An Overview of Roman History

N .B . Th e a rt ist s an d a r ch ite ct s fo r pages 1 1 1 7 a re Un know n. Th at categor y retu rns o n pag e 1 8. D ate an d Locat ion : A D 81 / Th e Ro m an Fo r u m Descr ip ti on : Th e o ld est su r v i v in g tr iu m p h a l arc h in Rom e was er ected b y th e Em p eror Dom it ia n (A D 51 96) to h on or th e M id d l e Easter n v icto r i es of h is l ate fath er th e Em p ero r T itu s ( A D 39 - 8 1). Th is arch stan d s fewer th a n 2 00 yard s fro m th e Co l o s seu m , wh i ch was or i g in a l l y com m i ss ion ed b y T itu s fath er th e Em p er or Ves pas ian ( A D 09 - 79 ), fo u n d er o f th e F lavi an D yn asty. Th e re l i ef scu lp tu r es o n th e Arch o f T itu s are b ad l y erod ed , b u t are of m u ch gr eater i nterest t h an th e h o d ge -p od ge of r ec yc led el em en ts o n th e su p e r fi ci a l ly m ore im p r es s i ve n ear b y Arch of Con sta ntin e. To b etter ap p rec i ate th e events d ep i cted o n th e Arch of T itu s , on e m u st b e p rep ared to lo a th e th e An c ien t Rom an s fo r th e ir into l eran ce of Ju d a is m an d for th e rap ac it y wit h wh ich th ey sac ked th e h o l y cit y of Jer u s a lem . I n A D 66 , a fter p rotracted exp l oi tat ion b y Rom an gover n or s , a Ju d ean reb e l li on aro se wh ic h (th en ) Gen era l T i tu s h an d i l y o r, rath er, h eav y -h an d ed l y su p p ress ed in a fou r -year ca m pa ig n th at n ot on l y d estro yed th e Seco n d Tem p le (exc ep t for its Wester n Wa l l ) b u t a l so resu lted in th e Je w ish D i asp ora . In th e im a ge ab o ve , o n e can sti l l see cl ear l y th e Rom an ar my parad in g wi th sp o i l s of war wh ic h in c lu d e an a ltar, a se ven -b ran ch ed can d e lab r u m , an d sa cred cer em on ia l tr u m p ets . Th e d e vastat ion Ro m e wro u g ht in An c ie nt Isra el was m et w ith h ero ic res istan c e , b u t t h e ju g ger n au t of Em p ire p reva i led at a te r r i b le co st , a l l th e m ore iron ic g i ven th at th e Eter n a l C it y wou ld e ve ntu al l y b eco m e th e geo gra p h ic al an d th eo lo g ica l cen te r of th e Ju d eo -Ch r i st ian Eth ic s wor ld -tran sfor m in g in f lu en ce.

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D ate an d Locat ion : A D 1 13 / Traj a n s For u m , Rom e Descr ip ti on : Th ere i s n o m ore e le gan t m on u m ent in Rom e th a n th e C olu m n of Tra jan . Ded icated b y th e Im p er i al h on oree h i m se l f (A D 53 -11 7) , th e m ar b l e ch ron ic l e r is es 13 1 fe et an d d i sp l ays a win d in g fr ieze ap p roxi m ate ly th ree fe et w id e b y 6 56 fe et lon g (th e f irst su r vi v in g exa m p le of su ch a d ecorat i ve p ro gram ). W ith in th e fr ieze are 2, 50 0 f igu res i l lu stratin g a lm ost ever y asp e ct of m i l ita r y li fe d u r in g Traj an s t wo cam p a i gn s in Da ci a , or m od er n R o m an i a ( A D 10 1 -1 0 3 an d 107 - 10 8) . Th e v i gn ettes ar e e ver y b it as in g en iou s as th ey ar e m et icu lou s , en com pass in g h u n d r ed s of su b j ects: from th e wor k of Traj an s ar my en g in e ers to d oc tor s on th e b att l ef ie ld , from th e Em p eror ra l ly in g h i s troop s to th e b u r i a l of th e fal le n . A so lid go ld statu e of Tr aj an on ce stood ato p th e Co lu m n b u t d is ap p eared in th e M id d le A ges d u r in g th e rep eated ra i d s on Rom e b y Goth s an d Van d a ls . Pop e S ix t u s V (1 520 - 15 90) rep l aced th e sto len stat u e in 1 587 w it h an im a ge of Sa i nt Peter b y Gi acom o d e l l a Por ta (1 53 3 - 1 602) .

On e of th e co lu m n s sce n es , in wh ich Traj an h e l p s a wom an wh o se son h as b een ki l led in b attl e , so im p ress ed Pop e Gr e go r y th e Gr eat ( A D 54 0 - 604) th at th e Po nt if f b e g ged G _d to re lease th e Em p er or s so u l fr om He l l. Th e Al m i ght y a ll e ged ly ap p ear ed to t h e Pop e to an n o u n ce th at h e h ad re leas ed Tra ja n fro m eter n a l su ffer in g , b u t th at He wo u ld h on o r n o m ore in tercesso r y p rayer s for pa gan s . Su p p osed l y, so m e centu r ies l ater, w h en an u r n co ntain in g Traj an s ash es was o p en ed , th e s ku ll an d ton gu e (st i l l intact ) con f ir m ed th e Po p e s sto r y. An inter n a l c ircu lar sta i r wel l (c lo s ed to th e p u b l ic) i s li t b y n u m er ou s s m al l w in d o ws p i ercin g t h e c o lu m n . An c ien t Ro m a n s co u ld vie w th e ent ir et y of th e m on u m ent m ore easi l y th an we d o tod ay b ec au s e of two p u r p o se -b u i lt b a lco n ies o n a n ad ja cent l i b rar y (l on g gon e ) . A c om p l ete s et of casts m ad e from th e Co lu m n of Traj an i s exh i b ited in a h i gh l y co m p re h en s i b le for m at at th e M u seo d el l a C i v ita Ro m an a in th e EU R .

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D ate an d Locat ion : A D 3 06 / N E su m m it of th e V im in a l , a d i str ic t n am ed for th e sm a l lest of t h e se ven h i l l s u p on wh ich Ro m e was b u i lt and most grandiosely decorated o. The Baths of Diocletian, the largest and most lavishly decorated of Ancient Romes public bath complexes, was completed one year after the abdication of the emperor who named it for himself (AD 244 311). This highly controversial ruler came to power at a crucial time and engineered a successful division of Imperial dut ies among three other co-regents, collectively known as The Tetrarchy. Not all of Diocletians actions were equally successful; he initiated, for instance, the bloodiest of all persecutions against Christians (see Martyrs Shrine in the Colosseum), just one year before Constantines V ision of the Cross (see Divider for Section A, Subsection II) , which led to the states official sanction of Christianity. This particular spa, which comfortably accommodated 3000 individuals, was linked to the Marcian Aqueduct, one of eleven engineering marvels that used hydraulic principles to move enormous amounts of wholesome water to Rome from the Appenines. On some occasions, restricted access to the baths was free; it never cost more than a nominal fee. Besides promoting hygiene and physical fitness (because they contained ball courts and exercise venues), the Roman baths offered luxury services, from massages to man -scaping and body-painting (male aristocrats apparently hated body hair and loved to have faux blue veins painted on their arms). The baths also contained food courts (fried peas were especially popular) and specialized libraries. Diocletians Baths were adapted to many other uses over the centuries. They still contain two churches and the largest branch of Romes National Museum. As you can see from the semispherical screen frame in the photo above, the sturdy facility housed a planetarium in the 1920s. Preservation efforts successfully tell many of the interconnected buildings stories.

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D ate an d Locat ion : A D 578 / Th e Tr easu r y of Sa in t Peter s B asi l ic a (Rom e) Descr ip ti on : Th e Cr u x Vat ica n a was a p roces s ion a l cr os s p res ented to th e p lu n d er ed B as i lic a of St . Peter b y th e Easter n Em p eror Ju stin II (A D 520 - 578) sh or t l y af ter th e ex p u l s ion of b ar b ar i an h ord es wh ich h ad o ver r u n Rom e cau sin g th e tran sfer o f vir tu a l l y a l l i m p er i al p ower to Con stan ti n op le , or m od er n I stan b u l. Th i s g i ft is b e lie ved to b e th e o ld est su r v i vi n g re li q u ar y of t h e Tr u e Cros s . Th e Em p er or Con stant in e s M oth er H el en a (ad 250 - 3 30 ), ar gu ab l y th e wor ld s f ir st h i stor ica l arc h eo lo g ist , was sa id to h ave recover ed m o st of th at revered ob j ect in Jer u sa le m at a ti m e w h en th e ear l y Ch r i st i an ch u rch th ere was stron g an d h ad p reser ved ties w i th th e or i g in al fo l lowers of Jesu s . S li vers of th e Tr u e Cros s ar e ar ran ged in t h e central m ed a l l ion . Th e cross i s si l ve r - g i lt an d stu d d ed wi th gem ston es s et in gold . Fou r p en d an ts h an g fro m th e tran sverse b eam . At th e t im e of t h e s acra m enta l wor k s creat ion , it was n ot yet com m on to d ep i ct Ch r i st h an g in g on th e C ross ; in stead , on th e rever se s id e , i n rep ou s s e si l ver, th ere i s on e im a ge of H im as th e Go od Sh ep h erd a n d an oth er im a ge of H im h old in g a b ook . Wh er e M a r y an d Jo h n t h e B e lo ved D isc ip le wou ld t yp ica l ly ap p ear in a By zan tin e icon , on ei th er s id e of th e Cr oss , are p or tra i ts of th e Em p eror Ju st i n II an d h i s w ife Sop h ia .

Th e Latin i n scr ip t io n , w h ich h as b e en a m atter of ent ire l y u n n ecess ar y controversy, i s eas i l y tran s l ated : l igno qu o C hr ist us h um anum subd i di t ho ste m d at Ro mae J ust inu s op em et s oc ia de co re m. = W i th th e wo od b y m ea n s o f wh ich Ch r i st o verc am e m an k in d s en emy, J u st in an d h is con sor t g i ve to Ro m e a resou rc e an d a th in g of b eau t y. Th e Cros s was m eth o d ic al l y resto red in 2 0 09 . I t m easu res ap p r ox im ate l y s i xte en b y twel ve in c h es , exc lu d in g th e stan d .

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An Overview of Roman History

Date and Location: Eleventh Century / The Treasury of St. Peter s Basiica / a gift from Isidore of K iev (1385 1463), the Patriarch of Constantinople, to Pope Eugene IV (1383 1447) in the mid-Fifteenth Century Already old at the time of its presentation, the dalmatic acquired a spurious and persistent identification with the Coronation described below. While this provenance is indefensi ble, it does not detract from the objects importance. Description: Charlemagne (AD 742 814), or Charles the Great (Carolus Magnus in Latin) was K ing of the Franks from 768, K ing of Italy from 774, the First Holy Roman Emperor, and, in point of fact, the first emperor in Western Europe since the Fall of Rome in the Fifth Century AD. Before his death, t hrough military conquests, Charlemagne subjugated both the Saxons and the Bavarians. He also expanded the frontiers of his domain into Spain. The garment above (a specific kind of wide-sleeved alb originating from Dalmatia, the ancient region now divided between Serbia and Croatia) was allegedly worn by Charlemagne on Christmas Day, AD 800 , when he was crowned in the Vatican by Pope Leo III (? AD 816). It is NOT that ceremonial tunic. Experts agree, however, that, whatever its age, it is the most important surviving example of medieval needlework. The Dalmatic of Charlemagne (the name has stuck) is embroidered mostly in gold: the draperies in basket-work and laid stitches; the faces in white silk split-stitch, flat, with finely-drawn outlines in black silk. The iconography is of traditional Byzantine derivation, with Christs hair, the clouds, and the shadowy part of the draperies worked in fine gold and silver thread with dark outlines on blue satin which is covered, parseme-style, with intricate pattern of Greek crosses and starry crosses. There is a mystic swastika on one shoulder.

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D ate an d Locat ion : T h e Tor re deg l i Ang ui ll a ra , b etter kn ow n tod ay as t h e H ou se of Da nte , i s t h e ol d est m ed ie va l res id en c e in Traste ve re , th e u r b an d istr ict wh ich p ro u d l y ca l l s itse lf t h e R EA L Rom e . Eas i ly reco gn i zed b y its p o r t ic o es an d lea f - sh ap ed cap ital s , t h e wa ll wh ich fac es th e T i b er R i ver d ates to th e m id -Th ir teen th C entu r y. Descr ip ti on : For n ear l y th ree c entu r ies th e n ob le An gu i l l ara fam i ly l i ved wi th in t h is cren e l l ated for tress . Wh en t h e Car b o gn an o fam i l y a cq u ir ed it in 1 53 8 an d conver ted it to co m m erci a l u s e as a stab l e, a sl au ghter h ou s e, an d a win e ce l lar, t h e res id en ts of th e n e igh b or h ood were so ou tra ged b y th i s d eve lo p m ent th at th ey d u b b ed th e o n ce - ad m i r ed l an d m ar k I l Pa l aza cc io , or th e Rep u l si ve Pa lac e. Ita l y s gr eatest p o et, D ante A l i gh ier i ( 1 26 5 1 32 1) , l i ved in th e An gu i l lara To wer for m o st of 13 00 (th e year of th e F ir st Ju b i l ee ) . Wh e n th e Co m m u n e of Rom e , th e r efore , exp rop r i ated t h e d i l ap id at ed com p lex in 18 87, i t restored m a ny of th e s ite s o r i gi n a l featu res an d b u i lt an au d itor iu m for an n u a l r ead in gs of Da nte b y fam ou s m en o f letter s. Th e To wer a ls o h ou ses th e lar gest Ita l ian l i b ra r y of wor ks re l at in g to th i s p o et , in c lu d in g a lm o st e ve r y ed it io n e ver p r inted of The D i vi ne Co medy.

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Date and Location: 1345 / The Arno River, Florence Description: The segmental arch bridge above, Il Ponte Vecchio, built in the closed-spandrel style, crosses the Arno at its narrowest point, close to where an Ancient Roman pons once stood. Two predecessors of todays bridge were almost entirely destroyed by floods in 1117 and 1333, with the exception of two stone piers from those earlier bridges which were incorporated into the structure we see today. Though Renaissance sources attribute the current Ponte Vecchios design to Taddeo Gaddi (1300 1366 ), a strong case can be made for Neri di Fioravanti (? - 1374) as the mastermind whose Fourteenth Century reconstruction has endured the tests of time (including the ruinous flood of 1966). The Bridge has always been home to shops and merchants who display goods on tables. The word bankruptcy, as a matter of fact, originated here in the Middle Ages. If, for any reason, a tradesman could not pay his commercial or personal debts, the table (banco) on which he transacted business was physically smashed (rotto) by soldiers enforcing the laws of the City-State. During World War II, every bridge in Florence was destroyed by the Germans EXCEPT for the Ponte Vecchio, on express orders from Hitler himself. The Vasari Corridor was built above the bridge in 1565 to connect the Palazzo Vecchio, or Town Hall, with the Palazzo Pitti (residence of the Medicis). This passageway houses one of the Ufizzis most important collections, but it is not open to the general public, and guided tours, while more frequent lately than ever before, are still not easy to schedule. Until quite recently, it was common for tourists traveling as couples to fasten padlocks (thousands each year) onto the railings of the Ponte Vecchio and then to drop the keys of those locks into the current below, symbolically bonding themselves in eternal love. Now that the City imposes a hefty fine for this romantic gesture, theres much less locking and bonding in Florence.

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Arch itec t(s ): G iotto d i B o n d o n e ( 1 267 1 3 37) a n d two su c ces sor s n a m ed b elo w D ate an d Locat ion : 1 3 3 4 1 359 / Ad j ace nt to S . M ar i a d e l F iore , F lore n ce Descr ip ti on : R i s in g to a h ei gh t o f n ear l y 278 fe e t, t h i s free - stan d in g b e l l to wer (on t h e left in t h e p h oto ab o ve) i s su sta in ed b y p o l ygo n al b u ttr es ses an d i s d iv id ed into f i ve le ve l s. G iotto s faad e , i n h ar m o ny wit h th e Ch u rch (o n th e r i ght in th e p h oto ) d es i gn ed b y Ar n a l fo d i C am b io ( 1 24 0 - 13 10 ), u s ed ge om etr i c patter n s of wh ite m ar b l e fro m Car rara, gr een m ar b l e fr om Prato, an d r ed m ar b le from S ien a. Th ere are seven h exa gon al b as -re l iefs o n each si d e ( se ven s ign i f y in g h u m an p er fe cti b i l it y in B i b lic al n u m erolo g y) . In 1 3 43 , Gi otto s p l an s were fu r th er r ea l i zed b y An d r ea P is an o ( 1 29 0 - 13 48 ) , wh o f in i sh ed le vel s t wo an d th ree b efor e th e B l ack D eat h ( 13 48 ) b ro u ght c on str u c tio n to a tem p orar y stan d st i ll . P is an o was rep lac ed b y Fran cesco Ta lent i (1 3 00 13 69 ) , wh o co m p l eted th e top th ree le ve l s an d m ad e th e d ec i s ion to om it Gi otto s p l an for a s p ir e . 41 4 step s l ead u p to a n im p r es si ve v iew in g ar ea . S in ce 19 67 , a ll th e wo r ks o f ar t in th e C am p an i l e h ave b een cop ies. Th e or i g in al s are on d i sp l ay n ear b y in th e M u seo d el l Op era d el Du o m o . To g i ve a s en se of th e exter n a l p a n el s com p lex it y as a d e corat i ve sch em e, th e n or th s id e of th e f irst le vel ce leb rates cr eat iv it y as d ocu m ented in Th e B oo k o f Genes is : th e creat ion of Ad am , th e c reati o n o f Eve , th e lab o rs of ou r f irst par ents , Jab al s f irst attem p ts at an i m a l h u sb an d r y, Ju b a l s in ve ntio n o f m u s ica l in str u m ents , Tu b a lca in s iro n wor k , an d No ah s a gr icu ltu ral in n o vat ion s. On th e so u th s id e o f th e b u i ld in g are cor resp on d in g im a ges of cl ass ica l p ion eer s in astro n o my, arch itec tu re , m ed ic in e, h u nt in g , wo ol - wor k in g , le g is l at ion , an d s im p le m ach in er y. Lozen ges o n th e h i gh er le ve l s co n ta in im a ges o f th e se ve n p l an ets , th e se ven li b era l ar ts , th e se ven sac ram en ts , etc . Taken as a wh o le , i n clu d in g th e statu es in n ich es , th e b e l l to wer i s covered wi th a c oh ere nt su r vey of m ed ie va l sch o l asti c p h i l o so p hy. An d , of co u r se , th ere are seven b e l l s.

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Arch itec ts: M ich e l an ge l o B u on ar ott i ( 1 47 5 156 4) , Ni ccolo Tr i b olo ( 15 00 - 155 0) , an d B ar to lom e o Am m an at i ( 1 51 1 1 592) D ate an d Locat ion : 1 52 5 1 57 1 / Th e Lau re nt ian Li b rar y i s lo cated in a c lo ister of th e m on aster y of San L oren zo d i F iren ze Descr ip ti on : B u i lt u n d e r th e p atron a ge of Pop e Cl em ent V I I (1 478 - 1 53 4 ) , th i s exem p lar of M an n er ist Arch itect u re h ou ses th e p ers on a l li b rar y of th e M ed ic i fa m i l y, in c lu d in g m or e th an 11 , 00 0 m a n u scr ip t s an d 4 ,5 00 ear ly p r inted b oo ks . It is im p os si b le to u n d e rsta n d th e h i stor y of Ren a is san ce F l oren ce a par t from th e for tu n es an d in f lu en c e of th e M ed ic i , wh o ros e fr om or i g in s in m ercant i le p u rsu i ts an d b an k in g to a p os it ion of p r om i n en ce in b oth p o l it ica l an d ecc les i ast ica l s oc iety. T h e M ed ic i were a ls o d is cr i m in at in g an d e nth u si ast ic sp on sor s of m any sch o lar s an d ar ti sts , th u s s ett in g th e cu ltu ra l a gen d a n ot on l y for th e ir o wn d ay b u t for cen tu r ies to com e.

M ich el an ge lo wor ked w ith t h e d im en s io n s of t h e spac e th at h e was h i red to t ran sfor m , b u i ld i n g wa l ls u p o n old er wa l ls w ith t h e u se o f re ces s ed co lu m n s. B la n k , tap er in g ta b er n ac le w in d o ws fra m ed in p i etra ser en a circ u m scr i b e th e i nter io r. Th e li g ht sou rc es are cl erestor ie s in th e west wa ll , s it u ated wit h in b ays ar t icu l ated b y p i l asters wh ich cor r esp on d to t h e b eam s of t h e cei l in g . An aston i sh in g sta ircas e takes u p h a l f th e f loo r sp ace of th e li b rar y s vest i b u l e . Th e tr ead s of th e cen t ra l f li gh t ar e con vex an d va r y in w id th , wh i le th e o u ter f l i gh ts are stra i g ht . Th e th r ee lo west step s of th e central f l i ght are w id er an d h ig h er th an th e ot h ers , li ke ova l con centr ic s la b s . Th e s im u ltan eo u sl y ar ti f ic ia l an d or gan ic as p ects o f t h i s featu re ar e u n iq u e in arc h i tectu ra l h istor y. As an ass em b la ge, M ich el an ge lo s e ntran c e to th e li b rar y s read in g room c o nveys a sen se of am b i gu it y w ith i ts u n or th od ox featu res; w ith its co m p r es s io n i t c o n veys a s en s e of rest rain ed en erg y.

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Arch itec t: Gi an Loren zo B er n in i ( 1 5 98 1 68 0) D ate an d Locat ion : 1 65 6 1 67 5 / Sa in t Peter s Sq u ar e Descr ip ti on : Of a l l B er n in i s re l ig io u s wo r ks , n on e i s m o re in sp ired ( or m ore in sp ir in g ) th an Sa int Peter s Sq u ar e. Th e oval (a lm o st 64 4 feet w id e ) co n s i sts of t wo sem ic irc les fra m in g a cen tra l r ectan gl e. Th e cu r ved par t of th i s e l lip se is c lo s ed o f f w ith an im p o s in g D or i c col on n ad e contain in g 2 84 t rave r tin e co lu m n s, each m or e th a n f if ty -t wo feet h i gh an d ar ran ged in ro ws fou r d eep cr eat in g th re e ga l ler ies. Ab o ve t h e co lon n ad e stan d n in ety -s i x statu es , each m ore th an ten feet ta l l , freq u e nt ly d escr i b ed as a cro wn o f h er m i ts , co n fes so rs , an d m i ss io n ar i es. For ty-fou r m or e statu es stan d atop th e b a l u strad e of th e trap ezo id al p o r t ico wh ic h r u n s u p to th e b asi l ica , sym b o l ic of th e m any p i l gr im s wh o travel to Rom e each year. Th e o ve ra l l ef fect th at B er n in i was ch ar ged to em b o d y h ad b een d escr i b ed h a l f a c entu r y ear l ier in th e fo l lo win g pass a ge fro m The Ch i gi Cod ex (1 600 ): S a int Peter s , b ein g v ir tu a ll y th e m atr i x of al l oth er ch u rch es , sh o u ld h ave a p o r t ico wh ic h cou ld r ece i ve w ith in i ts op en ar m s n ot o n l y C ath o l ic s to co n fir m th em in t h e ir fai th , an d h ereti cs to re u n ite th em w ith th e Ch u rch , b u t even in f id e l s to i llu m in ate th em as to t h e Tr u e Fai t h . Th e o b el i sk in th e m id d le of th e sq u are is th e s e con d l ar gest in Rom e a n d was or i g in al l y com m is s io n ed b y Ca iu s C or n e l iu s G a ll u s ( 70 26 B C ), a Ro m an p r efec t to Eg yp t . M ad e of red o r ien ta l gran i te , it we i gh s 327 to n s , an d on c e sto o d o n th e sp in a , o r cen tra l d i v id in g i s lan d of th e rac e tra ck n am ed for th e E m p eror Nero ( A D 37 6 8) . At t h e b ase o f th i s o b e l is k , Sa in t Peter an d 98 0 of t h e f ir st C h r i st ian m ar t y r s at Rom e co n fessed th e ir fa ith in th e face of d eath . H i stor ian s record th at Peter was cr u c if ied u p s id e d own w ith in si g ht of th e ob el i sk (1 3 Octo b er A D 6 4) in an e ven in g d i sp l ay wh ic h was li t b y t h e wax-d ip p ed b od ies of h is fe l low b el ie ver s , set a b laze as h u m an can d l es. Si xt u s V ( 1520 15 90) ord ered th e ad d it io n of in s cr ip t ion s o n th e b ase of th e o b e li sk d ec lar in g th e tr iu m p h of Ch r i st i an i ty ov er p aga n i sm .

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