Different theories for managing compensation:

The basic purpose of wage and salary administration is to establish and maintain an equitable wage and salary structure. Its secondary objective is the establishment and maintenance of an equitable labour-cost structure i.e., an optimal balancing of conflicting personnel interests so that the satisfaction of employees and employers is maximised and conflicts are minimised. The wage and salary administration is concerned with the financial aspects of needs, motivation and rewards. Managers, therefore, analyse and interpret the needs of their employees so that reward can be individually designed to satisfy these needs. The word salary is defined in the Oxford Dictionary as fixed periodical payment to a person doing other than manual or mechanical work. The payment towards manual or mechanical work is referred to as wages. The word pay refers to the payment for services done which would include salary as well as wages. Wages are commonly understood as price of labour. In ordinary parlance, any remuneration paid for services is etymological wage. Benham defines wage as a sum of money paid under contract by an employer to a worker for services rendered. Labour was always looked upon as a commodity governed by the law of supply and demand. Certain theories were propounded for determination of wages but these could not stand the test of time. A few theories are discussed below:

Subsistence theory: This theory, also known as Iron Law of Wages, was propounded by David Ricardo (1772-1823). According to this theory, wages tend to settle at a level just sufficient to maintain the workers and his family at minimum subsistence levels. The theory applies only to backward countries where labourers are extremely poor and are unable to get their share from the employers.

Standard of living theory: This theory is a modified form of subsistence theory. According to this theory, wages are determined not by subsistence level but also by the standard of living to which a class of labourers become habituated.

Residual claimant theory: Francis A. Walker (1840-1897) propounded this theory. According to him, there were four factors of production/ business activity viz., land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship. Wages represent the amount of value created in

the production which remains after payment has been made for all these factors of production. In other words, labour is the residual claimant.

The wage fund theory: According to this theory, after rent and raw materials are paid for, a definite amount remains for labour. The total wage fund and the number of workers determine the average workers share in the form of wages.

Demand and supply theory: According to this theory, wages depend upon the demand and supply of labour.

Marginal productivity theory: This is an improved form of demand and supply theory. Wages are determined by the value of the net product of the marginal unit of labour employed.

Purchasing power theory: According to this theory the prosperity, productivity and progress of industry depend on there being sufficient demand to ensure the sale of its products and pocketing of reasonable profits. A large pact of the products of industry is consumed by workers and their families and if wages are high, demand will be good. However, if wages and the purchasing power of the workers are low, some of the goods will remain unsold; output will go down, which will result in unemployment.

The bargaining theory of wages: John Davidson propounded this theory. According to him, wages are determined by the relative bargaining power of workers or trade unions and of employers. When a trade union is involved, basic wages, fringe benefits, job differentials and individual differences tend to be determined by the relative strength of the organization and the trade union. The Tribunals and Wage Boards have generally followed the-principles laid down in the Fair Wages Committees Report on fixing wages. The Committee, in its report, has given a considerable thought to wage differentials and has stated that the following factors should be taken into consideration for fixation of wages:

1. The degree of skill. 2. The strain of work. 3. The experience involved.

4. The training involved. 5. The responsibility undertaken. 6. The mental and physical requirements. 7. The disagreeableness of the task. 8. The hazard attendant on the work, and 9. The fatigue involved. N.B: Classification of wages: The International Labour Organization (ILO) in one of its publications, classified wages as under: 1. The amount necessary for mere subsistence; 2. The amount necessary for health and decency; and 3. The amount necessary to provide a standard of comfort. In India, wages are classified as:

Minimum wage Fair wage; and Living wage Minimum wage: A minimum wage has been defined by the Committee as the wage which must provide not only for the bare sustenance of life, but for the preservation of the efficiency of the worker. For this purpose, the minimum wage must provide for some measure of education, medical requirements and amenities. In other words, a minimum wage should provide for the sustenance of the workers family, for his efficiency, for the education of his family members, for their medical care and for some amenities. It is very difficult to determine the minimum wage because conditions vary from place to place, industry to industry and from worker to worker. However, the principles for determining minimum wages were evolved by the Government and have been incorporated in the Minimum Wages Act, 1948, the important principle being that minimum wages should provide not only for the bare sustenance of life but also for the preservation of the efficiency of the workers by way of education, medical care and other amenities. Fair Wage: According to the Committee on Fair Wages, it is the wage which is above the minimum wage but below the living wage. The lower limit of the fair wage is obviously the minimum wage; the upper limit is set by the capacity of the industry to

pay. Between these two limits, the actual wages should depend on considerations of such factors as: i) The productivity of labour; ii) The prevailing rates of wages in the same or neighbouring localities; iii) The level of the national income and its distribution; and iv) The place of industry in the economy. Living Wage: This wage was recommended by the Committee as a fair wage and as ultimate goal in a wage policy. It defined a Living Wage as one which should enable the earner to provide for himself and his family not only the bare essentials of food, clothing and shelter but a measure of frugal comfort, including education for his children, protection against ill-health, requirements of essential social needs and a measure of insurance against the more important misfortunes including old age. In other words, a living wage was to provide for a standard of living that would ensure good health for the worker, and his family as well as a measure of decency, comfort, education for his children, and protection

FACTORS INFLUENCING EMPLOYEE REMUNERATION

A number of factors influence the remuneration payable to employees. They can be categorized into: 1) External and 2) Internal factors. EXTERNAL FACTORS - Factors external to an organisation are labour market, cost of living, labor unions, government legislations, the society, and the economy'. Labour Market: Demand for and supply of labor influence wage and salary fixation. A low wage may he fixed when the supply of labour exceeds the demand for it. A higher wage will have to he paid when he demand exceeds supply, as in the case of skilled labour. A paradoxical situation is prevailing in our countryexcessive unemployment is being juxtaposed with shortage of labour. While unskilled labour is

available in plenty, there is a shortage of technicians, computer specialists and professional managers. High remuneration to skilled labour is necessary to attract and retain it. But exploitation of unskilled labour, like, for instance, paying niggardly wages because it is available in plenty, is unjustifiable.

Going rate of pay is another labour-related factor influencing employee remuneration. Going rates are those that are paid by different units of an industry in a locality and by comparable units of the same industry located elsewhere. This is the only way of fixing salary and wage in the initial stages of plant operations. Subsequently, a comparison of going rates would be highly useful in resolving wage-related disputes.

However, the argument that productively would increase if it is linked to remuneration is hardly acceptable to labour and labour organisations. Cost of Living: Next in importance to labour market is the cost of living. This criterion matters during periods of rising prices, and is forgotten when prices are stable or falling. The justification for cost of living as a criterion for wage fixation is that the real wages of workers should not be allowed to be whittled down by price increasesA rise in the cost of living is sought to be compensated by payment of dearness allowance, basic pay to remain undisturbed. Many companies include an escalatory clause in their wage agreements in terms of which dearness allowance increases or decreases depending upon the movement of consumer price index (CPI). Labour Unions: The presence or absence of labor organizations often determine the quantum of wages paid ID employees. Employers in non-unionized factories enjoy the freedom to fix wages and salaries as they please. Because of large-scale unemployment, these employers hire workers at little or even less than legal minimum wages. An individual non-unionized company may be willing to pay more to its employees if only to discourage them from forming one, but will buckle under the combined pressure from the other non-unionized organizations. The employees of strongly unionized companies to have no freedom in wage and salary

fixation. They are forced to yield to the pressure of labour representatives in determining and revising pay scales. Society: Remuneration paid to employees is reflected in the prices fixed by an organisation for its goods and services. For this reason, the consuming public is interested in remuneration decisions. Though the financial position of the employer and the state of the national economies have their say in the matter of wage fixation, "the requirements of a workman living in a civilized and progressive society also came to be recognized." According to the Supreme Court, the social philosophy of the period provides the background for decisions on industrial disputes relating to the wage structure.

The Economy: The last external factor that has its impact on wage and salary fixation is the state of the economy. While it is possible for some organisations to thrive in a recession, there is no question that the economy affects remuneration decisions. For example, a depressed economy will probably increase the labour supply. This, in turn, should serve to lower the going wage rate. In most cases, the cost of living will rise in an expanding economy. Since the cost of living is commonly used as a pay standard, the economy's health exerts a major impact upon pay decisions. Labour unions, the government, and the society are all less likely to pres

Features

The purpose of job evaluation is to produce a defensive[clarification needed] ranking of jobs on which a rational and acceptable pay structure can be built. The important features of job evaluation may be summarised thus:

It tries to assess jobs, not people. The standards of job evaluation are relative, not absolute. The basic information on which job evaluations are made is obtained from job analysis. Job evaluations are carried out by groups, not by individuals. Some degree of subjectivity is always present in job evaluation.

Job evaluation does not fix pay scales, but merely provides a basis for evaluating a rational wage structure.

[edit]Process

of job evaluation

The process of job evaluation involves the following steps:

Gaining acceptance: Before undertaking job evaluation, top management must explain the aims) and uses of the programme to the employees and unions. To elaborate the programme further, oral presentations could be made. Letters, booklets could be used to classify all relevant aspects of the job evaluation programme. Creating job evaluation committee: It is not possible for a single person to evaluate all the key jobs in an organisation. Usually a job evaluation committee consisting of experienced employees, union representatives and HR experts is created to set the ball rolling. Finding the jobs to be evaluated: Every job need not be evaluated. This may be too taxing and costly. Certain key jobs in each department may be identified. While picking up the jobs, care must be taken to ensure that they represent the type of work performed in that department. Analysing and preparing job description: This requires the preparation of a job description and also an analysis of job needs for successful performance . Selecting the method of evaluation: The most important method of evaluating the jobs must be identified now, keeping the job factors as well as organisational demands in mind. Classifying jobs: The relative worth of various jobs in an organisation may be found out after arranging jobs in order of importance using criteria such as skill requirements, experience needed, under which conditions job is performed, type of responsibilities to be shouldered, degree of supervision needed, the amount of stress caused by the job, etc. Weights can be assigned to each such factor. When we finally add all the weights, the worth of a job is determined. The points may then be converted into monetary values.

[edit]Installing

the programme

Once the evaluation process is over and a plan of action is ready, management must explain it to employees and put it into operation. [edit]Reviewing

periodically

In the light of changes in environmental conditions (technology, products, services, etc.) jobs need to be examined closely. For example, the traditional clerical functions have undergone a rapid change in sectors like banking, insurance and railways, after computerisation. New job descriptions need to be written and the skill needs of new jobs need to be duly incorporated in the evaluation process. Otherwise, employees may feel that all the relevant job factors - based on which their pay has been determined - have not been evaluated properly. For job evaluation to be practicable it is necessary:

that jobs can be easily identified that there are sufficient differences between different jobs; and that agreements no the relative importance or worth of different jobs can be negotiated between the enterprise and its employees and/or their representatives..

[edit]Benefits The pay offs from job evaluation may be stated thus:

It tries to link pay with the requirements of the job. It offers a systematic procedure for determining the relative worth of jobs. Jobs are ranked on the basis of rational criteria such as skill, education, experience, responsibilities, hazards, etc., and are priced accordingly.

An equitable wage structure is a natural outcome of job evaluation. An unbiased job evaluation tends to eliminate salary inequities by placing jobs having similar requirements in the same salary range. Employees as well as unions participate as members of job evaluation committee while determining rate grades for different jobs. This helps in solving wage related grievancesquickly.

Job evaluation, when conducted properly and with care, helps in the evaluation of new jobs. It points out possibilities of more appropriate use of the plant's labour force by indicating jobs that need more or less skilled workers than those who are manning these jobs currently.

[edit]Job

evaluation methods

There are three basic methods of job evaluation: (1) ranking, (2) classification, (3) factor comparison. While many variations of these methods exist in practice, the three basic approaches are described here. [edit]Ranking

method

Perhaps the simplest method of job evaluation is the ranking method. According to this method, jobs are arranged from highest to lowest, in order of their value or merit to the organization. Jobs can also be arranged according to the relative difficulty in performing them. The jobs are examined as a whole rather than on the basis of important factors in the job; the job at the top of the list has the highest value and obviously the job at the bottom of the list will have the lowest value. Jobs are usually ranked in each department and then the department rankings are combined to develop an organizational ranking. The variation in payment of salaries depends on the variation of the nature of the job performed by the employees. The ranking method is simple to understand and practice and it is best suited for a small organisation. Its simplicity however works to its disadvantage in big organisations because rankings are difficult to develop in a large, complex organisation. Moreover, this kind of ranking is highly subjective in nature and may offend many employees. Therefore, a more scientific and fruitful way of job evaluation is called for. [edit]Classification

method

According to this method, a predetermined number of job groups or job classes are established and jobs are assigned to these classifications. This method places groups of jobs into job classes or job grades. Separate classes may include office, clerical, managerial, personnel, etc. Following is a brief description of such a classification in an office.

Class I - Executives: Further classification under this category may be Office Manager, Deputy office manager, Office superintendent, Departmental supervisor, etc. Class II - Skilled workers: Under this category may come the Purchasing assistant, Cashier, Receipts clerk, etc. Class III - Semiskilled workers: Under this category may come Stenotypists, Machine-operators, Switchboard operator etc. Class IV - Semiskilled workers: This category comprises Daftaris[clarification needed], File clerks, Office boys, etc.

The job classification method is less subjective when compared to the earlier ranking method. The system is very easy to understand and acceptable to almost all employees without hesitation. One strong point in favour of the method is that it takes into account all the factors that a job comprises. This system can be effectively used for a variety of jobs. The weaknesses of the job classification method are:

Even when the requirements of different jobs differ, they may be combined into a single category, depending on the status a job carries. It is difficult to write all-inclusive descriptions of a grade. The method oversimplifies sharp differences between different jobs and different grades. When individual job descriptions and grade descriptions do not match well, the evaluators have the tendency to classify the job using their subjective judgements.

[edit]Factor

comparison method

A more systematic and scientific method of job evaluation is the factor comparison method. Though it is the most complex method of all, it is consistent and appreciable. Under this method, instead of ranking complete jobs, each job is ranked according to a series of factors. These factors include mental effort, physical effort, skill needed, responsibility, supervisory responsibility, working conditions and other such factors (for instance, know-how, problem solving abilities, accountability, etc.). Pay will be assigned in this method by comparing the weights of the factors required for each job, i.e., the present wages paid for key jobs may be divided among the factors weighted by importance (the most important factor, for instance, mental effort, receives the highest weight). In other words, wages are assigned to the job in comparison to its ranking on each job factor. The steps involved in factor comparison method may be briefly stated thus:

Select key jobs (say 15 to 20), representing wage/salary levels across the organisation. The selected jobs must represent as many departments as possible. Find the factors in terms of which the jobs are evaluated (such as skill, mental effort, responsibility, physical effort, working conditions, etc.). Rank the selected jobs under each factor (by each and every member of the job evaluation committee) independently.

Assign money value to each level of each factor (example: consider problem solving is one of the factor, what level of problem solving is required {basic, intermediate or advance}) and determine the wage rates for each key job. The wage rate for a job is apportioned along the identified factors. All other jobs are compared with the list of key jobs and wage rates are determined. An example of how the factor comparison method works is given below:

After the wage rate for a job is distributed along the identified and ranked factors, all other jobs in the department are compared in terms of each factor. Suppose the job of a 'painter' is found to be similar electrician in skill (15), fitter in mental effort (10), welder in physical effort (12) cleaner in responsibility! (6) and labourer in working conditions (4). The wage rate for this job would be (15+10+12+6+4) is47.j [edit]Point

method

This method is widely used currently. Here, jobs are expressed in terms of key factors. Points are assigned to each factor after prioritising each factor in order of importance. The points are summed up to determine the wage rate for the job. Jobs with similar point totals are placed in similar pay grades. The procedure involved may be explained thus: 1. Select key jobs. Identify the factors common to all the identified jobs such as skill, effort, responsibility, etc. 2. Divide each major factor into a number of sub factors. Each sub factor is defined and expressed clearly in the order of importance, preferably along a scale. The most frequent factors employed in point systems are (i) Skill (key factor); Education and training required, Breadth/depth of experience required, Social skills required, Problem-solving skills, Degree of discretion/use of judgement, Creative thinking (ii) Responsibility/Accountability: Breadth of responsibility, Specialised responsibility, Complexity of the work, Degree of freedom to act, Number and nature of subordinate staff, Extent of accountability for equipment/plant, Extent of accountability for product/materials; (iii) Effort: Mental demands of a job, Physical demands of a job, Degree of potential stress The educational requirements (sub factor) under the skill (key factor) may be expressed thus in the order of importance. 3. Find the maximum number of points assigned to each job (after adding up the point values of all sub-factors of such a job).

This would help in finding the relative worth of a job. For instance, the maximum points assigned to an officer's job in a bank come to 540. The manager's job, after adding up key factors + sub factors points, may be getting a point value of say 650 from the job evaluation committee. This job is now priced at a higher level. 4, Once the worth of a job in terms of total points is expressed, the points are converted into money values keeping in view the hourly/daily wage rates. A wage survey is usually undertaken to collect wage rates of certain key jobs in the organisation. Let's explain this: [edit]Merits

and demerits

The point method is a superior and widely used method of evaluating jobs. It forces raters to look into all key factors and sub-factors of a job. Point values are assigned to all factors in a systematic way, eliminating bias at every stage. It is reliable because raters using similar criteria would get more or less similar answers. The methodology underlying the approach contributes to a minimum of rating error (Robbins p. 361). It accounts for differences in wage rates for various jobs on the strength of job factors. Jobs may change over time, but the rating scales established under the point method remain unaffected. On the negative side, the point method is complex. Preparing a manual for various jobs, fixing values for key and sub-factors, establishing wage rates for different grades, etc., is a time consuming process, According to Decenzo and Robbins, "the key criteria must be carefully and clearly identified, degrees of factors have to be agreed upon in terms that mean the same to all rates, the weight of each criterion has to be established and point values must be assigned to degrees". This may be too taxing, especially while evaluating managerial jobs where the nature of work (varied, complex, novel) is such that it cannot be expressed in quantifiable numbers. [edit]Limitations

of job evaluation

1. Job evaluation is not exactly scientific. 2. The modus operandi of most of the techniques is difficult to understand, even for the supervisors. 3. The factors taken by the programme are not exhaustive. 4. There may be wide fluctuations in compensable factors in view of changes in technology, values and aspirations of employers, etc.

5. Employees, trade union leaders, management and the programme operators may assign different weight to different factors, thus creating grounds for dispute. [edit]Concept

of job design

What is job design? As we just explained, job analysis provides job-related data as well as the skills and knowledge required for the incumbent to perform the job. A better job performance also requires deciding on sequence of job contents. This is called 'job design'. Job design is a logical sequence to job analysis. In other words, job design involves specifying the contents of a job, the work methods used in its performance and how the job relates to other jobs in the organisation. A few definitions on job design are produced here with a view to help you understand the meaning of job design in a better manner. Michael Armstrong11 has defined job design as "the process of deciding on the contents of a job in terms of its duties and responsibilities, on the methods to be used in carrying out the job, in terms of techniques, systems and procedures, and on the relationships that should exist between the job holder and his superiors, subordinates and colleagues". Mathis and Jackson I2 have defined job analysis as "a process that integrates work content (tasks, functions, relationships), the rewards(extrinsic and intrinsic), and the qualifications required (skills, knowledge, abilities) for each job in a way that meets the needs of employees and organisations." Popplewell and Wildsmith13 define job design in these words: "......involves conscious efforts to organise tasks, duties, and responsibilities into a unit of work to achieve certain objectives". Having gone through the above definitions of job design, it can now be described as a deliberate attempt made to structure both technical and social aspects of the job to attain a fit between the individual (job holder) and the job. The very idea is that job should be designed in such a way as to enable employees to control over the aspects of their work. The underlying justification being that by doing this, it enhances the quality of the work life, harnesses the potential of the workers in a more effective manner and thereby improves employee performance. [edit]Techniques

for designing jobs

Basically, there are four techniques used in the design of jobs. These include Job simplification, Job enlargement, Job enrichment and Job rotation.

[edit]Job

simplification

Job simplification is a design method whereby jobs are divided into smaller components and subsequently assigned to workers as whole jobs. Simplification of work requires that jobs be broken down into their smallest units and then analysed. Each resulting sub-unit typically consists of relatively few operations. These subunits are then assigned to the workers as their total job. Many fast food restaurants such as McDonald's, Burger King and Nirula's use simplification because employees can learn tasks rapidly; short work cycles allow task performance with little or no mental effort and low-skilled and low-paid employees can be hired and trained easily. On the negative side, job simplification results in workers experiencing boredom, frustration, alienation, lack of motivation and low job satisfaction. This, in turn, leads to lower productivity and increased cost. [edit]Job

enlargement

Job enlargement expands a job horizontally. It increases job scope; that is, it increases the number of different operations required in a job and the frequency with which the job cycle is repeated. By increasing the number of tasks an individual performs, job enlargement increases the job scope, or job diversity. Instead of only sorting the incoming mail by department, for instance, a mail sorter's job could be enlarged to include physically delivering the mail to the various departments or running outgoing letters through the postage meter. Efforts at job enlargement have met with less than enthusiastic results. As one employee who experienced such a redesign on his job remarked, "Before I had one lousy job. Now, through enlargement, I have three!" So while job enlargement attacks the lack of diversity in overspecialised jobs, it has done little to provide challenge or meaningfulness to a worker's activities. [edit]Job

rotation

Job rotation refers to the movement of an employee from one job to another. Jobs themselves are not actually changed, only the employees are rotated among various jobs. An employee who works on a routine job moves to work on another job for some hours/days/months and returns back to the first job. This measure relieves the employee from the boredom and monotony, improves the employee's skills regarding various jobs and prepares worker's self-image and provides personal growth. However,

frequent job rotations are not advisable in view of their negative impact on the organisation and the employee. [edit]Job

enrichment

Job enrichment, as currently practiced in industry, is a direct outgrowth of Herzberg's Two Factor Theory of motivation. It is, therefore, based on the assumption that in order to motivate personnel, the job itself must provide opportunities for achievement recognition, responsibility, advancement and growth. The basic idea is to restore to jobs the elements of interest that were taken away under intensive specialisation. Job enrichment tries to embellish the job with factors that Herzberg characterised as motivators: achievement, recognition, increased responsibilities, opportunities for growth, advancement and increased competence. There is an attempt to build into jobs a higher sense of challenge and achievement, through vertical job loading. 6 Job enrichment has four unique aspects:

It changes the basic relationship between employees and their work. Interesting and challenging work, as studies have proved, can be a source of employee satisfaction. It changes employee behaviours in ways that gradually lead to more positive attitudes about the organisation and a better self-image. Feeling of autonomy and personal freedom help employees view their jobs in a favourable way. It helps the employer to bring about organisational changes easily, securing employee cooperation and commitment. Job enrichment can humanise an organisation. 'Individuals can experience the psychological that comes from developing new competencies and doing a job well. Individuals are encouraged to grow and push themselves.'

Many companies in India realised the importance of offering jobs having depth, variety and meaningfulnessl to their employees long back. ICICI, Procter & Gamble, Infosys, Bharat Petroleum, Asian Paints, HLL and Hughes Software have certain things in common: greater opportunities to grow vertically, open communication, flexible working hours, excellent reward schemes, employee-oriented work environment, sharing with and learning from others etc. The BT-Hewlett Associates study has clearly indicated the benefits of having such excellent practices.

Employees in the above companies displayed tremendous pride in what their company does and in its products and services. They also believed in its future prospects.

Employees in the above companies admired their leadership for making them fell 'safe and well-led'.

s for pay increases in a depressed economy.