Acta Geophysica

DOI: 10.2478/s11600-012-0092-y

Paleomagnetism and Magnetic Mineralogy of Metabasites and Granulites from Orlica-nienik Dome (Central Sudetes)
Magdalena KDZIAKO-HOFMOKL1, Jacek SZCZEPASKI2, Tomasz WERNER1, Maria JELESKA1, and Krzysztof NEJBERT3
Institute of Geophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warszawa, Poland e-mails: magdahof@igf.edu.pl (corresponding author), twerner@igf.edu.pl, bogna@igf.edu.pl 2 Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Wrocaw, Wrocaw, Poland e-mail: jacek.szczepanski@ing.uni.wroc.pl 3 Institute of Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Petrology, Warsaw University, Warszawa, Poland; e-mail: knejbert@uw.edu.pl Abstract The results of palaeomagnetic, rock magnetic, and microscopic study of Early Paleozoic metabasites and granulites from the Orlicanienik Dome (OSD, Sudetes) have been combined with geochronological data. In the eastern part of the OSD (nienik Massif, SM) ferrimagnetic pyrrhotite is prevalent, accompanied by various amounts of Fe-oxides. In the western part of the OSD (Orlica-Bystrzyca Massif, OBM) Fe-oxides dominate. All magnetic minerals originated during hydrothermal and weathering processes. The palaeomagnetic study revealed the presence of three secondary components of natural remanence: Late Carboniferous, Late Permian, and Mesozoic. Two Paleozoic components are related to volcanic activity in the Sudetes. They are carried by pyrrhotite and Fe-oxides and were isolated only in SM rocks. The Mesozoic component was determined in both parts of the OSD and is carried by Fe-oxides. It covers a time span, from ~160 to ~40 Ma, corresponding to a long period of alteration. Key words: Sudetes, Orlica-nienik Dome, Paleozoic, metabasites, paleomagnetism, rock-magnetism.
________________________________________________ 2012 Institute of Geophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences
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1.

INTRODUCTION

This paper is a continuation of a series of papers concerning paleomagnetism and rock-magnetism of rocks exposed in the Sudetes Mountains, SW Poland (easternmost part of the Bohemian Massif). The Sudetes are interpreted as a complex mosaic of terranes (Franke and elaniewicz 2000, Aleksandrowski and Mazur 2002) composed of a deformed and metamorphosed, latest Proterozoic to middle Paleozoic, volcano-sedimentary succession intruded by pre-Ordovician granites. These complexes are covered by Late Devonian to Carboniferous sediments and intruded by voluminous Carboniferous granites. The paleomagnetic study of the Sudetic Paleozoic rocks was undertaken some years ago to help elucidate the tectonic history of the Sudetes and, as a consequence, the eastern part of the Variscan Belt. Results obtained till 2002 served as the basis for constructing the Sudetic Apparent Polar Wander Path from Devonian to Permian (Jeleska et al. 2003 and references within). The oldest calculated point obtained by the spline method reaches 394 Ma, the youngest about 250 Ma. The results obtained later for rocks from the Kodzko Metamorphic Complex (Kdziako-Hofmokl et al. 2003) are compatible with the reference Sudetic Path for the Carboniferous-Permian boundary. On the whole, the Sudetic Path runs very close to the Apparent Polar Wander Path for Baltica constructed by Torsvik and Smethurst (1994). Palaeomagnetic poles most often encountered in the studied Palaeozoic Sudetic rocks are of Carboniferous and Permian and Mesozoic age; Devonian poles are less numerous. In many cases the Tertiary-Recent secondary components of natural remanence, compatible with the reference data for Stable Europe (Besse and Courtillot 2002), were also encountered. In order to better define the oldest part of the Sudetic Path, isotopically dated ultrabasic rocks from the Jordanw-Gogow Serpentinite Massif (JGSM) and the Sowie Gry Block (GSB), belonging to the dismembered Sudetic ophiolite, were studied by Kdziako-Hofmokl et al. (2006, 2008). A geochronological study performed on zircons gave the minimum age of serpentinization of the JGSM peridotite at 400+4/-3 Ma (Dubiska et al. 2004) and the Sm-Nd isochrone revealed the cooling age of peridotite from the GSB at 402 3 Ma (Brueckner et al. 1996). The palaeomagnetic results (Kdziako-Hofmokl et al. 2006, 2008) obtained for these ultrabasics revealed the presence of four components of natural remanence. Two of them were compatible with the Carboniferous and Permian segments of the Sudetic APWP, the third component lay along the Tertiary-Recent part of the Master European APW Path. The fourth component, which was ascribed to the Early Devonian isotopic ages quoted above, revealed a pole position that did not lie on the final segment of the APWP, but was displaced from it. This result, discussed thoroughly in the forementioned papers, implies that during the Early Devo-

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nian the JGSM + GSB block formed a common unit that accreted to the remaining Sudetic units not earlier than about 390 Ma. The present study was undertaken in an attempt to find corroboration of these results in isotopically dated Palaeozoic metamorphic rocks from the Orlica-nienik Dome (OSD) the Polish part of the important Sudetic region not yet studied palaeomagnetically. The rocks in this structure experienced several tectonometamorphic episodes from (U)HP/(U)HT through retrogression and hydrothermal alterations. For our study we have chosen metabasites (amphibolites and eclogites) and granulites to examine whether they had retained component/s of remanent magnetization/s acquired during the times preceding the zircon and Ar39/Ar40 metamorphic ages (370-330 Ma) recorded by rocks of the OSD. Bearing in mind that remagnetizations are very common in the Sudetes and the primary components of age older than Late Carboniferous Early Devonian are difficult to find, we looked also for remagnetized components of remanence to relate them to the post-Variscan history of Palaeozoic complexes in Sudetes. The Orlica-nienik Dome with its complex history seems to be a good candidate for such trial. We have attempted to combine our palaeomagnetic results with the results of investigations of magnetic mineralogy and geochronological data.
2. GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The OSD, Central Sudetes, SW Poland (Fig. 1), comprises amphibolitefacies orthogneisses intercalated with a volcano-sedimentary succession. The main textural varieties of the former rocks, the nienik and Gieratw gneisses, are derived from a similar granitic protolith dated at about 500 Ma (e.g., Turniak et al. 2000). The orthogneisses host inclusions of (U)HP granulites and eclogites (Fig. 1b), whereas the surrounding volcanosedimentary complex is composed of biotite to staurolite-grade mica schists and paragneisses with intercalations of marbles, acidic metavolcanic rocks and amphibolites. The supracrustal series represents a Neoproterozoic to Cambrian succession, based on micropaleontological evidence (e.g., Gunia 1990) and detrital zircon ages (Mazur et al. 2012). In contrast, also on the basis of detrital zircon ages, Jastrzbski et al. (2010) suggested that the whole formation was laid down during Middle Cambrian Early Ordovician times. The volcano-sedimentary complex contains relatively small bodies of metabasic rocks of MOR affinity and shows a geochemical signature produced by a subduction-related component (Ilnicki et al. 2012) or due to crustal contamination (Floyd et al. 1996, Nowak and elaniewicz 2006). The structure of the OSD is described as resembling that of gneiss domes (e.g., Chopin et al. 2012), with core part formed by SM and OBM mantled

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Fig. 1: (a) Geological sketch map of the eastern part of the Bohemian Massif, (b) geological sketch map of the Orlica-nienik Dome, with sampling localities and sample numbers in the Orlica-Bystrzyca Massif (OBM), and nienik Massif (SM).

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by the Nov Msto unit to the west, the Zbeh unit to the south and the Star Msto unit to the east. The NNE-SSW trending Star Msto Belt is composed of Lower Ordovician amphibolites, tonalitic gneiss, paragneiss, and migmatites intruded by a Carboniferous granodioritic sill (Parry et al. 1997, tpsk et al. 2001). The protholith of these rocks has been interpreted as a Lower Palaeozoic intracontinental rift succession, subsequently accreted onto the Variscan orogen (tpsk et al. 2001). Still farther east of the Star Msto Belt, the East Sudetic nappe pile comprises thrust units derived from the western margin of the Brunovistulian microplate (Schulmann and Gayer 2000). To the south, the volcano-sedimentary complex of the Zbeh Unit is composed of mica schists and paragneisses intercalated with acid and basic metavolcanics. In the Nov Msto Unit (NMU) low grade metapelites and basic and acidic metavolcanics of assumed Neoproterozoic age (e.g., Chaloupsk et al. 1995) are intruded by Carboniferous granodiorites and tonalites (Bachliski and Haas 2002). Numerous isotopic ages of metamorphism and subsequent cooling, published during the last two decades from the OSD and its neighbourhood, could be roughly grouped into four age intervals which may correspond to separate thermal events: (i) 390-370 Ma, related most probably to HP/UHP metamorphism (e.g., Anczkiewicz et al. 2007, Gordon et al. 2005), (ii) 350320 Ma, being a record of the main phase of Variscan metamorphism (e.g., Turniak et al. 2000, tpsk et al. 2004, Lange et al. 2005a, b, Schneider et al. 2006, Brcker et al. 2009, Chopin et al. 2012), (iii) 300-270 Ma, most probably a record of post-Variscan cooling (Maluski et al. 1995, Szczepaski 2002), and (iv) 120-80 Ma (Maluski et al. 1995, Marheine et al. 2002). It is noteworthy that Permo-Carboniferous thermal events described from the OSD correlate well in time with the intense volcanism and sedimentation in the adjacent Intra-Sudetic Basin (Awdankiewicz 1999, 2004). The most recent isotopic ages obtained by means of U-Pb SHRIMP dating on zircons document Late Carboniferous (about 310-300 Ma) and early Permian (294283 Ma) ages of volcanism in this part of the Sudetes (Awdankiewicz and Kryza 2010, Awdankiewicz et al. 2011, Kryza and Awdankiewicz 2012). Late Permian volcanic activity dated at about 294 Ma has also been documented from the North-Sudetic Basin (Szczepara et al. 2011). Additionally, U-Pb zircon ages from the elaniak intrusion in the neighbouring Kaczawa Mts. were interpreted as the emplacement age (316-315 Ma) and a younger event or episode of hydrothermal activity (about 269 Ma; Machowiak et al. 2008). The above mentioned data indicate relatively strong Late Carboniferous Early Permian magmatic activity preserved within the sedimentary basins surrounding the OSD. The OSD is cut by the Late Cretaceous Nysa Kodzka Graben (NKG) and divided into the eastern nienik Massif (SM) and the western Orlica-

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Bystrzyca Massif (OBM). Sedimentation started in the Late Cenomanian (e.g., Wojewoda 1997); however, as a fault-bounded basin the NGK was initiated in the Late Turonian / Early Coniacian (e.g., Don 1996). The development of the NKG is correlated well in time with the Late Cretaceous inversion of the Polish Basin, and the entire Central European Basin System (CEBS; Scheck et al. 2002). The inversion in question also correlates with activity of the Elbe Fault Zone (EFZ) constituting the SW boundary of the CEBS (Scheck et al. 2002). The EFZ is about 800 km long and WNW-ESE trending zone extending from the North Sea to SW Poland (Fig. 1a). Its activity involved three separate periods (Scheck et al. 2002 and references therein): (i) Late Carboniferous, (ii) Late Jurassic / Early Cretaceous, and the most intense during (iii) Late Cretaceous / Palaeogene. The Late Cretaceous to Palaeogene uplift of Variscan massifs adjoining the EFZ from the SW was recorded by fission-track data from the Lusatian Thrust (Ventura et al. 2009), the western Erzgebirge (Ventura and Lisker 2003) and the Sudetes (Aramowicz et al. 2006, Daniik et al. 2012).
3. SAMPLING AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

3.1 Sampling Rocks chosen for our study are mainly amphibolites (metabasites) cropping out as small inclusions within the volcano-sedimentary complex. Moreover, some of the samples collected represent granulites hosted by the migmatized Gieratw orthogneisses, eclogites forming inclusions within the Gieratw type orthogneisses, and metagabbro. The sampling localities were rather small and our collection comprises only 84 oriented hand samples from 12 exposures: 6 lying in the eastern (SM) and 6 in the western (OBM) part of the OSD (see Fig. 1b). Nine localities contain amphibolites, one eclogites (SM Midzygrze, MI), one granulites (SM Stary Gieratw, SG), and one metagabbros (OBM Lewin Kodzki 2, LK2). The LK2 and neighbouring amphibolite exposure, Lewin Kodzki 1 (LK1), are located in veins belonging to the NMU. The names of sampling sites with appropriate abbreviations used later in the text, numbers of samples and lithology and values of selected magnetic properties are summarized in Table 1. Hand samples were cut in the laboratory into standard cylinders for palaeomagnetic and rock magnetic investigations. 3.2 Methods of rock-magnetic investigations The identification and characteristics of the mineral carriers of the magnetic properties of the study rocks were investigated using magnetic methods and reflected-light microscopy. The results obtained by the magnetic methods led to the identification of magnetic minerals irrespective of their origin, and

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to an estimation of their domain state. The microscopic study helped to distinguish magnetic and non-magnetic ore minerals of various origins and appearance, as well as their alteration. The combination of magnetic and microscopic results permitted the determination of the conditions and sequence of appearance of magnetic minerals of the same kind but different origin and, consequently, the probable origin and age of their magnetization. 3.2.1 magnetic methods Magnetic methods comprised thermomagnetic analyses and investigation of magnetic hysteresis. Thermomagnetic analyses consisted of: (i) the thermal decay of saturation remanence SIRM acquired in the field of 9 T, during heating to 700C in non-magnetic space (TUS-Poland); (ii) continuous measurements of magnetic bulk susceptibility Kb, during heating in the low (196C room temperature, r.t.), and during heating and cooling in the high (r.t. 700C) temperature ranges (KLY-3 with low-temperature and high-temperature extensions CS3-L and CS3, accordingly, AGICO, Czech Republic). Thermomagnetic experiments performed in the range of r.t. 700C reveal values of unblocking (Tub) and Curie (TC) temperatures characteristic of magnetic minerals, experiments performed in the 196C r.t. range show temperatures of low-temperature transitions if present. Kb-T plots may also reveal prevailing paramagnetic minerals; (iii) for a few specimens, measurements of magnetization induced in 450 mT, during heating to 700C performed with a thermobalance in the Borok Laboratory of the Institute of the Physics of the Earth of Russian Academy of Sciences; (iv) application of the Lowrie method (Lowrie 1990) consisting of step-like thermal demagnetization of three components of IRM acquired in the field of 3 T (Z component), 0.4 T (Y component), and 0.15 T (X component). This method reveals blocking temperatures of components of magnetic remanences of various coercivities. Measurements of magnetic hysteresis were performed with a vibrating magnetometer VSM (Molspin Ltd, UK) or, in the case of very weakly magnetic specimens, with Micromag 2900 AGM (PMC, Princeton, USA) with the highest available magnetic field of 1 T. For a few specimens the apparatus working in the Borok Laboratory (see above) was also used. The obtained parameters: Mrs saturation remanence, Ms saturation magnetization, Hc coercivity, Hcr coercivity of remanence served for construction of the Day Dunlop plot (Dunlop 2002), that helps to estimate the domain state of magnetic minerals. 3.2.2 reflected-light microscopy Identification of minerals in the examined metamorphic rocks and observation of their textural intergrowths, permitting us to reconstruct the mineral

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succession scheme, were performed on a standard polarising microscope ECLIPSE E600W POL (NIKKON, Japan). 3.3 Methods of palaeomagnetic investigations Palaeomagnetic investigations consisted of measurements of intensity and directions of natural remanence NRM of specimens in their natural state and after consecutive steps of demagnetization during thermal and alternating field demagnetization procedures. Measurements were performed with the magnetometer SQUID of DC type (2G Enterprises, USA) with an attached alternating field demagnetizer with peak alternating field (AF) of 140 mT. Thermal cleaning was performed with a nonmagnetic furnace of Magnetic Measurements (Great Britain) by heating specimens to 700C with demagnetization steps of 25, 50, or 100C (according to mineralogical composition and temperature range). All the above equipment is located within a lowfield cage of Magnetic Measurements compensating the external magnetic field. Magnetic susceptibility Km of thermally demagnetized specimens was measured in their natural state and after each heating step, with a KLY-2 susceptibility bridge (Geophysica Brno, former Czechoslovakia) for monitoring mineral changes implied by heating. All demagnetizing results were analyzed with the PDA program package based on principal component analysis developed by Kirschvink (Kirschvink 1980). In some cases the Remasoft program of Chadima and Hrouda (2006) was used. Bulk magnetic susceptibility Km and its anisotropy AMS were measured for all untreated specimens cut for palaeomagnetic purposes. The results will be the subject of another paper, aimed at an AMS study of the OSD metabasites and HP/UHP rocks. This will provide an opportunity for a detailed discussion of the AMS data and tectonic models proposed by Pressler et al. (2007).
4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Results of rock-magnetic study of identification of magnetic minerals The plots of SIRM-T and plots of Lowrie reveal the dominance of ferrimagnetic (monoclinic) pyrrhotite with an unblocking temperature of about 330350C in amphibolites from localities NG, LU, GO and in eclogites from MI (Fig. 2a, c, g, i) from SM. The presence of pyrrhotite is sometimes (Fig. 2b), but not always (Fig. 2h), observed also on Kb-T plots. The pyrrhotite phase is often accompanied by various, but rather small, amounts of Fe-oxides (magnetite/maghemite, hematite with unblocking temperatures between 450 and 670C and a phase with an unblocking temperature of 170-200C that may be connected with a goethite or maghemite coating formed on small

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Fig. 2. Thermomagnetic results for SM amphibolites and eclogites (SIRM-T plots left column, K-T plots central column, Lowrie experiments right column): (a) SIRM-T plot for NG amphibolite, (b) high-temperature Kb-T plot for NG amphibolite, (c) Lowrie plot for NG amphibolite, (d) SIRM-T plot for SN amphibolite, (e) high temperatures Kb-T plot for SN amphibolite, (f) Lowrie plot for NG amphibolite, (g) SIRM-T plot for MI eclogite, (h) high temperature Kb-T plot for MI eclogite, and (i) Lowrie plot for MI eclogite. SIRM means saturation remanence acquired in the field of 9 T, K bulk susceptibility, T temperature, and mag/magh magnetite/maghemite.

magnetite grains during surface-oxidation at low temperatures (see, e.g., Kdziako-Hofmokl 2001, and references within, zdemir and Dunlop 2010). The same procedures performed on amphibolites from the remaining localities (in the SM and OBM parts) show a dominance of Fe-oxides: magnetite/maghemite and hematite accompanied with small amounts of pyrrhotite, in some cases visible on a Lowrie plots, and with goethite and/or surface-oxidized magnetite (Fig. 2d-f for SM and Fig. 3a-h for OBM). The unusual stability of isothermal remanences revealed by the Lowrie plot for the specimen from LK1 (Fig. 3h) and metagabbro from LK2 suggests the presence of hematite-ilmenite exsolutions in these rocks (McEnroe et al. 2005). Granulites from SG contain hematite as a main magnetic phase; a 170-200C kink appears on SIRM-T and I(450 mT)-T plots in these rocks as well.

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Fig. 3. Thermomagnetic results obtained for OBM amphibolites and gabbro (SIRM-T plots left column, K-T plots central column, Lowrie experiments right column): (a) SIRM-T plots for GN amphibolite, (b) high temperature Kb-T plot for GN amphibolite, (c) SIRM-T plot for SZ amphibolite, (d) high temperature Kb-T plot for SZ amphibolite, (e) Lowrie plot for SZ amphibolite, (f) SIRM-T plot for LK1 amphibolite, (g) high temperature Kb-T plot for LK1 amphibolite, and (h) Lowrie plot for LK1 amphibolite. Remaining notations as in Fig. 2.

Heating in air results in an increase of SIRM and magnetic susceptibility in all studied rocks due to the formation of new magnetic minerals (magnetite). The results clearly show differences in magnetic mineralogy between the eastern (SM) and western (OBM) rocks. In the SM ferrimagnetic pyrrhotite is the main carrier of magnetic properties, whereas in the OBM (and in amphibolites from locality SN), the dominant magnetic minerals are Fe-oxides. From this observation we decided to treat the results obtained during further study of rocks from the SM and OBM separately. 4.2 Hysteresis study Measurements of hysteresis parameters were performed for 39 specimens (12 with Micromag, 2 in Borok, and 25 with VSM Nuvo). The dominant contribution of paramagnetic phases is observed as a linear relationship of M

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Fig. 4. Results for magnetic hysteresis measurements. An example of hysteresis loop for NG amphibolites: (a) measured with Micromag AGM 2900; large plots hysteresis loops for whole signal (thin line) and ferromagnetic phase (bold line) in field up to 0.5 T, signal normalized; small inset plots IRM acquisition curves (right part), and backfield demagnetization of IRM in fields up to 200 mT (left part); Hcr means coercivity of remanence (in mT), Hc coercive force (in mT), Hcr/Hc and Mrs/Ms ratios are included; (b) DunlopDay plot according to Dunlop (2002) plots for 38 samples; Mrs/Ms and Hcr/Hc hysteresis parameters for samples determined with VSM Nuvo or Micromag 2900 are plotted for SM metabasites and granulites as well as for OBM metabasites (see attached legend). Results are compared to theoretical SD-MD, SD-SP, MD curves calculated by Dunlop (2002).

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versus H on the H-M plots; Fig. 4a shows the characteristic hysteresis plots for specimens from the SM and OBM metabasites. The Day-Dunlop plot of Mrs/Ms versus Hcr/Hc (Dunlop 2002), (Fig. 4b), reveals the domain state of the magnetic minerals. Some scatter in the Mrs/Ms and Hcr/Hc parameters is due to the low content of the ferrimagnetic phase which affects the accuracy, especially for data from the VSM magnetometer. Samples from the SM metabasites with prevalent pyrrhotite fall into two regions most samples fall in the reference region for magnetite of SD grain size (see especially NG) and some around the SD + MD mixing curve with variable MD content (Fig. 4b). In two samples (LU, MI) a significant contribution of SP grains is observed. Samples from the SM metabasites with Fe-oxides are situated between the reference SD + MD and SD + SP mixing curves of Dunlop (2002). This pattern may indicate a PSD state or, more probably, SD/MD with an SP contribution. The hysteresis parameters for the OBM metabasites are more scattered than that for the SM, caused by the scatter of Hc and Hcr due to the varying contribution of hematite and the low contribution by a ferromagnetic phase. In general, they occupy two areas which differ in the SD, MD, and SP contributions in the Day plot. 4.3 Reflected-light microscopy A microscopic study was made of 15 samples selected from all sites except SG. The observed ferrimagnetic phases are present as accessory components and usually occur in association with non-magnetic opaque minerals or as tiny inclusions within major rock-forming amphibole, plagioclase, garnet, and biotite. Microscopically visible opaque aggregates do not exceed 3 mm in diameter. They can be subdivided into two major mineral associations: an oxide association comprising rutile, ilmenite, low-Ti magnetite, hematite, goethite, two generations of leucoxene LEU I and LEU II (Fig. 5), and a sulphide association that consists of pyrite, pyrrhotite, marcasite, post-pyrrhotite magnetite, chalcopyrite, chalcocite, and graphite (Fig. 6). All textural varieties of Fe-hydroxide (goethite) and hematite grown during sulphide oxidation, often observed in all investigated samples, were included with the oxide association. Evolution of oxide association: Rutile is the oldest opaque mineral present in this association (Fig. 5a). It broke down to ilmenite through retrogressive metamorphic reactions with rock-forming minerals containing Fe (Fig. 5c). Subsequently, during advancing retrogression, ilmenite was overgrown by titanite (Fig. 5b, c) with tiny lens-like inclusions of hematite within ilmenite grains (Fig. 5d). Such processes take place under conditions of high oxygen and/or H2O fugacities (Buddington and Lindsley 1964, Haggerty 1991, Xirouchakis and Lindsley 1998, Frost et al. 2001, Harlov and Hansen

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Fig. 5. Fe-Ti oxides in metamorphic rocks of the OSD: (a) relic of rutile overgrown by coarse-grained leucoxene that originated due to retrogressive breakdown of ilmenite (LK1 amphibolite); (b) ilmenite aggregate overgrown by retrogresive titanite (NG amphibolite); (c) ilmenite, partly replaced by coarse grained leucoxene and rimmed by late titanite (LK2 metagabbro); (d) fine exsolutions of titanian hematite within host ilmenite (hemo-ilmenite); hemo-ilmenite is replaced by coarsegrained leucoxene (GN amphibolite); (e) magnetite grains within thin biotite-rich zones, late hematite replace host magnetite along {111}; inset in upper-left corner of the photograph shows another example of the euhedral magnetite from this some zone (SN amphibolite); and (f) hydrothermal hematite growing concurrently with the thin quartz vein (LK1 amphibolite). Abbreviations: Hem hematite, Ilm ilmenite, Mag magnetite, Qz quartz, Rt rutile, Ttn titanite, HEM-ILM hemo-ilmenite, LEU (I) and (II) leucoxene, coarse-grained and fine-grained, respectively.

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Fig. 6. Mineralogy of sulphide association from metamorphic rocks of the OSD: (a) pyrrhotite crystallized and gradually transformed (MI eclogite); (b) pyrrhotitechalcopyrite intergrowths developed during high-temperature external exsolution (NG amphibolite); (c) ilmenite, showing initial stage of leucoxenization (LEU II), associated with pyrite which containing small inclusions of pyrrhotite and magnetite (GN amphibolite); (d) secondary pyrite intergrown by large grains of magnetite and numerous small pyrrhotite intergrowths that are relics of the large pyrrhotite grains existed before pyritization of pyrrhotite (GN amphibolite); (e) pyrrhotite replaced by late marcasite-goethite (NG amphibolite); and (f) goethite-hematite pseudomorph after sulphide aggregate (SZ amphibolite). Abbreviations: Ccp chalcopyrite, Gth goethite, Hem hematite, Ilm ilmenite, Mag magnetite, Mrc marcasite, Po pyrrhotite, Py pyrite, LEU II leucoxene II.

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2005). A continuation of the retrogressive processes connected with increasing oxygen fugacity led to a breakdown of ilmenite into aggregates of leucoxene (Ramdohr 1980, Mcke and Bhadra Chaudhuri 1991). Leucoxene, forming fine-grained, sometimes submicroscopic intergrowths, consists of a mixture of Fe-Ti oxides, viz anatase and/or brookite, titanite, hematite, pseudorutile (Temple 1966, Mcke and Bhadra Chaudhuri 1991). Observed leucoxenes can be subdivided into two generations: coarser-grained LEU (I) formed earlier (Figs. 5a and 4c, d) and fine-grained/submicroscopic LEU (II) crystallized later (Fig. 6c). LEU I was observed in the majority of analysed samples (Fig. 5a, c, d) where its appearance and position suggest growth at the end of the transformation path of the Fe-Ti oxides: rutile ilmenite titanite leucoxene under greenschist facies conditions within the temperature range 500-300C. LEU II developed due to Fe-leaching from primary ilmenite as very finegrained to submicroscopic aggregates along ilmenite grain boundaries and fine fractures within ilmenite (Fig. 6c). This is typical of very low temperatures, not exceeding 50C (Temple 1966). Evolution of the sulphide association: The sulphide association is dominated by pyrrhotite and pyrite. Pyrrhotite usually forms anhedral grains up to 300 m in diameter (Fig. 6a, b, d, e). It appears in much greater amounts in the SM part than in the OBM part of the OSD. At high temperatures (to 800700C) it exists as a non-magnetic hexagonal form which alters due to polymorphic transformation at temperatures of about 300C into ferrimagnetic metal-poor pyrrhotite (Fe7S8) with a monoclinic structure (4C polytype) (e.g., Tokonami et al. 1972, Morimoto et al. 1975, Schwarz and Vaughan 1972, Kontny et al. 2000), which is unstable at high temperatures (Kissin and Scott 1982, Kullerud 1986). Similarly, magnetic investigations (see above) indicate an abundance of ferrimagnetic pyrrhotite in the SM part of OSD, whereas in the OBM part it occurs only in minor amounts. During further cooling linked with an enhancement of sulphur activity, non-magnetic hexagonal and ferrimagnetic monoclinic pyrrhotite were replaced by late pyrite and/or marcasite (Fig. 6c-e), processes widespread in the OBM part of OSD. The breakdown of pyrrhotite to pyrite and/or marcasite is also responsible for the growth of two generations of late Ti-free magnetite (Ramdohr 1980). This magnetite occurs as tiny inclusions in pyrite grains together with relics of primary pyrrhotite (for details see Figs. 5e and 6c). The latest stage of sulphide evolution reflects low-temperature hydrothermal alteration and weathering (Fig. 6e-f). These processes are documented in common goethite pseudomorphs after pyrrhotite and pyrite (Fig. 6e), which were commonly observed in a majority of samples. The oxidation of the sulphides to goethite together with the pyrrhotite breakdown to pyrite/marcasite (pyritization)

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effectively diminished the amount of ferrimagnetic pyrrhotite in the OSD metabasites. Summarizing, the results of reflected-light microscopy indicate that magnetic minerals present in the rocks were secondary, occurring in several generations. They began to originate at temperatures slightly above 300C, during the final phases of retrogressive metamorphism (monoclinic pyrrhotite, magnetite) and formed during further cooling due to hydrothermal processes and even weathering (monoclinic pyrrhotite, magnetite, hematite, goethite). These results support the findings from the rockmagnetic studies that ferromagnetic pyrrhotite is decidedly dominant in the SM part of the OSD, whereas Fe-oxides dominate in the OBM part. 4.4 Paleomagnetic experiments The values of selected characteristic magnetic properties obtained for rocks from each locality are summarized in Table 1. The appropriate columns contain ranges of intensity of NRM, mean susceptibility Km, median destructive field (MDF), and unblocking temperatures Tub. The values of NRM intensities in the majority of amphibolites from the SM and OBM parts of the OSD are lower than 100 mA/m. In only a few cases are their values much higher (up to 2020 mA/m). Values of Km range between 90-2600 106 SI in the SM and 310-2090 106 SI in the OBM, with the exception of a few GN and SZ samples where Km reached values higher than 25000 106 SI. Among the MI eclogites there are several samples with intermediate Km (400-600 106 SI) and low NRM (lower than 10 mA/m), but there are also several with higher NRM, showing the heterogeneous distribution of magnetic minerals in these rocks. The results of the monitoring of Km during heating experiments (measurements of Km after each heating step) show that Km values do not change up to 450-550C, and begin to increase, sometimes very quickly, when heated to higher temperatures: between 450 to 600C in rocks from the SM, and between 550 and 600C in rocks from the OBM. This difference suggests that in rocks from the western part alteration proceeded further than in the rocks from the eastern part. Demagnetization experiments were performed for 84 specimens from the SM part of the OSD (51 with alternating field (AF) demagnetization AF, 33 with thermal demagnetization TH), and 72 from the OBM part (44 with AF and 28 with TH). Characteristic demagnetization plots are shown in Fig. 7a-d for the SM and in Fig. 7e-h for the OBM part. Some samples responded better to the alternating field, others to the thermal cleaning. The great differences in efficiency of the AF cleaning of various specimens are reflected in the large range of values of MDF (see

PALEOMAGNETISM OF ORLICA-NIENIK DOME

Fig. 7. Demagnetization plots for SM (a)-(d) and OBM (e)-(h) metabasites: (a) thermal demagnetization of NG amphibolite, (b) thermal demagnetization of SN amphibolite, (c) thermal demagnetization of MI eclogite, (d) AF demagnetization of MI eclogite, (e) thermal demagnetization of PO, (f) thermal demagnetization of GN, (g) AF demagnetization of LK1, and (h) thermal demagnetization of LK1. Irm/Inrm means intensity of NRM after each cleaning step/intensity of NRM before cleaning procedure. Ovals denote direction of isolated component. Tick labels for X, Y, and Z components at Zijdervelds plots in mA/m.

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Table 1). In numerous specimens containing pyrrhotite and magnetite they are low (less than 10 mT), in specimens containing hematite values are about 50-60 mT, whilst in some cases an AF of 140 mT does not influence NRM at all; such AF plots are characteristic of the presence of fine exsolutions of hematite in an ilmenite host or vice versa (McEnroe et al. 2005). According to these observations some specimens are demagnetized by alternating field of low intensity (Fig. 7d) and some not at all (Fig. 7g). Summarizing, the AF demagnetization results revealed components of low (LF, 0 mT < Hdem > 10 mT), intermediate (IF, 10 mT < Hdem < 40 mT) and high (HF, 40 mT < Hdem < 140 mT) stability against AF, where Hdem is the demagnetizing field. Thermal demagnetization plots show phases carried by pyrrhotite, very distinct in rocks where this mineral was the main magnetic carrier (Fig. 7a, c, demagnetization temperatures 300-400C), phases carried by Fe-oxides: magnetite/maghemite (Fig. 7b, f, demagnetization temperatures 450-600C) or hematite (Fig. 7h, demagnetization temperatures 650-680C). An analysis of the thermal demagnetization results often revealed one or two, sometimes three, components of natural remanence of unblocking temperatures Tub in low (LT, Tub < 250C), intermediate (IT, 250 < Tub < 400C corresponding with pyrrhotite or maghemite), high (HT, 400C < Tub < 600C corresponding with maghemite/magnetite) and very high (VHT, 600C < Tub < 680C, connected with hematite). In some specimens the presence of isolated components was more clearly seen on stereographic diagrams as one or two clusters of directions than as linear segments on Zijdervelds plots (Fig. 7b). In some cases the demagnetization plots were too noisy, especially at higher temperatures or fields, to give reliable results. Generally, the demagnetization results reflect the complexity of the magnetic mineralogy shown above and corroborate the conclusion that the rocks contain magnetic carriers formed and magnetized at various times and conditions, and appear in the various domain states. Nevertheless, using several methods of analysis, we were able to isolate 125 characteristic components of remanence out of 156 demagnetized specimens. The distributions of directions of isolated components are presented on equal area projections separately for the SM and OBM parts of the OSD in Fig. 8a-b, respectively (directions of LT components were omitted because their long-term stability is always doubtful). Components of normal and reversed polarities appear in both parts of the OSD. In order to check whether the directions of isolated components form any clusters, we applied the distribution density analysis from the Spheristat package (Pangaea Scientific, Canada) after the reversal of directions of components with negative inclinations into directions with positive inclinations. The results (Fig. 8c-d) show differences between the investigated parts of OSD. In the SM part there are visible three clusters of directions (Fig. 8c) labeled: 1 (S-WSW declination,

PALEOMAGNETISM OF ORLICA-NIENIK DOME

Fig. 8. Stereographic projection of all characteristic directions isolated from OSM rocks: (a) for SM part, and (b) for OBM part. Density distribution counting contour plots for these directions for SM part (c) and OBM parts (d). Density distribution calculated by Spheristat (Pangaea Scientific, Canada). Clusters of directions are marked (clusters 1-3 for SM part, cluster 3 of OBM part). Directions with negative inclinations were inverted for density contours calculations.

low-intermediate inclinations), 2 (N-NE declinations, low-intermediate inclinations), and 3 (N-NE declinations, intermediate-high inclinations), whereas in the OBM part (Fig. 8d) there is only cluster No. 3 (there was too few directions forming a cluster of SW declinations for further investigation). The remaining, randomly distributed directions were not taken into account in further discussion. We suppose that they are a resultant of several components that we were not able to demagnetize. Cluster 1 contains mainly directions of components isolated during thermal cleaning of IT, HT, and VHT stability and only two results of the

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field cleaning of IF and HF stabilities. Half of the results forming cluster 2 come from the thermal cleaning of IT and HT stability, and half from the AF cleaning of IF and HF stability. The directions forming cluster 3 are results of the AF cleaning of LF, IF, and HF stability and the HT and VHT results. We imply that cluster 1 and perhaps 2 comprise components carried by pyrrhotite, maghemite/magnetite, and hematite, in various proportions, whereas cluster 3 is composed only of components carried by hematite and magnetite/maghemite.
5. DISCUSSION

The results of the rock-magnetic experiments performed for rocks collected in the OSD show distinct differences in magnetic mineralogy between the SM and OBM. In the majority of amphibolites and in all studied eclogites from the SM ferrimagnetic pyrrhotite is dominant. Fe-oxides (hematite) are prevalent in the granulites and in one of the amphibolite localities (magnetite in SN). In the amphibolites and gabbros from the OBM, thermomagnetic methods reveal only traces of ferrimagnetic pyrrhotite, the dominating minerals are magnetite/maghemite and hematite, often accompanied by goethite. The results of hysteresis the measurements led us to estimate the domain state varying from SP through SD to MD (see DayDunlop plot, Fig. 4b). The domain state, connected with the size of grains, suggests that magnetic minerals are present in a variety of sizes. The microscopic results correspond to the rock-magnetic results, showing the presence of several generations of ferromagnetic pyrrhotite, magnetite, hematite, and goethite formed during retrogression, hydrothermal processes and finally weathering. Ferrimagnetic pyrrhotite is decidedly dominant in the SM part of the OSD, whereas Fe-oxides dominate in the OBM part. The natural magnetic remanence of the identified mineral may be of a chemical or thermochemical, perhaps sometimes thermal, character, being acquired during growth of consecutive phases through their respective blocking volume at enhanced temperature or when the temperatures decreased below their blocking temperatures, or both. The oldest magnetic mineral is ferromagnetic pyrrhotite, the temperature of its formation from the previous hexagonal form, about 300C, corresponding to the final period of retrogression metamorphism. So, unfortunately, the presence of components of remanence preceding or even equal to the age of the metamorphic phase (330-350 Ma) is hardly possible. The palaeomagnetic results summarized in Table 2 comprise the mean directions of the components of remanence isolated at the respective localities and included in each of the three clusters, together with appropriate pole positions, final mean directions calculated from locality means (where pos-

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M. KDZIAKO-HOFMOKL et al.

sible), and mean directions and pole positions calculated from directions obtained for all specimens used. As can be seen, the mean values calculated in both ways are identical. Mean directions obtained for particular localities with their circles of confidence are presented in Fig. 9. In palaeomagnetic practice, the final results are usually calculated from locality means. But, taking into account the small number of directions of components of remanence isolated at respective localities, we think it justifiable to use, for further analysis, mean directions and appropriate pole positions calculated on the basis of results obtained from specimens. In order to assign proper ages of acquisition to each of the acquired palaeomagnetic components, we compared the obtained pole positions 1, 2, and 3 (Fig. 10) with the reference Apparent Polar Wander Path (APWP) for the Sudetes (Jeleska et al. 2003) and the Master Apparent Polar Wander Path for Europe for Triassic 20 Ma (Besse and Courtillot 2002). As was predicted from the analysis of magnetic minerals, there is no component preceding the metamorphic event. The age of the oldest component 1 (recorded only at three localities in the eastern part of the OSD, SM) corresponds to the Carboniferous segment of the APWP lying between 320 and 307 Ma (Fig. 10) and will later be

Fig. 9. Site means for characteristic directions (see Table 2 for details). Three groups of site means are observed. Directions with negative inclinations transposed with positive inclinations to lower hemisphere.

PALEOMAGNETISM OF ORLICA-NIENIK DOME

Fig. 10. Pole positions together with confidence ovals calculated from directions isolated for specimens against the reference APW paths for the Sudetes (394-218 Ma, Jeleska et al. 2003) and for Stable Europe (162 present, Besse and Courtillot 2002): 1 pole C (Carboniferous) about 315 Ma, 2 pole P (Permian) about 270 Ma, 3 pole M-C (Mesozoic-Cenozoic) about 140 Ma. Numbers along reference APWP denote ages of respective poles in Ma.

denoted C. Its age is in between the main phase of Variscan metamorphism and times of post-tectonic cooling recorded in the OSD (see Geological setting). On the other hand, this time span fits well with the age of volcanic activity in the neighbouring Intra-Sudetic Basin and Kaczawa Mts., dated at 316-300 Ma (see Geological setting), which must have resulted in extensive hydrothermal activity, and consequently, might have been the main source of hydrothermal fluids that led to the formation of magnetic phases responsible for palaeomagnetic component C. Importantly, apatite fission-track data and zircon U-Th/He data collected from the adjacent Gry Sowie Massif (Aramowicz et al. 2006) and Rychlebsk hory Mountains region in the Sudetes (Danik et al. 2012) indicate that the Variscan basement was concealed under a thick cover of Upper Carboniferous-Lower Permian molasse sediments reaching 4-8 km and affected by temperatures higher than 200C. This is in good agreement with our observations suggesting that magnetic minerals present in investigated samples started to form at temperatures around 300C.

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Our palaeomagnetic estimates of the time interval equivalent for component C (320-307 Ma) rather precludes its origin during the main Variscan tectonometamorphic event (dated by various geochronological methods at 350-320 Ma), as the time intervals do not overlap. Because this component appeared only at the three localities in the eastern part of the OSD (SM), we postulate that at the remaining localities this episode were reset by younger thermal events. Component 2 corresponds to the Permian segment of the APWP (between 290 and 260 Ma) and will be denoted P. Similarly to component C, it was found only in the eastern part of the OSD (SM), in eclogites (site MI), and amphibolites (site SN). This time interval fits fairly well to the peak of post-orogenic volcanism in the Sudetes. A record of this volcanic activity is preserved in the Intra-Sudetic Basin and extended at least over the time span from 294 to 283 Ma (see Geological setting). It also coincides in time with the palaeomagnetic pole position obtained for Permian volcanics in the IntraSudetic Basin (Westphal et al. 1987). This time interval was characterized by a rapid unroofing related to uplift that resulted in cooling, which is documented by Ar/Ar cooling ages obtained on amphiboles and micas from OSD (Schneider et al. 2006) and the neighbouring East Sudetes (Maluski et al. 1995, Szczepaski 2002). In contrast, relatively thick Lower Permian sediments deposited, e.g., in the Intra-Sudetic Basin and North-Sudetic Basin indicate that the uplift was only local in character. This documents the activity of faults which might have acted as channels for magmatic fluids. Consequently, fault zones reactivated during the Permian postulated by Maluski et al. (1995) might serve as channels enabling penetration of rocks by magmatic fluids that could be responsible for growth of opaque minerals observed in the rocks of the OSD. We suppose that component P is a chemical remanence acquired due to hydrothermal alterations related to activity of magmatic fluids. In both parts of the OSD there are clusters of palaeomagnetic directions labelled 3 corresponding to the Mesosoic segment of the Master European APWP that will be denoted M. The pole position M combined for the SM and OBM parts encompasses times from 160 to about 40 Ma on APWP. This time span corresponds to periods of reactivation of the EFZ (Late Jurassic / Early and Late Cretaceous / Palaeogene; Scheck et al. 2002 and references within), activity of the Lusatian Thrust (Ventura et al. 2009), emergence of NKG during Late Turonian / Early Coniacian (e.g., Don 1996), and the appearance of volcanics cropping out in the EFZ and the Sudetes. The main pulse of Tertiary volcanism in the Sudetes started about 34 Ma in the Early Oligocene (e.g., Birkenmajer et al. 2011) which is considerably later than the postulated age of component M. However, the volcanism is considered as belonging to the Central European Volcanic Province (CEVP) which extends

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over 700 km from the Rhenish Massif in the west through the Eger Graben to the East Sudetes in the east. Importantly, volcanism in this province started about 79 Ma in Late Cretaceous times and finished at 0.2 Ma (e.g., Ulrych et al. 2011). Ulrych et al. (1996) reported a sample of pyroxenite collected near Dvr Krlov nad Labem (about 40 km west of the study area) dated using the K-Ar method at 69 4 Ma. Furthermore, Badura et al. (2006) dated using the K-Ar method basaltoids near Mokrzeszw and Jew Sudecki at 44.1 7.7 Ma and 58.7 5.9 Ma, respectively. Thus, it is possible that the volcanics forming the CEVP might serve as a source of fluids responsible for the growth of opaque minerals documented in the study rocks. According to Ventura and Lisker (2003), the Late Jurassic Late Cretaceous thermal episode recorded in fission tracks from the Erzgebirge was related to denudation due to wrench tectonics along the EFZ. This documents the activity of the EFZ at that time, which was also postulated by Scheck et al. (2002). Consequently, faults forming the EFZ might, in the time span from 160 to 40 Ma, serve as channels for volcanic fluids responsible for the palaeomagnetic component M reported in this study.
6. CONCLUSIONS

The results of the study show that the investigated rocks did not retain a component of remanence preceding the Variscan tectonometamorphic episode but they retained three components of magnetic remanence acquired during the Late Carboniferous (C), Late Permian (P), and Mesozoic (M). Component C, present only in the eastern part of OSD (SM), corresponds to the Late Carboniferous segment of the APWP located between 320 and 307 Ma. The estimated time interval for component C rather precludes any relationship with the Variscan tectonothermal history of the OSD. We interpret it as linked to volcanic activity dated at 316-300 Ma in the IntraSudetic Basin and Kaczawa Mts. The Late Permian component P (present only in the eastern part of OSD, SM) is a record of Late-Variscan volcanic activity in the neighbouring IntraSudetic Basin, dated at 283-294 Ma. The youngest Mesozoic component M (present in both parts, SM and OBM) was associated with volcanism related to the formation of the Central European Volcanic Province, which was active from about 80 to 0.2 Ma. The combined rock-magnetic and light reflected study indicated that the main carrier of components of magnetic remanence of rocks from the eastern part of OSD (SM) is ferrimagnetic pyrrhotite that began to form from the non-magnetic type at about 300C, during the final times of retrogression. In the western part (OBM) the components of the magnetic remanence are car-

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ried mainly by post-pyrrhotite Fe-oxides (magnetite, hematite) formed mainly by hydrothermal processes. This last conclusion implies that the rocks from the western part (OBM) were more affected by low temperature alteration than the rocks from the eastern part (SM). A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s . This research was performed in the framework of project No. 5 (2008-2011) of the Institute of Geophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences. We acknowledge also support from the University of Wrocaw, grant No. 1017/S/ING for J. Szczepaski and from the Institute of Mineralogy, Petrology, and Geochemistry, University of Warsaw, project BSt No. 1536/4 for K. Nejbert for mineralogical investigations. The authors are indebted to Prof. Raymond Macdonald for corrections of English language in the manuscript.

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