FRONTIER Sprl

CONCENTRATOR DEPARTMENT IN-STREAM ANALYSER THEORY OF X-RAY FLUORESCENCE (XRF) When a primary x-ray excitation source from an x-ray tube or a radioactive source strikes a sample, the x-ray can either be absorbed by the atom or scattered through the material. The process in which an x-ray is absorbed by the atom by transferring all of its energy to an innermost electron is called the photoelectric effect. During this process, if the primary x-ray had sufficient energy, electrons are ejected from the inner shells, creating vacancies. These vacancies present an unstable condition for the atom. As the atom returns to its stable condition, electrons from the outer shells are transferred to the inner shells and in the process giving off a characteristic x-ray whose energy is the difference between the two binding energies of the corresponding shells. The emitted x-rays produced from this process are called X-ray Fluorescence, or XRF. The process of detecting and analyzing the emitted x-rays is called X-ray Fluorescence Analysis. In most cases the innermost K and L shells are involved in XRF detection. The XRF method is widely used to measure the elemental composition of materials. Since this method is fast and non-destructive to the sample, it is the method of choice for field applications and industrial production for control of materials and processes. Depending on the application, XRF can be produced by using not only x-rays but also other primary excitation sources like alpha particles, protons or high energy electron beams. Primary x-ray/Radiation e Fluorescence x-ray

K L M

Electron Figure 1.0: Production of an x-ray (schematic)

An x-ray is produced when an inner shell electron is knocked out by the primary X-ray. An electron from another shell falls into the vacancy and produces an Xray in the transition. This is shown in the Figure 1.0. There are three main points to understand the basics of XFR analysis. First, Xrays are created in the inner shells of the atom (K, L and M). The most commonly measured X-rays are from K and L shells. The electrons producing the x-rays are not valence (outer) shell electrons. Therefore, the X-ray energy is not affected by the chemical or physical form of the atom. Thus, elemental sulphur and CaSO4 give the same sulphur X-ray. IN-STREAM ANALYSER An in-stream analysis system provides a continuous (minute by minute) measurement of the desired elements in the feed as well as % solids and particle size of the product. This is achieved by the installation of the analysis equipments in each stream which integrates on-line analysis and metallurgical shift composite samples. The in-stream analyser uses a radiation source to irradiate the slurry. The fluorescence x-rays emitted are collected in a collimator and sent to a central processing unit as counts. Prior to commissioning, the counts are calibrated against wet chemical analysis to give percent copper, cobalt and iron. With such a system optimisation of the fineness of grind as well as the flotation circuit will be achieved instantly thus improving metal recoveries and concentrates grade. ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF ON-LINE ANALYSIS In-stream analysis provides continuous on-line elemental and density analysis of flotation plant slurries. This system allows either plant operators or process control systems to fine-tune and optimise the process much quicker after variations in feed rate, pulp density, fineness of grind, head grade, mineralogy and plant start ups. Adjustments can be made on a minute-by-minute basis to continuously maximise the recovery while maintaining the concentrate grades within the required specifications.

. Increases in Copper recovery . Decrease in reagent consumption . Increased process visibility . Quick detection of process upsets . Faster plant stabilization after shutdown . Less variations in plant operating conditions
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. More consistent final product quality to meet down stream processing plant specifications
operations.

. A better particle size product will be achieved which will enhance efficient

CASE STUDIES MINE KCM Hindustan Zinc LOCATION Zambia India METAL Cu Fe Pb Zn BENEFITS 1% increase in Cu Reagent savings 1.7% inc in Pb, 1.4% inc in Zn plus 20% Reagent savings 1% inc in recovery 3% inc in both Pb and Zn 0.7 % inc in recovery 3.2% inc in recovery. 6.9% inc in recovery N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Mount Lyell North Broken Hill Electrolytic Zn Co Renison Mines Wheal Jane Mopani Cu Mines Anglo American Anglo Gold Phelps Dodge Codelco

Australia Australia Australia Australia UK Zambia RSA RSA USA Chile

Cu Pb Zn Zn Sn Sn Cu Co Fe Zr Ti Fe Au Cu Fe Mn Cu Fe As