Taoism

http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Taoism
Taoism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Taoi sm (modernly: Daoi sm) is a philosophical and religious t radition that emphasizes living in harmony wit h t he Tao [1] (modernly romanized as "Dao"). The term Tao means "way", "path" or "principle", and can also be found in Chinese philosophies and religions ot her than Taoism. In Taoism, however, Tao denotes somet hing that is bot h the source and the driving force behind everyt hing that exists. It is ult imat ely ineffable [2]: "The Tao that can be t old is not t he et ernal Tao."[1] The keyst one work of lit erat ure in Taoism is t he Tao Te Ching [3], a concise and ambiguous book cont aining teachings att ribut ed to Laozi [4] (Chinese [5]: ; pinyin [6]: Lozi; WadeGiles [7]: Lao Tzu). Together wit h t he writ ings of Zhuangzi [8], these t exts build the philosophical foundation of Taoism. This philosophical Taoism, individualist ic by nat ure, is not institut ionalized. Inst itutionalized forms, however, evolved over t ime in t he shape of a number of different schools [9], often integrat ing beliefs and practices t hat even pre-dated the keyst one t exts as, for example, the theories of t he School of Naturalists [10], which synt hesized the concept s of yin-yang [11] and the Five Elements [12]. Taoist schools tradit ionally feat ure reverence for Laozi, immort als [13] or ancest ors, along with a variet y of divination [14] and exorcism [15] rit uals, and pract ices for achieving ecst asy [16], longevit y or immort alit y. Taoist propriety and ethics may vary depending on t he particular school, but in general tends to emphasize wu-wei [17] (act ion through non-act ion), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures [18]: compassion, moderat ion, and humility. Taoism has had profound influence on Chinese cult ure in t he course of t he cent uries, and clerics of instit ut ionalised Taoism [19] (Chinese [20]: ; pinyin
[21]: doshi) usually t ake care to note dist inct ion bet ween their rit ual t radit ion
and t he customs and practices found in Chinese folk religion [22] as these distinctions sometimes appear blurred. Chinese alchemy [23] (especially neidan
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism
[24]), Chinese astrology [25], Zen Buddhism [26], several martial art s [27],
Tradit ional Chinese medicine [28], feng shui [29], and many styles of qigong [30] have been int ert wined wit h Taoism t hroughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia. After Laozi and Zhuangzi t he lit erat ure of Taoism grew steadily and used t o be compiled in form of a canon the Daozang [31], which was at t imes published at the behest of the emperor [32]. Throughout Chinese history, Taoism was several times nominat ed as st ate religion [33]. After the 17t h cent ury, however, it fell much from favor. Like all ot her religious activit y, Taoism was suppressed in the first decades of t he People's Republic of China [34] (and even persecut ed during the Cultural Revolution [35]), but continued t o be practised in Taiwan [36]. Today, it is one of five religions recognized in the PRC, and although it does not t ravel readily from it s Asian root s, claims adherent s in a number of societ ies.[2]
Spel l i n g an d pr on unci at i on
Main art icle: DaoismTaoism romanizat ion issue [37] English-speakers continue t o debat e the preferred romanization [38] of t he words "Daoism" and "Taoism". The root Chinese [39] word [40] "way, path" is romanized tao [41] in the older WadeGiles [42] system and do [43] in the modern Pinyin [44] syst em. In linguistic [45] t erminology, English Taoism/Daoism is formed from t he Chinese loanword [46] tao/dao [47] "way; rout e; principle" and the native suffix [48] -ism. The debat e over Taoism vs. Daoism involve sinology
[49], phonemes [50], loanwords [51], and politics not t o mention whet her Taoism
should be pronounced / [52]t a.zm/ [53] or / [54]da.zm/ [55]. Daoism is pronounced / [56]da.zm/ [57], but English speakers disagree whet her Taoism should be / [58]da.zm/ [59] or / [60]t a.zm/ [61]. In t heory, both WadeGiles tao and Pinyin dao are art iculat ed ident ically, as are Taoism and Daoism. An invest ment book tit led The Tao Jones Averages (a pun on t he Dow Jones Indexes [62]) illust rat es t his /da/ pronunciat ion's widespread familiarity.[3] In speech, Tao and Taoism are oft en pronounced /t a/ and t a.zm/, reading the Chinese unaspirated lenis [63] ("weak") /t / as the English voiceless st op consonant [64] /t /. Lexicography [65] shows American and British English differences [66] in pronouncing Taoism. A study of major English dictionaries
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published in Great Britain and t he Unit ed Stat es found t he most common Taoism glosses [67] were /t a.zm/ in British sources and /da.zm, ta.zm/ in American ones.[4]
Cat egor i zat i on

There is debat e over how, and whether, Taoism should be cat egorized. Tradit ionally, it is divided int o t wo cat egories:[5] 1. Philosophical Taoism (Daojia, Chinese [68]: ; pinyin [69]: doji; lit. "school of Dao") The philosophy [70] based on t he t exts of t he Daodejing [71] () and the Zhuangzi [72] (). These text s were linked t ogether under the term of Daojia during the early Han Dynast y [73], but notably not before. [6][7] It is unlikely t hat Zhuangzi [74] was familiar wit h t he t ext of the Daodejing,[8][9] and Zhuangzi would not have identified himself as a Taoist as this classificat ion did not arise until well after his deat h.[9] 2. Religious Taoism (Daojiao, Chinese [75]: ; pinyin [76]: dojio; lit . "t eachings of Dao") A family of organized religious movements sharing concept s or t erminology derived from Daojia;[10] the first of t hese is recognized as the Celest ial Mast ers [77] school. However, t he dist inction bet ween Daojia and Daojiao is reject ed by t he majority of modern scholars (at least in Japan and t he West ).[11][12][13] It is, among others, cont ested by hermeneutic [78] (interpret ive) difficult ies in the categorizat ion of the different Taoist schools, sects and movement s.[14] Taoism does not fall under an umbrella or a definition of a single organized religion [79] like the Abrahamic tradit ions [80]; nor can it be studied as the originator or a variant of Chinese folk religion [81], as although the two share some similar concept s, much of Chinese folk religion is out side of t he tenets and core teachings of Taoism.[15] Sinologist s Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn agree t hat "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consist ed of a combinat ion of teachings based on a variety of original revelations."[16]
Or i gi ns an d devel opm ent

Main art icle: History of Taoism [82]
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[83]
White Cloud Monast ery, Beijing [84] Laozi [85] is t raditionally regarded as t he founder of Taoism and is closely associat ed in t his context with "original", or "primordial", Taoism.[17] Whet her he actually existed is commonly disputed;[18][19] however, the work at tribut ed to him t he Daodejing is dated t o the late 4th century BC.[20] Taoism draws it s cosmological foundations from t he School of Yin-Yang [86] (in form of it s main element s yin and yang [87] and the Five Phases [88]), which developed during the Warring Stat es period [89] (4th to 3rd cent uries BC).[21] Robinet ident ifies four component s in t he emergence of Taoism: 1. 2. 3. 4. Philosophical Taoism, i.e. t he Daodejing [90] and Zhuangzi [91] techniques for achieving ecstasy pract ices for achieving longevit y or immort ality exorcism.[18]
Some elements of Taoism may be traced t o prehistoric [92] folk religions in China that lat er coalesced into a Taoist tradition.[22][23] In part icular, many Taoist pract ices drew from the Warring-St ates-era phenomena of the wu (connect ed to the "shamanism" of Southern China) and the fangshi (which probably derived from t he "archivist-soot hsayers of ant iquit y, one of whom supposedly was Laozi himself"), even t hough lat er Taoists insist ed that t his was not t he case.[24] Bot h terms were used t o designat e individuals dedicat ed t o "... magic, medicine, divination,... met hods of longevity and to ecstat ic wanderings" as well as exorcism; in t he case of t he wu, "shamans" or "sorcerers" is often used as a translation.[24] The fangshi were philosophically close t o the School of Yin-Yang, and relied much on ast rological and calendrical speculat ions in their divinatory activit ies.[25] The first organized form of Taoism, t he Tianshi [93] (Celest ial Mast ers') school (lat er known as Zhengyi [94] school), developed from t he Five Pecks of Rice [95] movement at the end of t he 2nd cent ury AD; t he lat ter had been founded by Zhang Daoling [96], who claimed that Laozi appeared to him in the year 142.[26] The Tianshi school was officially recognized by ruler Cao Cao [97] in 215,
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legit imizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return.[27] Laozi received imperial recognit ion as a divinity in the mid-2nd cent ury BCE.[28] Taoism, in form of the Shangqing school [98], gained official st atus in China again during t he Tang Dynast y [99] (618907), whose emperors claimed Laozi as t heir relat ive.[29] The Shangqing movement, however, had developed much earlier, in the 4th century, on t he basis of a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a cert ain Yang Xi in t he years between 364 to 370.[30] Bet ween 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu [100] compiled a series of scriptures which lat er served as the foundation of the Lingbao school [101],[31] which unfolded its great est influence during t he Song Dynasty [102] (9601279).[32] Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong [103], were act ive in promoting Taoism, collect ing Taoist t exts and publishing editions of t he Daozang.[33] In t he 12th century, the Quanzhen School [104] was founded in Shandong [105]. It flourished during t he 13t h and 14t h cent ury and during t he Yuan dynast y [106] became t he largest and most import ant Taoist school in Northern China. The school's most revered mast er, Qiu Chuji [107], met wit h Genghis Khan [108] in 1222 and was successful in influencing t he Khan t owards exert ing more restraint during his brutal conquests. By the Khan's decree, t he school also was exempt from t axation.[34] Aspect s of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synt hesized in the Neo-Confucian [109] school, which event ually became Imperial ort hodoxy
[110] for st ate bureaucratic purposes under the Ming [111] (13681644).[35] The
Qing Dynast y [112] (16441912), however, much favored Confucian classics over Taoist works. During t he 18t h century, the imperial library was constitut ed, but excluded virt ually all Taoist books.[36] By t he beginning of t he 20t h century, Taoism had fallen much from favor (for example, only one complete copy of the Daozang [113] st ill remained, at t he Whit e Cloud Monastery [114] in Beijing).[37] Today, Taoism is one of five religions recognized by the People's Republic of China. The government regulat es it s act ivit ies through the Chinese Taoist Association [115].[38] Taoism is freely practiced in Taiwan [116], where it claims millions of adherents.
Et hi cs
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Taoism tends t o emphasize various themes of t he Daodejing [117] and Zhuangzi

[118], such as naturalness, spont aneit y, simplicity, detachment from desires [119],
and most important of all, wu wei [120].[39] However, the concept s of t hose keyst one t ext s can not be equated with Taoism as a whole.[40]
Tao and Te
Main art icles: Tao [121] and De (Chinese) [122] Tao (Chinese [123]: ; pinyin [124]: do) literally means "way", but can also be int erpret ed as road, channel, path, doct rine, or line.[41] In Taoism, it is "the One, which is nat ural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all t hings and the way in which all things pursue t heir course."[42] It has variously been denoted as t he "flow of t he universe",[43] a "conceptually necessary ont ological [125] ground",[44] or a demonstration of nat ure.[45] The Tao also is something t hat individuals can find immanent [126] in themselves.[46] The act ive expression of Tao is called Te (also spelled and pronounced De, or even Teh; oft en t ranslat ed with Virtue or Power; Chinese [127]: ; pinyin [128]: d),[47] in a sense t hat Te result s from an individual living and cultivat ing the Tao.[48]
Wu- wei
Main art icle: Wu wei [129] The ambiguous t erm wu-wei (simplified Chinese [130]: ; t raditional Chinese
[131]: ; pinyin [132]: w wi) const it utes t he leading ethical concept in
Taoism.[49] Wei refers t o any intentional or deliberated act ion, while wu carries the meaning of "t here is no ..." or "lacking, without". Common translations are "nonaction", "effortless action" or "action without int ent".[49] The meaning is somet imes emphasized by using the paradox expression "wei wu wei": "action without act ion".[50] In ancient Taoist text s, wu-wei is associated wit h water through it s yielding nat ure.[51] Taoist philosophy proposes that t he universe works harmoniously according t o it s own ways. When someone exerts their will against t he world, t hey disrupt t hat harmony. Taoism does not ident ify one's will as t he root problem.
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Rat her, it assert s t hat one must place their will in harmony with the natural universe.[52] Thus, a pot entially harmful interference is to be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effort lessly.[53][54] "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony wit h t he great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonact ion."[49]
Naturalness
Naturalness (Chinese [133]: ; pinyin [134]: zrn; WadeGiles [135]: t zu-jan; lit. "self-such") is regarded as a cent ral value in Taoism.[55] It describes the "primordial stat e" of all t hings[56] as well as a basic charact er of the Tao[57], and is usually associated wit h spontaneity and creat ivity.[58][57] To at tain nat uralness, one has to ident ify wit h t he Tao[57]; this involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire, and appreciat ing simplicit y.[55] An oft en cit ed met aphor for nat uralness is pu (simplified Chinese [136]: [137]; tradit ional Chinese [138]: [139]; pinyin [140]: p, p; WadeGiles [141]: p'u; lit . "uncut wood"), the "uncarved block", which represent s t he "original nature... prior t o t he imprint of cult ure" of an individual.[59] It is usually referred to as a st ate one returns t o.[60]
Three Treasures
Main art icle: Three Treasures (Taoism) [142] The Three Treasures or Three Jewels (simplified Chinese [143]: ; traditional Chinese [144]: ; pinyin [145]: snbo) are basic virt ues in Taoism comprising Compassion, Moderat ion, and Humilit y. They are also t ranslat ed as kindness, simplicity (or t he absence of excess), and modesty. Art hur Waley describes them as "[t ]he t hree rules t hat formed t he practical, polit ical side of the author's teaching". He correlat ed the Three Treasures wit h "abst ent ion from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicit y of living", and "refusal t o assert active authorit y".[61]
Cosm ol ogy
Taoist cosmology is based on t he beliefs of the School of Nat uralist s [146].[21] In t his spirit, the universe is seen as being in a const ant process of re-creat ing
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itself, as everything t hat exist s is a mere aspect of qi [147], which, "condensed, becomes life; dilut ed, it is indefinit e pot ential".[62] Qi is in a perpetual transformat ion between it s condensed and diluted stat e.[63] These t wo different st ates of qi, on the other hand, are embodiment s of t he abstract ent it ies of yin and yang [148],[63] t wo complement ary ext remes t hat constantly play against and with each other and can not exist wit hout t he ot her.[64] Human beings are seen as a microcosm [149] of the universe,[15] and for example comprise t he Five Elements [150] in form of the zang-fu [151] organs.[65] As a consequence, it is believed t hat deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself.[66]
Physi cal exer ci ses

A recurrent and import ant element of Taoism are rituals, exercises and substances aiming at aligning oneself spiritually wit h cosmic forces, at undert aking ecstat ic spiritual journeys, or at improving physical health and thereby ext ending one's life, ideally to the point of immort alit y.[67][68] Probably the most characteristic among t hese met hods is Taoist alchemy [152]. Already in very early Taoist script ures - like the Taiping Jing [153] and t he Baopuzi [154] alchemical formulas for achieving immortalit y were outlined.[69][70] Enlightened and immort al beings are referred to as xian [155]. A number of martial art s t raditions, part icularly t he ones falling under the category of Neijia [156] (like T'ai Chi Ch'uan [157], Bagua Zhang [158] and Xing Yi Quan [159]) embody Taoist principles to a significant ext ent , and some pract it ioners consider t heir art to be a means of pract icing Taoism.[71]
Eschat ol ogy
Main art icle: Li Hong (Taoist eschat ology) [160]
Pan t heon
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[161]
Stat ue of Taoist deit y in Taiwan Further informat ion: Cat egory:Chinese deities [162] Taoist beliefs include t eachings based on revelations from various sources. Therefore, different branches of Taoism often have differing beliefs, especially concerning deities and the proper composit ion of t he pantheon.[72] Nevertheless, t here are cert ain core beliefs that nearly all t he sects share.[73] Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor [163] as the official head deity
[164]. Int ellectual ("elite") Taoists, such as t he Celestial Masters [165] sect , usually
present Laozi [166] (Laojun, "Lord Lao") and t he Three Pure Ones [167] at the top of t he pantheon of deities.[17][74] The pant heon tends t o mirror t he bureaucracy of Imperial China [168]; deities also may be promot ed or demot ed for t heir actions.[75] While a number of immort als or ot her mysterious figures appear in t he Zhuangzi
[169], and to a lesser extent in the Tao Te Ching [170], these have generally not
become the objects of worship. Traditional conceptions of Tao are not t o be confused with the West ern concept s of theism [171]. Being one wit h t he Tao does not indicat e a union wit h an et ernal spirit in, for example, t he Hindu sense. [45][52]
Text s Tao Te Ching
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[172]
Laozi [173] depicted as a Taoist t eacher Main art icle: Tao Te Ching [174] The Tao Te Ching or Daodejing, also oft en called Laozi, is widely regarded t o be the most influent ial Taoist text.[76] According t o legend, it was writ ten by Laozi
[175].[77] However, authorship, precise date of origin, and even unit y of t he t ext
are still subject of debat e,[78] and will probably never be known with cert aint y.[79] The earliest t exts of t he Tao Te Ching t hat have been excavat ed the Guodian bamboo slips [176] - dat e back to t he lat e 4th cent ury BC.[80] Throughout t he hist ory of religious Taoism, the Tao Te Ching has been used as a rit ual t ext .[81] The famous opening lines of the Tao Te Ching are:
(pinyin [177]: do k do fi chng do)

"The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao"
(pinyin [178]: mng k mng fi chng mng)

"The name that can be named is not the eternal name."[1] There is significant , at t imes acrimonious debat e regarding which English translation of the Tao Te Ching is to be preferred, and which part icular translation methodology is best .[82] The Tao Te Ching is not t hematically ordered. However, the main t hemes of the text are repeat edly expressed using variant formulations, oft en wit h only a slight difference.[83] The leading t hemes revolve around t he nat ure of Tao and how t o att ain it . Tao is said to be ineffable, and accomplishing great things t hrough small means.[84] Ancient comment aries on t he Tao Te Ching are import ant text s in their own
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right. Perhaps the oldest one, the Heshang Gong commentary, was most likely writ ten in t he 2nd century CE.[85] Other important comment aries include t he one from Wang Bi [179] and t he Xiang'er [180].[86]
Zhuangzi
Main art icle: Zhuangzi (book) [181]
Daozang
Main art icle: Daozang [182] The Daozang (, Treasury of Tao) is also referred t o as the Taoist canon. It was originally compiled during the Jin [183], Tang [184], and Song [185] dynasties. The version surviving today was published during t he Ming Dynasty [186].[87][88] The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 t exts [187].[89] Following t he example of the Buddhist Tripiaka [188], it is divided into three dong (, "caves", "grot toes"). They are arranged from "highest" t o "lowest":[90][91] 1. The Zhen [189] ("real" or "trut h" ) grott o. Includes the Shangqing [190] text s. 2. The Xuan ("mystery" ) grot to. Includes t he Lingbao [191] script ures. 3. The Shen [192] ("divine" ) grott o. Includes text s predating the Maoshan revelations. Daoshi [193] generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or inherit , text s included in t he Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generat ions from teacher to st udent.[92] The Shangqing school has a tradit ion of approaching Taoism through scriptural st udy. It is believed t hat by recit ing certain text s oft en enough one will be rewarded with immortalit y.[93]
Other texts
See also: Mozi [194] While t he Tao Te Ching is most famous, t here are many ot her import ant t exts in tradit ional Taoism including Mohism [195]. Taishang Ganying Pian [196] ("Treat ise
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of t he Exalted One on Response and Retribution") discusses sin and et hics [197], and has become a popular moralit y tract in the last few cent uries.[94] It assert s that t hose in harmony wit h Tao will live long and fruit ful lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have short ened lives.[84]
Sym bol s and i m ages

The Taijitu [198] ("yin and yang [199]") symbol [200] as well as t he Ba gua
[201] ("Eight Trigrams") are associat ed wit h Taoist symbolism.[95] While
almost all Taoist organizat ions make use of t he yin and yang symbol, one could also call it Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese. The yin and yang make an "S" shape, wit h yin (Black or Red) on the right. One is likely to see t his symbol as decorations on Taoist organizat ion flags and logos, temple floors, or stit ched into clerical robes. According t o Song Dynasty sources, it originated around the 10t h cent ury.[96] Previously, yin and yang were symbolized by a tiger and dragon.[96] Taoist temples may fly square or t riangular flags. They t ypically feat ure mystical writ ing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for t he spirits of t he dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span, et c.[97] Ot her flags and banners may be t hose of t he gods or immortals themselves.[98] A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the Big Dipper
[202] (or t he Bushel, t he Chinese equivalent ). In the Shang Dynasty [203] the Big
Dipper was considered a deity, while during the Han Dynast y [204], it was considered a qi pat h of the circumpolar god, Taiyi.[99] Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may oft en be identified by t heir roofs, which feature Chinese dragons [205] and phoenix [206] made from mult icolored ceramic tiles. They also st and for t he harmony of yin and yang (wit h t he phoenix being yin). A relat ed symbol is t he flaming pearl which may be seen on such roofs between t wo dragons, as well as on t he hairpin of a Celest ial Master.[100] In general though, Chinese Taoist architect ure has no universal feat ures t hat distinguish it from ot her st ructures.[101]
Adher en t s
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[207]
Int erior of a temple in Taiwan The number of Taoist s is difficult t o estimate, due t o a variet y of factors including defining Taoism. The number of people pract icing Chinese folk religion
[208] is estimated to be just under four hundred million.[102] Most Chinese
people and many ot hers have been influenced in some way by Taoist tradit ion. Estimates for t he number of Taoists worldwide range from t wenty million and possibly t o as many as 400 million in China alone.[103][104][105] Recently, t here have been some effort s to revive t he practice of Taoist religion. In 1956, the Chinese Taoist Association [209] was formed, and received official approval in 1957. It was disbanded during the Cult ural Revolution under Mao, but re-established in 1980. The headquart ers of the Association are at Baiyun guan, or White Cloud Temple [210], of the Longmen branch of Quanzhen.[106] Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and t emples have been reopened or rebuilt, most of t hem belonging t o the Zhengyi or Quanzhen school. For t hese two schools, ordinat ion [211] has been officially allowed again. However, "the Chinese government prefers t he celibat e model of ... Quanzhen clergy", while "Zhengyi clergy are oft en married, and oft en reside at home."[107] Geographically, Taoism flourishes best in regions populated by Chinese people: mainland China [212], Taiwan [213], Malaysia [214], Philippines [215], Singapore
[216], and various Chinese diaspora [217] communit ies. Taoist lit erat ure and art
has influenced the cultures of Korea [218], Japan [219], and Viet nam [220]. Organized Taoism seems not to have att ract ed a large non-Chinese following, except in Korea and Vietnam, unt il modern times. In Taiwan [221] 7.5 million people (33% of t he populat ion) ident ify t hemselves as Taoists.[108] In Singapore
[222], 8.5% of the population identify themselves as Taoist.[109] There are also
small numbers of Taoists in t he West ern world.
Ri t ual s
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At cert ain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice [223] t o t he spirits of t he deceased or t he gods, such as during t he Qingming Festival [224]. This may include slaught ered animals, such as pigs and ducks, or fruit . Anot her form of sacrifice involves t he burning of Joss paper [225], or Hell Bank Notes [226], on t he assumpt ion t hat images t hus consumed by t he fire will reappearnot as a mere image, but as t he act ual it emin t he spirit world, making t hem available for revered ancest ors and departed loved ones. At other point s, a vegan [227] diet or full fast may be observed. Also on particular holidays, street parades take place. These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcast ing tradit ional music. They also variously include lion dances [228] and dragon dances
[229]; human-occupied puppet s (often of t he "Seventh Lord [230]" and "Eight h
Lord [231]"); tongji [232] ( "spirit-medium; shaman") who cut t heir skin with knives; Bajiajiang, which are Kungfu [233]-pract icing honor guards in demonic makeup; and palanquins [234] carrying god-images. The various participant s are not considered performers, but rat her possessed by t he gods and spirit s in question.[110] Fortune-t elling [235]including ast rology [236], I Ching [237], and other forms of divination [238]has long been considered a t raditional Taoist pursuit . Mediumship [239] is also widely encountered in some sect s. There is an academic and social dist inct ion bet ween martial forms of mediumship (such as tongji) and the spirit-writ ing t hat is t ypically pract iced through planchet te writing [240].[111]
Pol i t i cal aspect s

Unlike Confucianism, Taoism favors philosophical anarchism [241], pluralism [242] and laissez-faire [243]-government .[112] According t o Laozi, t he best way t o govern is not t o govern (cf. wu-wei [244]).[113] He has been considered as one of the first classical liberals [245],[114][115] as he wrote in the Daodejing: "The more prohibitions there are, the poorer the people become."[114] Also Zhuangzi was along the same lines.[112] On t he ot her hand, polit ics never have been a main issue in Taoism.
Rel at i on s wi t h ot her r el i gi ons an d phi l osophi es
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See also: Vinegar t ast ers [246] The terms Tao and De are religious and philosophical terms shared between Taoism and Confucianism.[116] The aut horship of the Tao Te Ching [247] is assigned to Laozi [248], who is traditionally held t o have been a teacher of Confucius.[117] However, some scholars believe the Tao Te Ching arose as a react ion t o Confucianism.[118] Zhuangzi [249], reacting to t he Confucian-Mohist
[250] et hical disputes in his "hist ory of thought", cast s Laozi as a prior step t o t he
Mohists by name and t he Confucians by implication. Early Taoist text s reject the basic assumptions of Confucianism which relied on rit uals and order, in favour of the examples of "wild" nat ure and individualism. Hist orical Taoist s challenged conventional moralit y, while Confucians considered society debased and in need of strong ethical guidance.[119] The entry of Buddhism [251] into China was marked by int eraction and syncretism
[252], wit h Taoism in particular.[120] Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism",
Buddhism's scriptures were translated int o Chinese using t he Taoist vocabulary.[121] Chan Buddhism was particularly modified by Taoism, int egrat ing distrust of script ure, text and even language, as well as t he Taoist views of embracing "t his life", dedicated practice and t he "every-moment".[122] Taoism incorporated Buddhist element s during t he Tang period [253], such as monast eries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, t he doct rine of empt iness, and collecting script ure in tripartite organisat ion. During the same time, Chan Buddhism [254] grew to become t he largest sect in Chinese Buddhism.[123] Christine Mollier concluded that a number of Buddhist sut ras [255] found in medieval East Asia [256] and Cent ral Asia [257] adopted many materials from earlier Taoist scriptures.[124] Ideological and polit ical rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another.[125] For example, Wang Bi, one of t he most influent ial philosophical comment ators on t he Laozi (and Yijing [258]), was a Confucian.[126] The t hree rivals also share some similar values, wit h all t hree embracing a humanist [259] philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified t o some ext ent wit h all three tradit ions simultaneously.[127] This became inst itutionalised when aspect s of the three schools were synt hesised in t he Neo-Confucian school.[128] Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel [260] and Arthur Schopenhauer [261] bot h wrote of Taoism.[129]
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See al so Refer en ces Footnotes

1. ^ a b Laozi. "Tao Te Ching, 1. chapter, translat ed by Livia Kohn (1993)" [262]. Ret rieved 29 May 2012. 2. ^ The Ancient Chinese Super State of Primary Societies: Taoist Philosophy for the 21st Century, You-Sheng Li, June 2010, p. 300 3. ^ Goodspeed (1983). 4. ^ Carr (1990, pp. 6365). Convert ing t he various pronunciation respelling syst ems [263] into IPA [264], Brit ish dict ionaries (19331989, Table 3) give 9 /t a.zm/, 2 /t a.zm, da.zm/, and 1 /da.zm/; American dict ionaries (19481987, Table 4) give 6 /da.zm, ta.zm/, 2 /ta.zm, da.zm/, 2 /t a.zm/, and 1 /da.zm/. 5. ^ Kohn (2000), pp. xi 6. ^ Kohn (2000), p. 44. 7. ^ Chad Hansen. "Taoism" [265]. Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Met aphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford Universit y [266]. Ret rieved 2008-10-01. 8. ^ Chad Hansen. "Taoism" [267]. Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Met aphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford Universit y [268]. Ret rieved 2008-10-01. 9. ^ a b Graham (1989) p. 170171 10. ^ Robinet (2000), p. xxix 11. ^ Robinet (1997), p. 3 12. ^ Kohn (2000), p. xi 13. ^ "... most scholars who have seriously studied Taoism, both in Asia and t he West, have finally abandoned t he simplistic dichotomy of ... 'philosophical Taoism' and 'religious Taoism." As seen at: Kirkland (2004) p. 2 14. ^ Mair (2001) p. 174 15. ^ a b Robinet (1997), p. 103. 16. ^ Robinet (1997), p. 2 17. ^ a b Robinet (1997), p. 63. 18. ^ a b Robinet 1997, p. 25 19. ^ Kirkland 2004, p. 62 20. ^ Kirkland 2004, p. 61 21. ^ a b Robinet 1997, p. 6
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22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38.
^ Demerath (2003), p. 149. ^ Hucker (1995), pp. 20304. ^ a b Robinet 1997, p. 36 ^ Robinet 1997, p. 39 ^ Robinet 1997, p. 54 ^ Robinet 1997, p. 1 ^ Robinet (1997), p. 50. ^ Robinet (1997), p. 184. ^ Robinet 1997, p. 115 ^ Robinet 1997, p. 150 ^ Robinet 1997, p. xvi ^ Robinet (1997), p. 213. ^ Eskildsen, Stephen (2004). The Teachings and Practices of the Early Quanzhen Taoist Masters. St ate University of New York Press. p. 17. ^ Kohn (2000), p. XVII. ^ Schipper (1993), p. 19. ^ Schipper (1993), p. 220. ^ Human Rights Without Frontiers "Religious Freedom in China in 2006"
[269][dead link [270]] PDF (30.6 KB) An address given to t he Delegat ion
39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59.
EU-China of t he European Parliament . ^ Chan (1963) ^ Kirkland (2004), p. 3 ^ DeFrancis (1996) p. 113 ^ Chan (1963) p. 136 ^ Cane (2002), p. 13. ^ A. Chan, in Kohn (2000), p. 20 ^ a b Mart inson (1987), pp. 168169. ^ LaFargue (1994) p. 283. ^ Sharot (2001), pp. 7778, 88. ^ Maspero (1981), p. 32. ^ a b c Van Voorst 2005, p. 170. ^ Kirkland (2004), p. 60. ^ Oldmeadow (2007), p. 109. ^ a b Faching & deChant (2001), p. 35. ^ A source book in Chinese philosophy, Wing-tsit Chan, p137, p ^ Living in t he Tao: The Effortless Pat h of Self-Discovery, Mant ak Chia ^ a b Fowler 2005, p. 122. ^ Slingerland 2003, p. 97. ^ a b c Girardot 1988, p. 56. ^ Fowler 2005, p. 121. ^ Kraemer 1986, p. 286.
60. ^ Girardot 1988, p. 70.
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61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76.
^ Waley (1958), p. 225. ^ Robinet (1997), p. 7 ^ a b Robinet (1997), p. 8 ^ Robinet (1997), p. 9 ^ Kohn (2000), p. 825. ^ Occhiogrosso (2004), p. 171. ^ Kohn (2000), p. 672. ^ Robinet (1993) pp. 228 & 103. ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 7071. ^ Robinet (1997), p. 73. ^ Silvers (2005), pp. 135137 ^ Segal (2006), p. 50. ^ Robinet (1997), p. 1. ^ Maspero (1981), p. 41. ^ Maspero (1981), p. 92. ^ Miller (2003), p. ix
77. ^ "Patheos Library Taoism" [271]. Pat heos.com. 2011-01-05. Retrieved 2011-05-16. 78. ^ Eliade (1984), p. 26 79. ^ Watt s (1975), p. xxiii 80. ^ "Laozi" [272]. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [273] by Stanford Universit y [274]. "The discovery of t wo Laozi silk manuscript s at Mawangdui, near Changsha, Hunan province in 1973 marks an import ant milest one in modern Laozi research. The manuscript s, ident ified simply as A (jia) and B (yi), were found in a tomb t hat was sealed in 168 B.C.E. The t exts themselves can be dat ed earlier, t he A manuscript being t he older of t he t wo, copied in all likelihood before 195 B.C.E. Until recent ly, t he Mawangdui manuscripts have held t he pride of place as the oldest extant manuscript s of t he Laozi. In lat e 1993, t he excavat ion of a tomb (identified as M1) in Guodian, Jingmen cit y, Hubei province, has yielded among ot her t hings some 800 bamboo slips, of which 730 are inscribed, cont aining over 13,000 Chinese charact ers. Some of these, amounting to about 2,000 charact ers, match t he Laozi. The t omb...is dated around 300 B.C.E." ^ Kohn & LaFargue (1998), p. 158. ^ Kohn & LaFargue (1998), pp. 18586. ^ Kim (2003), p. 13 ^ a b Van Voorst (2005), p. 165 ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 73. ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 7477. ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 1.
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81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87.

18 of 34
88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101.
^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 30. ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 36. ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 15. ^ Lit te (2000), p. 46 ^ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 44. ^ Robinet (1997), p. 132. ^ "Jordan: The Taoist Canon" [275]. Weber.ucsd.edu. Ret rieved 2011-05-16. ^ Lit tle (2000), pp. 131139 ^ a b Litt le (2000), p. 131 ^ Kohn (2004), p. 116. ^ Kohn (2004), p. 119 ^ Lit tle (2000), p. 128 ^ Schipper (1993), p. 21. ^ Lit tle (2000), p. 74
102. ^ "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents" [276]. Adherents.com. Ret rieved 2011-05-16. 103. ^ "Taoism" [277]. Religionfact s.com. Ret rieved 2011-05-16. 104. ^ "Religious adherent st atist ics" [278]. Adherent s.com. Ret rieved 2011-05-16. 105. ^ How Now Tao? [279]. Asia Sent inel (2010-10-18). Retrieved on 2010-10-26. 106. ^ "Patheos Library Taoism: Modern Age" [280]. Pat heos.com. Retrieved 2011-05-16. 107. ^ "Patheos Library Taoism: Modern Age" [281]. Pat heos.com. Retrieved 2011-05-16. 108. ^ "Internat ional Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Taiwan only)" [282]. St ate.gov. 2006-09-15. Ret rieved 2011-05-16. 109. ^ "Singapore Demographics Profile 2008" [283]. Indexmundi.com. 2010-12-30. Ret rieved 2011-05-16. 110. ^ Schipper (1993), p. 2829. 111. ^ Silvers (2005), p. 129132. 112. ^ a b Taoism [284], Hansen, Chad, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012 Edit ion), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) 113. ^ A Short History Of Confucian Philosophy [285], Liu Wu-Chi (Wuji Liu), PH.D., Yale University, Penguin Books, Great Britain, First published 1955 114. ^ a b Don't Discount Chinese Liberalism [286], Liu Junning, Wall Street Journal, July 6, 2011 115. ^ Lao Tsu [287], Liberal Int ernat ional 116. ^ Markham & Ruparell (2001). p. 254. 117. ^ Hansen (2000). pp. 202, 210. 118. ^ Fisher (1997). p. 167. 119. ^ Maspero (1981). p. 39.
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120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126.
^ Maspero (1981). p. 46. ^ Prebish (1975). p. 192. ^ Dumoulin, Heisig & Knit ter (2005). pp. 68, 7073, 167168. ^ Dumoulin, Heisig & Knit ter (2005). pp. 166167, 169172. ^ Mollier (2008). ^ Markham & Ruparell (2001). pp. 248249. ^ Schipper (1993), p. 192.
127. ^ Windows on Asia [288][dead link [289]] Asian Studies Center, Michigan Stat e Universit y. 128. ^ Moore (1967). pp. 133, 147. 129. ^ as described for example, in Differences from Western Philosophy [290]
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68. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language 69. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin 70. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy 71. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daodejing 72. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book) 73. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynast y 74. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhuangzi 75. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language 76. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin 77. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celest ial_Mast ers 78. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneut ic 79. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organized_religion 80. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_t radit ions 81. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion 82. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist ory_of_Taoism 83. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baiyun.jpg 84. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing 85. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laozi 86. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Yin_Yang 87. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yin_and_yang 88. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Phases 89. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_St at es_period 90. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daodejing 91. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhuangzi 92. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehist oric 93. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianshi_Dao 94. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao 95. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Pecks_of_Rice 96. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Daoling 97. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Cao 98. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shangqing_School 99. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_Dynast y 100. ht t p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge_Chaofu
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Taoism

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Taoism

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Cat egor i zat i on

Or i gi ns an d devel opm ent

Taoism tends t o emphasize various themes of t he Daodejing [117] and Zhuangzi

Physi cal exer ci ses

Text s Tao Te Ching

(pinyin [177]: do k do fi chng do)

(pinyin [178]: mng k mng fi chng mng)

Sym bol s and i m ages

small numbers of Taoists in t he West ern world.

Pol i t i cal aspect s

Rel at i on s wi t h ot her r el i gi ons an d phi l osophi es

See al so Refer en ces Footnotes

60. ^ Girardot 1988, p. 70.

81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87.

120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126.

Fur t her r eadi ng

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