
x
1
+x
2
2
,
y
1
+y
2
2
)
.
Gradient of the line segment joining
( x
1
, y
1
)
and
( x
2,
y
2
)
is
m=
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
.
Equation of the line with gradient m and y intercept c is
y=mx+c
.
Linear equation in two variable always represents a straight line
ax+by+c=0
.
To find the y intercept of a line put
x=0
, and to find x intercept of a line put
y=0
.
Graphs in real life
Speed is the gradient of the distance time graph
speed=
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
Acceleration is the gradient of the speed time graph
Acceleration for the first
x
1
time is
y
1
0
x
1
0
Acceleration from
x
1
to
x
2
time is
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
Distance travelled is the area under speed time graph
Total distance travelled = area of the triangle + area of the
trapezium
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Time
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(x
1
, y
1
)
A
B
(x
2
, y
2
)
Time
S
p
e
e
d

x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
Time
S
p
e
e
d

x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
Velocity is the rate of change of distance with respect to time
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time .
Trigonometry
Basic ratios
sin 0=
opp:
hyp:
cos0=
adj :
hyp:
tan 0=
opp:
adj :
Area of a triangle
A=
1
2
absin C
A=
1
2
bcsin A
A=
1
2
acsin B
Area of a parallelogram

absin 0
The sine rule
a
sin A
=
b
sin B
=
c
sin C
sin A
a
=
sin B
b
=
sinC
c
The Cosine rule
a
2
=b
2
+c
2
2bccos A
b
2
=a
2
+c
2
2accos B
c
2
=a
2
+b
2
2abcosC
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adj:
opp:
hypo:
0
A
B
C
c
a
b
a
b
0
A
B
C
c
a
b
A
B
C
c
a
b
The Cosine rule for finding angles
cos A=
b
2
+c
2
a
2
2bc
cos B=
a
2
+c
2
b
2
2ac
cosC=
a
2
+b
2
c
2
2ab
Inverse
If sin 0=x
Then 0=sin
1
x
If cos0=x
Then 0=cos
1
x
If tan 0=x Then 0=tan
1
x
Identities
sin 0=sin(1800)
cos0=cos (3600)
tan 0=tan (180+0)
Bearing
A bearing is an angle measured clockwise from north .
It is given using three digits
Angle of elevation and angle of depression
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A
B
C
c
a
b
Bearing of B from A
A
B
Bearing of A from B
N
N
Observer
Object
Angle of
elevation
Observer
Object
Angle of
depression
Angle properties
Linear pairs
x+y=180
0
The angles on a straight line add up to 180
0

x+y+z=180
0
the angles at a point add up to 360
0
.
x+y+z+w=360
0
Sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180
0
x+y+z=180
0
Sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360
0
x+y+z+w=360
0
Sum of interior angles of a convex polygon with n sides is
(n2)180
a+b+c+d+e+ f +g=(72)180=900
For any polygon interior angle + the corresponding exterior angle = 180
0
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x
y
z
w
a
b c
d
e
f
g
x y
x
y z
x
y
z
w
x
y z
Regular polygon : A polygon with all sides are equal in length and all angles are equal in
measure is called regular polygon .
In a regular polygon with n sides , mesaure of exterior angle =
360
0
n
Sum of exterior angles of a convex polygon is always 360
0


a+b+c+d+e+ f +g=360
0

If any two angles of a triangle are equal then it is an isosceles triangle , angles opposite to equal
sides are equal in measure
If all the three angles of a triangle are equal then it is an equilateral triangle and all sides are
equal and each angle is 60
0

Vertically opposite angles are equal in measure
x=z and y=w
When two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal eight angles are formed , Then
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60
0
60
0
60
0
x x
x
y
z
w
1 2
3 4
5 6
7 8
Corresponding angles are equal in measure
Alternate interior angles are equal in measure
Co interior angles are are supplementary
The angle subtended at the centre of a circle is twice the angle subtended at the circumference
Angle subtended by an arc in the same segment of circle are equal
The perpendicular drawn from the centre will bisect the chord
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<1 = <5
<2 = <6
<3 = <7
<4 = <8

<4 = <6
<3 = <5

< 4 + < 5 =180
< 3 + < 6 =180
x
2x
x
2x
x 2x
x
x
x
x
Angle in a semi circle is right angle
Tangents from an external point to the circle are equal in length
AC=BC
Tangent to the circle is perpendicular to the radius at point of contact
Properties of tangents
Properties of tangents
The angle made by a chord with a tangent is same as the angle in the alternate segment
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A
B
C
O
A
B
C
O
x
x
y
y
A
B
C
O
x
x
x
x
x
x
Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary
x+y=180
0
w+z=180
0
Names of most common polygons
Number of sides Name
3 Triangle
4 Quadrilateral
5 Pentagon
6 Hexagon
7 Heptagon
8 Octagon
9 Nonagon
10 Decagon
11 Hen decagon
12 Do decagon
Types of angles
Acute angle : Angle less than 90
0

Right angle : Angle equal to 90
0
Obtuse angle : Angle more than 90
0
and less than 180
0
Reflex angle : Angle more than 180
0
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z
x
y
w
Pythagoras theorem

a
2
+b
2
=c
2
Similarity
If two shapes are similar then their corresponding angles are equal and the ratio of their
corresponding sides are equal If any two angles of a triangle are same as the corresponding two
angles of another triangle, then the two triangles are similar
Here A ABC ~A PQR Then
AB
PQ
=
BC
QR
=
AC
PR
Two solids are similar if they are the same shape and the ratio of their corresponding linear
dimensions are equal If shape X is similar to Shape Y then
Surface area of X
Surface area of Y
=
(Linear dimension of X)
2
(Linear dimension of Y)
2
Volume of X
Volume of Y
=
(Linear dimension of X)
3
(Linear dimension of Y)
3
If X ~ Y Then
Surface area of X
Surface area of Y
=
l
2
L
2
=
b
2
B
2
=
h
2
H
2
and
Volume of X
Volume of Y
=
l
3
L
3
=
b
3
B
3
=
h
3
H
3
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a
b
c
l
b
h
X
L
B
H
y
A
B C
x y
z
x y
z
P
Q R
Congruency
Two shapes are congruent means they are identical , the corresponding angles are equal and
corresponding sides are equal Also their surface areas are equal and Volumes are equal
If three sides of a triangle are of same measure as the corresponding three sides of another
triangle the they are congruent
If two sides and the included angle of a triangle are of the same measure of the corresponding
parts of another triangle then the triangles are congruent .
If two angle and the included side of a triangle are of the same measure of the corresponding
parts of another triangle then the triangles are congruent .
If one side and the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle are of the same measure of the
corresponding parts of another right angled triangle then the triangles are congruent .
Volume and surface area
Shape Diagram Area Perimeter
Rectangle Area=l b Perimeter =2(l +b)
Square
Area=a
2
Perimeter =4a
Parallelogram Area=bh
Area=absin
Perimeter =2(a+b)
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l
b
a
a
b
h
0
a
r
Shape Diagram Area Perimeter
Rhombus
Area=
1
2
d
1
d
2
Perimeter =4a
Trapezium
Area=
1
2
h(a+b)
Perimeter =
sum of all sides
Triangle
Area=
1
2
bh
Area=
1
2
a bsin
Perimeter =a+b+C
Circle Area=r
2
Circumference=2r
Sector Sector area =

360
r
2
Arc length=

360
2r
Perimeter =

360
2 r+2r
Shape Diagram Volume Surface area
Cylinder
Volume=r
2
h
C S A =2r h
T S A=2r h+2 r
2
Cone
Volume=
1
3
r
2
h
l
2
=r
2
+h
2
CSA= r l
TSA=r l +r
2
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a
a a
a
d
1
d
2
h
a
b
h
b
a
0
c
O
A
B
r
h
r
l
r
h
Shape Diagram Volume Surface area
Cuboid Volume=l bh LSA=2h(l +b)
TSA=2(lb+lh+bh)
Sphere
Volume=
4
3
r
3
TSA=4r
2
Hemisphere
Volume=
2
3
r
3
TSA=3 r
2
Sets
Definition : Set is a well defined collection of objects . The different objects in the set are
called elements or members of the set Eg : A={1,3 , a , c}
1 is an element of A , represented by 1A and 2 is not an element of A , represented by
2A
Number of elements of a set A is denoted by
n( A)
. Eg If
A={ 1,3 , a , c}

n( A)=4
A set contain no elements is called null set or empty set denoted by
{}
or

Set B is said to be a subset of set A , if all elements of B is taken from A . Eg: If A={1,2,3,4,5}
and B={2,4,5} then B is a subset of A denoted by BA , and C={5 , 7} is not a subset of A
and is denoted by CA . The number of subsets of a set with n elements is 2
n
Equal sets : sets that contain exactly the same elements are said to be equal
Eg : A = { a , b , c , d } and B={ c , d , b , a } then A and B are equal sets denoted by A = B
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r
l
b
h
r
Union : Union of two sets A and B are denoted by
AB and defined as the set containing all the
elements from A and B . Eg: A={1,3,5,7 },
B= {3,7,9,8} then AB={ 1,3,5,7,9,8}
Intersection : Intersection of two sets A
and B are denoted by AB and defined
as the set containing all the common
elements of A and B Eg: A={1,3,5,7 },
B= {3,7,9,8} then AB={ 3,7}
Difference of two sets : A - B is the difference of set
A and set B , is defined the set of all elements of A
which are not in B , Eg: A={1,3,5,7 },
B= {3,7,9,8} then AB={1,5}
Universal set : Is a set containing all the elements
of the sets under consideration Compliment of a
set A denoted by A
'
and is the set containing
all the elements of the universal set which are not
in A .

n( AB)=n( A)+n( B)n( AB)

Vectors
A quantity which have magnitude and direction is called vector
A vector starting from A and ending at B is called vector AB and denoted by

AB

AB+

BC is

AC , starting from A and ending at C , with the

shortest distance between A and C as magnitude .
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A
B
AB
A
B
AB
A
B
AB
A
A
'
A
a

b
A
B
C
a+

b
a
,

b , c
are three vectors given in the figure then the sum of the three vectors is
denoted by a+

b+c as seen in the figure

If a is a vector then a vector in the opposite direction of a with same magnitude is
a
Vectors can be written using number pair notation . The top number shows the horizontal
movement ( parallel to the x axis ) .And the bottom number shows shows the vertical
movement ( parallel to y axis ) . A negative sign indicates movements down or to the left . In
the figure

AB=
(
5
2
)
Addition of two vectors , if
a=
(
x
1
y
1
)
and

b=
(
x
2
y
2
)
then
a+

b=
(
x
1
+x
2
y
1
+y
2
)
Multiplication with a scalar :
a=
(
x
y
)
then
\a=
(
\ x
\ y
)
Two vectors are parallel if one can be written as a scalar multiple of other .
Modulus of a vector
a=
(
x
y
)
is defined as a=. x
2
+y
2
Position vector of a point A is the vector joining the origin O and A that is

OA .
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2 3 4
4
-1 -2
-
3
-4 -5
1
-1
-2
1
2
3
-3
5 6
A
O
a

b
c a+

b+c
Matrices
Addition of matrices
(
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
)
+
(
b
11
b
12
b
13
b
21
b
22
b
23
b
31
b
32
b
33
)
=
(
a
11
+b
11
a
12
+b
12
a
13
+b
13
a
21
+b
21
a
22
+b
22
a
22
+b
23
a
31
+b
31
a
32
+b
32
a
33
+b
33
)
Subtraction of matrices
(
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
)

(
b
11
b
12
b
13
b
21
b
22
b
23
b
31
b
32
b
33
)
=
(
a
11
b
11
a
12
b
12
a
13
b
13
a
21
b
21
a
22
b
22
a
22
b
23
a
31
b
31
a
32
b
32
a
33
b
33
)
Multiplication by a scalar
k
(
a b
c d
)
=
(
ka kb
kc kd
)
Multiplication with another matrix
If we multiply an mn matrix with an np matrix , then the resultant matrix will be an
mp matrix .
Two matrices are conformable for multiplication only when the number of columns of the first
matrix is same as the number of rows of the second matrix .
(
a b
c d
)

(
p q
r s
)
=
(
ap+br aq+bs
cp+dr cq+ds
)
Determinant of a matrix
Determinant of a matrix A=
(
a b
c d
)
is denoted by
A
and defined as

A=

a b
c d

=adcb
Inverse of a matrix
If A=
(
a b
c d
)
then A
1
=
1
A
(
d b
c a
)
Inverse does not exist when
A=0
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Loci and constructions
Locus of a point is the set of points which satisfying the given condition .
Locus of a point at a distance r unit from a fixed point O is a circle with centre O and
radius r .
Locus of a point at a distance a unit from a line segment l is two parallel lines and two
semicircles
Locus of a point equidistant from two fixed points is the perpendicular bisector of the
line segment of joining the given two points .
Locus of a point equidistant from the given straight line is the angle bisector of the angle
formed by the two lines .
Statistics
Pie chart
Central angle=
corresponding value
total
360
0
Histogram
Area of the histogram is always proportional to the frequency
frequency density=
frequency
class width
Height of the bar= frequency densityk , where k is a constant .
Mean
Mean of 'n' ungrouped data is
x=

x
n
Mean of grouped data is x=

x f

f
If the data is given as class interval , the mid value should consider as x . That is for the
interval 2030 the mid value is
20+30
2
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Median
To find the median for n observation , write the observations in ascending or descending order
then find the middle one
If n is an odd number then
(
n+1
2
)
th
observation will be the median .
If n is an even number then the mean of
(
n
2
)
th
observation and
(
n
2
+1
)
th
observation is the
median that is
(
n
2
)
th
+
(
n
2
+1
)
th
2
Mode
Mode is the most repeated observation or the observation with highest frequency .
Cumulative frequency table and curve

Inter quartile range=Upper quartile lower quartile
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x
f cf
5
10
15
2
3
9
2
5
14
n
2
Median
3n
4
Upper quartile, Lower quartile
n
4
90n
100
percentile 90
th
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Probability
In mathematics , working out how likely or unlikely an event is to happen is called
probability .

Probability of an event =
the number of favourable outcomes
total number of outcomes
If the probability of an event is p , then the probability that the event will not happen is
1p
If the probability of an event is p then
0p1
.
Mutually exclusive event :Events are mutually exclusive if they cannot happen at the same
time .
If A and B are mutually exclusive events then
P( A or B )=P( AB)=P( A)+P( B)
Independent events : The first event has no effect on the second event .
Dependent event : The first event has an effect on the second event .
and = multiply() or = add (+)
If A and B are two independent events then
P( A and B)=P( AB)=P( A)P( B)
Transformations
Reflection : For reflection there is a mirror line we are drawing the image of the object by
considering the line as a mirror .
Rotation : for rotation we need centre of rotation and angle of rotation clockwise rotation is
negative and anticlockwise rotation is positive .
Translation : For translation we need a translation vector . In this vector horizontal movement
is represented by the first row and the vertical movement is represented by the second row.
Moving right is positive and moving left is negative , moving up positive and moving down
negative .
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Enlargement : For enlargement there is a centre of enlargement and scale factor of
enlargement is
SF=
Image length
Object length
Shear : For shear there is an invariant line and shear factor . Points on the invariant line will not
change under shear . And
shear factor=
distance moved
distance from the invariant line
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Centre of enlargement
SF=
6
3
=2
object
image
o
b
j
e
c
t
i
m
a
g
e
Invariant line
SF=
4
4
=1
Stretch : A one way stretch is an enlargement in one direction from a given line . The given line
is the invariant line
Scale factor =
distance of the image of a point from the invariant line
distance of the point from the invariant line
Transformation using matrices : To transform the points (x
1
, y
1
) , (x
2
, y
2
) , (x
3
, y
3
)
using the matrix
(
a b
c d
)
we do
(
a b
c d
)
(
x
1
x
2
x
3
y
1
y
2
y
3
)
, each rows of the resultant matrix is
the image of each point .
Formation of transformation matrix using base vectors : It is possible to describe a
transformation in matrix form by considering the effect on base vectors
(
1
0
)
and
(
0
1
)
.
The first column of the matrix is the image of
(
1
0
)
and second column is the image of
(
0
1
)
.
Example : Rotation 90
0
anti clockwise
(1,0) (0,1) and (0,1)(1,0)
So the matrix is
(
0 1
1 0
)
www.apachia.com 27 SBR
1
object
image
2 3
4
5 6 7 8
9 1
0
11 12
1
2
3
4
5
6
A
X axis is the invariant line
B
C
A
'
B
'
C'
SF=
MA'
MA
=
3
1
=3
M N
(1,0)
(0,1)
(1,0)
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