WP7 D20 Ch5 - p203 258

IST IP NOBEL "Next generation Optical network for Broadband European Leadership"
D20: First Guidelines for Technologies Enabling broadband optical networks WP7-D20-Annex.doc
Optical Performance Monitoring (OPM) and Signal Quality Analysis

5.1.1 OPM in transparent circuit switched networks (5.1.4)
5.1 OPM in transparent circuit switched networks

In this section an overview over the available optical performance monitoring devices is given. Apart from the listed devices other technologies are available which are capable to monitor a few channels only. We concentrated on the devices which enable the surveillance of the C- and/or L-band. Mainly three different technological approaches are on the market today, traditional optical spectrum analyser approaches with volume Bragg grating or tunable filters as diffraction devices and polarisation nulling based devices. In the following list and table the main parameters and features of 7 OPM devices are compared. JDS Uniphase OCM Series can be used for channel power, OSNR and wavelength accuracy measurements (OSA type according table 1 in section 5.1). This optical channel performance monitor is an embedded, integrated monitor with card-mountable design. The device covers C and L band, uses a Volume Phase Grating as spectral dispersion element (see section 4.1.3.6) and an InGaAs array detector as a detection unit and is a package with no moving parts. BAYSPECs IntelliGuard OPCM can be used for channel power, OSNR and wavelength accuracy measurements (OSA type according table 1 in section 5.1). It supports 50&100 GHz systems for OSNR with channel numbers ranging from 40 to 160 over both C- and L-Band through using 512-element InGaAs array detectors. It is a package without moving parts. No information is given about the spectral dispersion element. Optoplex OCM/OPM uses micro-optics-based technology to measure channel wavelength, power, and OSNR (OSA type according table 1 in section 5.1). The device uses a single InGaAs detector. Employing thin-film filter tuning technology, it can automatically scan the C- or L-band and together with the support by the flat-top, it enables the high accuracy of channel power measurement. On the other hand, the scanning technology results in a high response time (300 ms) compared to Volume Phase Grating applied for the JDS Uniphase and probably also for the BAYSPEC OCMs. AXSUN-Technology OMx can be used for channel power and OSNR and wavelength accuracy measurements (OSA type according table 1 in section 5.1). It provides measurement in the C or L band and supports 25, 50,100 GHz Spacing, with incorporating MEMS tunable filter. The wavelength scanning is rather slow with 0.5 to 1 second. Page 203 of 368
Princeton Lightwave OCM couples light out of the fibre using a blazed Fibre Bragg grating (FBG, see also section 4.1.3.5). This light is focused onto a detector array with different wavelengths incident on different detector elements to provide direct spectral measurements. The raw data from the detector array is analyzed by an on-board digital signal processor and output as channel and spectral information to the system. Teralinks Argos Series OPM can monitor the optical powers, wavelengths of DWDM channels and also the true value of OSNR by using the Polarisation-Nulling technique. Due to the used technology also the tolerance concerning the polarisation mode dispersion is high with 30 ps (the high end version has even a PMD tolerance of 60 ps). On the other hand the true OSNR measurement is rather slow with about 0.7 seconds per wavelength, whereas a pure scan of all channels wavelength and power can be performed in 0.6 seconds. Accilon APS-1010 is a polarisation analysis based device combined with a spectrum analyser. The in band OSNR can be measured from degree of polarisation of the signal (DOP). Although no further details concerning the technology are available so far it can be assumed that the principle of polarisation nulling is to perform the OSNR measurements. According the latest information (status April 2005) Accilon has to close the business. Therefore, this product is probably not available any longer.
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Table 5-1: Overview and characteristics of different OPM products. Parameter Company
Product Power Accuracy [dB] Input Power Range [dBm] Abs. Frequency Accuracy [GHz] Channel Spacing [GHz] Channel Number OSNR OSNR Accuracy Return loss Dynamic range Noise floor Power resolution Response time Spectral engine Size WDH [mm] [dB] [dB] [dB] [dB] [dBm] [dB] [ms]
JDS Uniphase
OCM 0.5 -40 ~ -10 6.2 (3.8 typical) 50
BAYSPEC
OCPM-50G-S 0.5 -40 ~ -10 6.2 50 80 25 1.5
Optoplex Corporation
OPM 0.5 -40~ -10 6.2 50 85 >25
AXSUN Techn.
Omx 0.5 -40~ -7 8.0 50
Princton Lightwave
OCM-SR 0.5 -40 ~ -10 6.2 50, 100 10~23 @ 100 GHz 1.0 for 100 GHz
Teralink Commun.
Argos 401L 0.45 Min. for OSNR -30 6 50, 100 28 @ 100 GHz 1.0 for 100 GHz
ACCILON Photonics
Polarimeter 1%
25 1.5 40 60 -80 0.1 <20 Volume phase grating 689615.8
25
>35 60 -80 0.1 <50 -65 300 Thin film filter 689615.8 8921617
30 40 -55 500~1000 600-1000
1067015, 22011025.7
22013523
22428344
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5.1.2 Electrical Equalisers for OPM Applications (5.1.6)

Adaptive filters compensate for signal distortions and optimise the BER. But, although signal distortions are cancelled out the reasons for signal degradations are still unknown. This knowledge however represents valuable additional information to facilitate fast failure root cause analysis and network re-optimisation. Here we present a method based on vector quantisation that utilizes the filter coefficients of an adaptive electrical linear equalizer for the identification and quantification of signal distortions [1]. This method can be applied for linear as well as for nonlinear equalisers. The idea that enables the identification of an unknown distortion is to build a table of reference vectors, one for each distortion that is to be identified. The entries in the table need not be restricted to one specific kind of distortion but can stem from arbitrary distortions. After having established the reference table in such a manner we determine a given unknown distortion ~ c by comparing it to all reference vectors. To this end, we calculate the Euclidean distance between the unknown distortion ~ c and all reference vectors c . That distortion vector c , which is closest to the actual unknown distortion ~ c , identifies the distortion. It is given by
= arg min{d 2 (c, ~ c c )} = arg min{
c
n= N
~ }, cn c n
(1)
where ~ c is the vector of measured equalizer coefficients and c represents the reference vectors. This technique is commonly known as vector quantisation. The task of identifying an unknown distortion is transformed into the task of selecting the most probable distortion from a set of predefined distortions. The table of reference vectors is referred to as codebook and the regions in the 2 N + 1 -dimensional space where the Euclidean distance to each reference vector is smaller than to all other reference vectors are called Voronoi regions belonging to that specific vector. Hence, all measured vectors lying inside the Voronoi region of a reference vector are mapped to that vector and the distortion is identified as distortion which has been bound to that reference vector during codebook setup. The problem of convergence as such has been investigated in [2]. Simulations have been carried out based on a split step Fourier approach for 10 Gbit/s NRZ signals [3]]. The coefficients of a 7-tap FFE have been adopted according the minimum mean square error criterion (MMSE) or the zero-forcing criterion (ZF). For this investigation the GVD has been quantized in steps of 100 ps/nm and the DGD in steps of 4 ps to obtain the coefficients for CD and first order PMD, respectively. First, simulations with pure CD or PMD distortion have been carried out, neglecting also the influence of noise, i.e. a fixed OSNR of 30 dB. It can be observed that with the ZF criterion the adaptation algorithm diverges for dispersion values higher than 2500 ps/nm. The equaliser coefficients take on arbitrarily large values. Repeated simulations with the same distortions revealed that the MMSE coefficients do not necessarily converge to the same values for GVD values larger than 2500 ps/nm. For CD below 500 ps it can be seen that with both, the ZF and MMSE criterion the equaliser coefficients do not differ substantially from their ideal values without distortions. Hence, for this simple equaliser the range where CD can be properly identified is between 500 ps/nm and 2500 ps/nm, assuming no other distortion is present. The corresponding simulation results are depicted in Figure 5-1.
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Figure 5-1: Equalizer coefficients in the presence of chromatic dispersion at OSNR = 30 dB. Left: MMSE criterion, right: ZF criterion. For DGD the upper threshold is about 100 ps which corresponds to one bit period of our 10 Gbit/s signal. For very low distortion the equalizer coefficients stay more or less at their values without distortion. Thus, unambiguous DGD identification is not possible for low DGD values. The range where polarisation mode dispersion can be identified and quantified is from about 20 ps to 100 ps. The corresponding equaliser coefficients are shown in
Figure 5-2: Equalizer coefficients in the presence of polarisation mode dispersion at OSNR = 30 dB. Left: MMSE criterion, right: ZF criterion. In reality there will be noise from the amplifiers along the fibre link and from other distortion sources significantly influences the optical signal (e.g. SPM or XPM) and may therefore also influence the adaptation of the filter coefficients of the electrical equalizer. We observed that with the MMSE criterion the equalizer coefficients depend on the OSNR whereas with the ZF criterion the equalizer coefficients are nearly independent of the OSNR. This is a well known fact because with the MMSE criterion the equalizer minimizes the average squared error at the slicer which includes the noise while with the ZF criterion only the distortion from ISI is minimized. Thus, even though the BER is usually lower for MMSE based adaptive equalizers, for the purpose of identification and quantification of the
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distortion in the presence of inevitable noise the ZF criterion is the better choice because the equalizer coefficients do not depend on the noise level. A further important issue is the quality of identification, i.e. the ability to unambiguously identify kind and magnitude of a certain distortion. The more reference vectors are added to the codebook the smaller will their mutual Euclidean distances become and the more likely we will mistake one distortion for another one because of the influence of noise or other inaccuracies. On the other hand, the fewer reference vectors we have in the codebook the less likely the vectors in the codebook properly describe the real distortion. Unfortunately, there is no optimum solution to this problem. From a practical point of view it does not provide significant additional benefit to distinguish between values of CD spaced less than 100 ps/nm apart and between DGD spaced less than 4 ps apart. Once we have settled on the minimum spacing between distortions to be identified, the quality of distortion identification depends on the mutual squared Euclidean distances between all reference vectors and the noise power. A larger noise power will perturb the equalizer coefficients and occasionally lead to wrong decisions, at least in case of the MMSE adaptation algorithm. If we assume that each distortion for which there is a reference vector in the codebook will occur equally likely in practice, an identification error will most likely occur for distortions which correspond to vectors with smallest Euclidean distance. Thus, a measure of the quality of distortion identification is the minimum of all mutual squared Euclidean distances between all reference vectors in the codebook:
d 2 min = min{d 2 (ci , c j )}
c, i j
The larger d 2 min the less likely is the possibility of one distortion to be mistaken for another one. However, for a given distortion D the probability of making an error during the identification process for sufficiently large OSNR depends only on the vector with smallest Euclidean distance to the one under consideration (nearest neighbor to c D , not to an arbitrary c ):
d 2 min, D = min {d 2 (c D , c j )}
c, D j
(3)
Figure 5-3 shows the minimum Euclidean distance as function of GVD and differential DGD, respectively. For every reference vector in our codebook with entries for GVD with 100 ps/nm spacing and for DGD with 4 ps spacing d min,GVD and d min, DGD of the nearest neighbours are shown. If the nearest vector represents the same kind of distortion, i.e., if the nearest neighbour to a vector corresponding to a certain GVD value is a vector also corresponding to some GVD value, the corresponding minimum distance is indicated by a circle above the line d min = 0 , otherwise the minimum distance is indicated by a circle below the line d min = 0 . Hence, points above the line indicate that the nearest neighbour is of the same kind as the considered distortion vector. Correspondingly, points below the line indicate that the distortion origin of the nearest neighbor is of different kind. For given GVD this is the case for GVD values between 1000 ps/nm and 1300 ps/nm and above 1800 ps/nm (cf. Figure 5-3). These GVD values can most easily be mistaken for distortions representing DGD. For the GVD values above 1800 ps/nm, however, the minimum Euclidean distance is rather large so that the probability of confusing these with DGD distortions is very low.
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Figure 5-3: Minimum Euclidean distance for given GVD (left) and DGD (right). For given DGD value the most problematic cases where DGD is mistaken for GVD are a single vector at DGD = 48 ps and values above 70 ps. Again, the minimum Euclidean distance for the DGD values above 70 ps is rather large so that an error will happen only with very low probability. In presence of small distortions, i.e. 500 ps/nm in case of GVD and 20 ps in case of DGD, both figures show very small minimum distances to the nearest neighbours. As stated above already this means that for such small distortions the magnitude of the actual distortion cannot be identified unambiguously. For all other cases the nearest neighbour of any distortion is at least a vector of the same kind of distortion and usually represents a value very close to the real distortion.
Figure 5-4: Deviation of the identified distortion as a function of the actual GVD set in the simulations. For GVD=2100 ps/nm and OSNR=15 dB the distortion was identified as PMD. The impact of optical noise on the ability to identify and quantify signal distortions for the case of an MMSE adaptation algorithm displays Figure 5-4. Shown is the difference between the actual and the identified GVD as a function of the actual dispersion for different OSNR values. The step width of the actual dispersion is 300 ps/nm. At 15 dB OSNR the method starts to mistake a GVD of 2100 ps/nm as PMD. For 0 ps/nm and
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2400 ps/nm GVD the error is 500 ps/nm and 450 ps/nm, respectively. These errors in identification are significant and origin from the MMSE adaptation algorithm. In contrast to that the ZF adaptation algorithm is nearly independent from signal noise and provides therefore an error-free identification over the entire range of OSNR levels. Thus for the purpose of OPM and distortion identification the ZF adaptation algorithm is better suited than the MMSE algorithm.
5.2 Advanced OPM concepts

5.2.1. RF spectrum analysis 5.2.1.1. Clock detection monitoring techniques
a) Clock power detection technique Schematic A typical link between an edge node and a switch in a core network will contain a dispersion compensation fibre (DCF) module to achieve coarse compensation (see Figure 5-5). Before reaching the switch, a tapped signal is sent to the monitor, which determines the residual amount of degradation (CD or PMD), and tunes the compensation device (CD, PMD) in order to maintain the BER at a level equal or lower than 10-9.
Monitor
SMF Edge Node
Feed back Switch SW DCF Comp
EN
Tunable compensation device
Figure 5-5: General schematic of a link inside a burst network containing a monitor and a tunable compensator. Solid line: Optical signal, Dashed line: Electrical signal 1. CD monitoring Concept Due to chromatic dispersion, the high frequency components of a received double sideband (DSB) signal after square law detection are attenuated in an RZ signal and generated in an NRZ signal [4].
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This is due to the fact that CD induces a time delay between the two sidebands of the optical signal, with each sideband located at a slightly different frequency. This time delay is converted into a phase shift: Before Transmission:
E (t )
L i 2 2 2 L 2 i 2 ( 2 ) 2 + 1 2 L 2 i 2 ( 2 ) 2 1 2
After transmission (accumulated dispersion):
E D ( ) = F [ E (t )].e
E D ( +1 ) = F [ E (t )].e E D ( 1 ) = F [ E (t )].e
with
+1 = 0 + B 1 = 0 B
-1 0 +1
-B 0 B
RF spectrum
Optical Spectrum
Figure 5-6:
Optical and electrical spectrum
Phase difference between E D ( +1 0 ) and E D ( 1 0 )
+1 ( +1 0 ) =
L 2 (2 ) 2 B 2 2 L 1 ( 1 0 ) = 2 (2 ) 2 B 2 2 = +1 + 1 = L 2 (2 ) 2 B 2 = 2
2 0
c
B 2 DL
At the detector (using a square law detector), upper and lower sideband and carrier beat term of same frequency interfere. If the difference in phase between these 2 components
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reaches 180, the interference is maximum, and the measured RF clock power reaches its local minimum. The relative clock power (RCP) is defined as the ratio (at any given propagation point) between the clock power at the bit rate and the DC term. Additional accumulated dispersion leads the RF clock power at the bit rate to increase and decrease periodically; while the DC power remain constant. The phase shift between two local minima in the RCP curve corresponds to a phase shit of 360 between the two clock signals (see Figure 5-11). The measurement range is limited by the accumulated dispersion value over which the RCP signal varies monotonically. The RCP is used as a feed back signal to control an inline tunable dispersion device and compensates for the accumulated residual chromatic dispersion. RZ format The electrical spectrum of an RZ signal contains strong power at the clock frequency compare to an NRZ signal. This signal is inversely proportional to the chromatic dispersion over some finite range of dispersion values. Beyond this range, the clock power increases then decreases periodically with the accumulated dispersion. A CD monitor can be used in any monotonic range.
P0 P1
P0
P1
CD
Figure 5-7: Electrical spectrum of an RZ modulation format, showing the attenuation of the clock power with CD. B: bit rate NRZ format The electrical spectrum of an NRZ signal doesnt contain any power at the clock frequency (null in the Fourier transform). The clock frequency can be generated due to dispersion, increasing by more than 30dB7 over the measurement range. This signal is proportional to the accumulated dispersion over this finite range. Beyond this range, the clock power decreases then increases periodically with the accumulated dispersion.
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P0
P0 P1 P1
CD
Figure 5-8: Electrical spectrum of an NRZ modulation format, showing the generation of the clock power with CD. B: bit rate Typical relative clock power (RCP) curve Typical curves of the relative clock power (RCP) vs. the accumulated chromatic dispersion for an RZ modulation format at 10 Gbit/s and 40 Gbit/s are as follows:
Figure 5-9: RCP vs CD. Simulation result of the RF power at 10 GHz varying with CD in a 10 Gbit/s RZ system (40% duty cycle)
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Figure 5-10: RCP vs CD. Simulation result of the RF power at 40 GHz varying with CD in a 40 Gbit/s RZ system (40% duty cycle)
Figure 5-11: RCP vs CD. Simulation result of the RF power at 40 GHz varying with CD in a 40 Gbit/s RZ system (40% duty cycle). This figure shows the periodicity of the RCP curve. The measurement range for both 10 Gbit/s and 40 Gbit/s systems can be concluded from these curves. For a 10 Gbit/s system, the RCP curve is monotonic between 0 and 700ps/nm; which represents a range of 41km of SMF. For a 40 Gbit/s system, the RCP curve is monotonic between 0 and 42ps/nm; which represents a range of 2.5km of SMF (assuming D=17ps/nm/km), which is line with the expectation that the fourfold increase in bandwidth decreases the dispersion range by a factor of 16. The monitoring ranges at 10 Gbit/s and 40 Gbit/s can be verified analytically: Before Transmission:
E (t )
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After transmission (accumulated dispersion): E D ( ) = F [ E (t )].e
L i 2 2 2
= 40 10
L 2 (2 ) 2 f 2 2 L 2 = 40 2 (2 ) 2 f 40 2 L 2 = 10 2 (2 ) 2 f 10 2
f 40 = 4 f 10
40 = 10
L L40 = 10 16
= 2
2 0
c B = 10Gb / s B = 40Gb / s
B 2 DL and and
= Range = 620 ps / nm = Range = 39 ps / nm
Schematic The schematic used to monitor the clock power tone is as follows:
CD Monitor
10 Gb/s or 40 Gb/s NRZ or RZ Tx
SMF
Feed back
DCF
CD.C
OBPF
Rx
BERT
CD compensator EDFA Att EDFA
Figure 5-12: Typical link between a transmitter and receiver. The inline CD monitor provides a feed back to the CD compensator for the residual CD. Solid line: Optical signal, Dashed line: Electrical signal After propagation, the signal accumulates residual chromatic dispersion. The CD Monitor provides a feed back signal to tune the CD compensator (CD.C) by the appropriate amount. The following diagram shows the principle of operation:
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V1
High speed Power detector
BPF
R=V1/V Ratio V0 LPF
PD
Figure 5-13: Principle of a CD Monitor. The DC voltage V1 is proportional to the clock power. The DC voltage V0 is proportional to the DC power of the electrical spectrum. The RCP signal corresponds to the ratio between V1 and V0. Solid line: Optical signal, Dashed line: Electrical signal A portion of the optical signal is tapped and fed into the CD Monitor. The optical signal is converted into electrical signal using a high speed photo diode (PD). The electrical signal is split electrically into 2 signals. The low pass filter allows measuring the DC component of the signal, while the band pass filter and the Gunn diode filter out the clock power. Each component (LPF and Gunn diode) provides an analog DC voltage V0 and V1 respectively. The comparator determines the relative clock power (RCP) defined as the ratio between the clock power and the DC power (V1/V0). The RCP, being proportional to the chromatic dispersion of the optical signal, is fed into the tunable compensator device (TCD). The TCD adjusts the chromatic dispersion in the link to reach a maximum BER of 10-9. Applications This technique has been used for various optical formats such as NRZ, RZ and CSRZ. It has also been used for 10 Gbit/s and 40 Gbit/s systems [5]. Performance of this technique The accumulated chromatic dispersion that can be monitored using this technique in a 10 Gbit/s system is around 850ps/nm. For a 40 Gbit/s system, this range drops to 50ps/nm:
CD Range (ps/nm) 10 Gbit/s 40 Gbit/s ~850 ~50
6
Resolution (ps/nm) ~60 [4] ~2 [6]
10: Sensitivity=0.05dB/ps/nm with 0.1dB sensitivity [See ]
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Future networks will gradually be updated from 10 Gbit/s to 40 Gbit/s systems. This emphasizes the need to improve the monitoring range from 10 to 40 Gbit/s. In an effort to increase the measurement range for 40 Gbit/s systems, some research has been carried out on biased CD monitors. This method involves biasing the signal with additional CD inside the monitor (thus not affecting the inline data). The bias amount was chosen such as the measurement range is shifted from the first to the second monotonically segment of the RCP curve (see Figure 5-11). This technique was applied to a CSRZ modulation format. The monitoring range was extended from 30ps/nm to 48ps/nm which represents a 50% improvement6. Advantage of the technique The time elapsed between the arrival of the optical signal on the photo diode and the feed back signal (R) out of the CD monitor can be of an order of a sub ms (for a 40 Gbit/s data bit rate). This implies that the feed back loop to the CD.C could be used in a dynamic network such as a wavelength routed optical burst switched (WR-OBS) where the bursts are of an order of 10ms [7]. This could present a great advantage over the other monitoring methods such as the sampling techniques that are too slow to be incorporated into dynamic burst networks. Limitations of the technique The first limitation of this method is the monitored CD range. For a 40 Gbit/s system, the monitoring range is around 50ps/nm while the bit error rate degrades to 10-9 when the residual CD reaches 60ps/nm. This implies that the network may require one CD monitor per link if the residual CD is higher than 110ps/nm for each link. The second limitation is the fact that this technique can only monitor one wavelength at a time. A WDM link that contains N channels will require N monitors for simultaneous monitoring, which may have a negative impact on the cost. This CD monitor contains three high speed components (PD, BPF and the power detector) which are often considered as high price components. In addition, this method is bit rate and format dependent. 2. PMD monitoring Concept When transmitting a double side-band (DSB) signal the detected RF power at the clock frequency results from the beating of both side bands with the carrier. As seen in the previous section, this phenomenon is used to monitor the accumulated dispersion in the signal. However, for a single side-band (SSB) signal, the detected RF power at the clock frequency results from the beating of only one side-band with the carrier [8]. In this case, the RF power is insensitive to the accumulated dispersion, but is sensitive to the polarisation mode dispersion (PMD) in the link, and can hence be used to detect and measure PMD.
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For an ideal symmetrical fibre, the two orthogonal modes of the signal have the same group delay. In reality, due to the imperfection of manufacturing, the fibres are not perfectly symmetrical. PMD has its origin in the birefringence of the fibre. PMD causes different delays for different polarisations. Due to the fibre birefringence, the clock tone splits into two principal states of polarisations (PSP). Each split tone travels at a different speed, leading to a time delay between them. When analysing a SSB, both split tones interfere with the carrier. The RF power of the clock tone is then proportional to the phase difference between the two split tones, which makes it proportional to the differential group delay (DGD) of the signal. In this scheme, the transmitted signal is DSB, however, in order to suppress the CD impact on the RF clock power, a SSB is analysed in the PMD monitor. The SSB signal is generated by using an optical filter centred at the clock frequency. The PMD monitor generates a signal proportional to the DGD. This signal acts as a feed back to the PMD compensator. Schematic The schematic used to monitor the PMD using the clock power tone technique is as follows:
PMD Monitor
SMF
Feed back
PMD.C
OBPF
Rx
BERT
PMD compensator EDFA Att EDFA
Figure 5-14: Typical link between a transmitter and receiver. The inline PMD monitor provides a feed back to the PMD compensator. Solid line: Optical signal, Dashed line: Electrical signal Due to PMD, the clock signal splits into the fibres two PSPs. After propagation, the time delay between these two components increases. The PMD Monitor measures that delay and provides a feed back signal to tune the PMD compensator (PMD.C) with the appropriate amount. The PMD monitor for an RZ modulation format can also be used for an NRZ format. In addition, the NRZ format can use a second setup where a dispersive element is used inside the monitor to generate the clock. This is due to the fact that the electrical spectrum of an NRZ signal doesnt contain power at the clock frequency. The RZ and NRZ monitors block diagram and operation are described in the following sections.
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RZ signal The set-up of the PMD monitos is assumed as follows: a portion of the optical signal is tapped and fed into the PMD Monitor. An optical band pass filter (OBPF) centred near the upper clock component is placed before a photodiode. The 3dB bandwidth of this filter is around 80% of the bit rate (e.g. 8GHz for a 10 Gbit/s system). The RF power at the bit rate is then measured for a single SSB in order to monitor the PMD [9]. The RF power, being proportional to the differential group delay (DGD) of the optical signal, is used as a feed back signal to the PMD compensator (PMD.C).
High speed Power d t t EBPF f0 = 10GHz
PD
OBPF 0 = 10GHz BW 8GH
Figure 5-15: Principle of a PMD Monitor for a 10 Gbit/s system, RZ format. The optical band pass filter generates a SSB which is detected by a photo diode. An electrical band pass filter allows measuring the clock power which is proportional to PMD. Solid line: Optical signal, Dashed line: Electrical signal NRZ signal The previous set up shown in (see Figure 5-15) can also be used for an NRZ modulation format. In this case, this setup presents the advantage of being insensitive to chromatic dispersion. It can be achieved using an optical band pass filter (OBPF) or by using a notch filter. The OBPF should be centred at the clock (upper or lower side-band) with a large enough bandwidth to include the carrier while suppressing the second clock. Higher order Gaussian filters have shown to present better results than a first order filter. Similarly, the notch filter should be centred at one clock frequency (upper or lower side-band). Monitors using notch filters have shown greater clock generation (better suppression of the other side-band) than when using an OBPF [10]. If the incoming signal has been fully compensated for dispersion, a second setup can be used (see Figure 5-16). The chromatic dispersion amplifies the clock in the electrical spectrum of a DSB NRZ signal. Using this property, a linearly chirped fibre Bragg grating (FBG) is inserted inside the PMD monitor. This method is however sensitive to CD fluctuations.
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High speed Power d t t EBPF f0 = 10GHz
PD
FBG 10Gb/s D~630ps/nm
RF Analyser
Figure 5-16: Principle of a PMD Monitor for a 10 Gbit/s system, NRZ format. This method assumes an incoming signal which is fully compensated for dispersion. A FBG adds a known amount of dispersion to generate the clock. This signal is detected by a photo diode. An electrical band pass filter allows measuring the clock power which is proportional to PMD. Solid line: Optical signal, Dashed line: Electrical signal In order to get maximum clock generation, the dispersion of the FBG is chosen according to the bit rate and wavelength [10]. D=c/(2*2*B2 ) For example, in a 10 Gbit/s system and a wavelength of 1550nm, ~630ps/nm of dispersion results in a maximally generated clock which makes PMD effect most visible. Applications These techniques have been used for two optical formats: NRZ and RZ and for 10 Gbit/s systems. Simulation results show that these techniques can also be used in 40 Gbit/s systems. Performance of these technique The DGD monitoring range in a 10 Gbit/s system is around 50ps. This range represents 50% of the bit duration (100ps). In typical SMF, the PMD parameter (Dp) is around 0.1ps/km-0.5. In the long-length regime, a transmission link of 250000km is necessary to accumulate 50ps DGD. The PMD effect changes stochastically with time; this can lead to higher time delay between the 2 polarisation components. However, the measurement range of 50ps is usually sufficient for metro applications where transmission links are below 500km.
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For a 40 Gbit/s system, this range drops to 8ps [11]. The results at 40 Gbit/s have been obtained by simulation. This range represents 32% of the bit duration (25ps), and is also adequate for metro applications where transmission links are below 500km. DGD Range (ps) 10 Gbit/s 40 Gbit/s
*: Simulation result.
50 8*
Advantage of the technique The time fluctuations of the PMD is due to the non-uniformity of the fibres birefringence (over its length) and also due to temperature change. These fluctuations can often take minutes to occur[11]. For this reason, it is not necessary to have very fast PMD compensation systems in static networks. This is not anymore the case for dynamic networks. The reason is that various bursts could have travelled various distances, thus accumulated different DGDs between the two PSPs. The response time of the PMD monitor mentioned above can be of an order of sub ms (for a 40 Gbit/s data bit rate). This implies that the compensation system (including the PMD monitor and a PMD.C) could be used in dynamic networks where the bursts are of an order of 10ms [7]. Similarly to the CD monitor mentioned previously, this method could present a great advantage over the other monitoring methods such as the sampling techniques that are too slow to be incorporated into dynamic burst networks. This area requires further investigation. Limitations of the technique The first limitation of this method is the DGD range that can be monitored. For a 40 Gbit/s system, the range is around 8ps. This implies that the network may require a large number of PMD monitors for long haul systems to maintain an error free data stream. Similarly to the CD monitor described previously, the second limitation is the fact that this technique can only monitor one wavelength. A WDM link that contains N channels will require N monitors, which may have a negative impact on the cost. This PMD monitor contains three high speed components (PD, EBPF and the power detector) which are often considered as high price components. In addition, this method is bit rate and format dependent. b) Clock technique using phase detection Schematic The schematic used to monitor the CD using the single side-bands optical filtering technique is as follows:
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CD Monitor
SMF
Feed back
CD.C
OBPF
Rx
BERT
CD compensator EDFA Att EDFA
Figure 5-17: CD Monitor based on a phase detection technique. The inline CD Monitor requires a clock signal from the Rx. A feed back is sent to the CD compensator for the residual CD. Solid line: Optical signal, Dashed line: Electrical signal The CD monitor contains a tunable optical band pass filter, a high speed photo diode and a phase detector. See the following figure:
DC PM DC Power LPF
Mixer PD T-OBPF
SSB-U/L 00 / 900 0 = 20 to 32GHz
Phase detector
Figure 5-18: Principle of the CD Monitor for 40 Gbit/s system. A tunable optical band pass filter selects the upper then lower SSB. Each signal is detected by the same photo diode. A phase detector determines the phase difference with the clock signal. This phase difference is proportional to CD. Solid line: Optical signal, Dashed line: Electrical signal` A portion of the optical signal is tapped and fed into the CD Monitor. A tunable optical band pass filter (T-OBPF) is first centred near the upper SSB. The frequency detuning can be chosen between 50% to 80% of the bit rate; With a bandwidth equal to the bit rate. For a 40 Gbit/s bit rate, the filters central frequency is between 20 and 32 GHz and its bandwidth equal to 40 GHz. A phase detector is used to determine the phase difference between the upper SSB and the recovered clock signal. The tunable OBPF is detuned to select the lower SSB. A second phase measurement is done between the lower SSB and the recovered clock
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signal. The phase shift between the two SSB signals is proportional to the relative group delay caused by the chromatic dispersion. The CD Monitor provides a feed back signal to tune the CD compensator (CD.C) by the appropriate amount. Applications This technique is used for chromatic dispersion monitoring. It has been used for two optical formats NRZ and RZ, and for 40 Gbit/s systems. Performance of this technique The accumulated chromatic dispersion that can be monitored using this technique in a 40 Gbit/s system is around 70ps/nm. This range represents 4km of SMF assuming a dispersion value of 17ps/nm/km.
CD Range (ps/nm) 40 Gbit/s Advantage of the technique ~70
Resolution (ps/nm) 3
The main advantage of this method is that the range is higher with similar resolution (70ps/nm, res.=3ps/nm) compare to the previous method (50ps/nm, res.=2ps/nm); And it is less affected by other parameters such as PMD. And finally, the clock recovery signal is taken from the receiver, which does not require modification to accommodate this monitor [12]. Limitations of the technique The limitations of this technique are however numerous: Its implementation requires the use of a phase detector which is usually associated with high cost. This is particularly true for single channel networks where the cost is not shared between multiple channels. In addition, the use of a phase detector is not simple to implement and is sensitive to frequency mismatch between the recovered clock and the SSB signals. The time response of this monitor might not be fast enough to be implemented in dynamic burst networks for real-time monitoring, due to the phase detection speed (this has to be verified). But most of all, this method requires the recovered clock signal from the receiver, which makes it inadequate for inline monitoring.
5.2.1.2.
Pilot tones monitoring techniques
a) Pilot tones with amplitude modulation In this section, we describe the RF spectrum analysis by amplitude modulation of the pilot tone. This involves adding an amplitude modulated subcarrier to the base-band data. The RF spectrum of such signal will contain data at the carrier frequency and the pilot tone. This method can be used for optical power, wavelength, OSNR, CD and PMD monitoring. The following sections describe the CD, PMD and noise measurements.
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1. CD Monitor In future high speed systems, neither manual equalisation nor worst case system design is practical to compensate for chromatic dispersion (CD), thus the need for automatic compensation [13]. This feature can only be achieved with the use of a dispersion monitoring system. In this chapter, we only consider the linear effect of dispersion or group velocity dispersion (GVD). Concept A sinusoidal signal (the tone) is added to the data using an optical intensity modulator such as a LiNbO3 Mach-Zehnder. The tone doesnt carry data but its only function is for monitoring. The RF tone power is extracted. The magnitude of the AM pilot tone is proportional to the accumulated dispersion [14]. However, the pilot tone amplitude can also be affected by SPM and PMD (this will be discussed in a following section). As described in the previous section (see Clock detection techniques), the phase difference between the lower and upper sidebands of the optical signal changes with dispersion. After square law detection, the interference between the two sidebands causes change in amplitude of the RF pilot tone. The electrical power of the received AM tone is a function of dispersion and is described as follows [15]:
PAM m 2 cos 2 (
DL2 f 2
c
m: Intensity modulation. D: Dispersion parameter. L: Fibre length. : Wavelength. f: Tone frequency. c: Speed of light.
This equation shows that the magnitude of the AM pilot tones decreases as the dispersion (which is proportional to the fibre length) increases. The resolution of this technique (PAM /(DL) ) can be improved by increasing the tone frequency, but this would reduce the measurement range. Thus the tone frequency should be optimized to obtain both reasonable resolution and measurement range. The received power will go to zero when [16]:
GVDmax =
GVDmax: Maximum monitoring range. fpt: Pilot tones frequency. : Wavelength. c: Speed of light.
c
2 2 f pt 2
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This value corresponds to the maximum monitoring range of this technique. It is noted that this expression is bit rate independent and is only valid if the pilot tone is not chirped. It has been shown [17] that when using a tone frequency of 8GHz, the measurement range reaches 1000 ps/nm for a 10 Gbit/s system with a negligible power penalty (<0.5dB). And in several previous reports, a high frequency tone (~8GHz) was used for the CD monitoring [18,19]. Schematic The following figure shows the experimental setup used for dispersion monitoring techniques using AM pilot tones:
CD Monitor PD
Spectrum
FR-SA
SMF Intensity Modulator Laser IM
Feed back
DCF
CD.C CD compensator
OBPF
Rx
BERT
EDFA
Att
EDFA
RF Tone 10 Gb/s
Figure 5-19: Experimental setup to measure and compensate for CD using a AM pilot tone technique. The output of the laser is modulated using an intensity modulator. The latter is driven by a signal containing both the data at the bit rate and the pilot tone. After transmission, a portion of the optical signal is detected in the CD monitor using a photodetector. A spectrum analyser is used to measure the pilot tone amplitude which is proportional to the residual dispersion. Performance of this technique By setting the frequency of the AM pilot tone to 8GHz, the accumulated chromatic dispersion that can be monitored using this technique in a 10 Gbit/s NRZ system is around 1000ps/nm. The dispersion compensation of a CSRZ signal in a 40 Gbit/s system has been investigated [20]. Using a 1 GHz tone, a range of approximately -800 to +700ps/nm was achieved. The method was based on comparing the relative phase difference of the tones two optical sidebands, which allowed measuring the dispersions sign.
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fpt 10 Gbit/s 8 GHz 16 GHz 1 GHz 2. PMD
CD Range (ps/nm) ~ 1000 [17] ~ 38 [14] -800 / +700 [20]
Managing fibre dispersion has greatly improved the transmission length of high speed system. However, polarisation mode dispersion (PMD) remains a limitation to achieving high performance networks. This fact is particularly true when using optical fibre that has been deployed in the 1980s and that has PMD parameters up to 1000 times greater than the current most PMD optimized fibre. Thus the need for PMD compensation in networks with data bit rates of 40 Gbit/s or beyond. Optical fibres have some birefringence which causes each state of polarisation (SOP) to travel at a different speed. This induces a delay between both SOPs. The birefringence is random over its length. This causes the PMD to vary in time adopting a statistical behaviour. The first order PMD, or the differential group delay (DGD) can be compensated for by reducing this delay to zero. Automatic DGD compensation is needed in dynamic networks, and also for point-to-point links where PMD fluctuates with temperature. PMD compensation can be achieved electrically or optically. One of the electrical methods is based on delaying the optical power of one polarisation after detection at the receiver using phase diversity [21] or electronic filtering [22,23]. One optical technique is based on splitting the signal into the two SOP, and delay one of them using free space optics. We consider in this chapter a amplitude modulated pilot tone technique where the feed back signal is either a measure of the degree of polarisation (DOP) or the amplitude of the tone RF signal. Concept AM pilot tone methods have been used for PMD monitoring [24]. The tone frequency is determined at the transmitter level. The maximum DGD measurement range using either DSB or SSB methods, is bit rate independent and is given by [25]:
DGDmax =
fpt: Pilot tone frequency.
1 2 f pt
Lets consider the incident data and pilot tone to be completely polarized waves with a degree of polarisation (DOP) equal to the unity. The presence of PMD will degrade the
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DOP as the waves propagate along the fibre[26]. DOP measurements of pilot tones have been investigated to use as a feedback for an inline PMD compensator. The DGDmax corresponds to the minimum DOP value obtained in the graph shown below (which is the first monotonical segment of the curve). It is noted that this measurement range is independent of the setup (DSB or SSB) and is also bit rate independent. It has also been shown that the DOP sensitivity is dependent on the modulation depth of the tone [27]:
Figure 5-20: Simulation results showing minimum DOP versus DGD for a 20 GHz pilot tone with varying modulation depth. [27] The RF spectrum of a transmitted optical signal through an optical fibre with PMD is detected, and the pilot tone power is described as follows [28]:
P 1 4 (1 ) sin 2 ( . f pt .DGD )
P: Pilot tone power. : DGD power ratio between fast and slow axis. fpt: Pilot Tone frequency.
This equation shows that the tone amplitude is inversely proportional to the DGD. It is also shown that increasing the tone frequency reduces the monitoring range but improves the resolution (P/(DGD) ) of the technique:
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Figure 5-21: Magnitude of pilot tone versus tone frequency and DGD. [JON04-Vol3n7-p510] Pilot tones for PMD monitoring based on DSB setups are very sensitive to CD. However, these methods can be made relatively robust to chromatic dispersion through the use of a single sideband (SSB) setup [25]. The presence of CD changes the phase between both optical sidebands which modifies the tone power and deteriorates the DGD accuracy. This problem can be solved by measuring the tone power of a SSB. The SSB pilot tone is inherently insensitive to CD since it has only one side band. It is shown [29] that a dispersion of 680 ps/nm introduces a 25dB error on the tone power for a DSB setup and only 4dB in a SSB setup.
Figure 5-22: Magnitude of pilot tones measured while varying both DGD and CD: (a) when DSB pilot tone is used, (b) when SSB pilot tone is used. [29]
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Performance of this technique Various pilot tones frequencies have been investigated. The table below shows the DGD range achieved for the different cases. fpt DGD Range (ps) 6.75 GHz DSB 10 Gbit/s 10 GHz 20 GHz 3. OSNR Concept The pilot tone technique is a simple but powerful method to supervise individual wavelength channels along the optical path [30]. By monitoring the pilot tone amplitude, parameters such OSNR can be extracted [31]. This method consists in adding a tone in the kHz regime to the optical signal by directly modulating the bias current going to the laser. Or by adding high frequency pilot tones placed outside the datas bandwidth. In this case, The OSNR is estimated by measuring the carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR) of the pilot tone. This is indeed possible as the tone is based outside the signals bandwidth. ~ 74 50 25
Figure 5-23: Principle of pilot tone based OSNR monitoring technique. [29] It has been shown [32] that for an OSNR less than 30 dB the pilot tone method gives the same results as an OSA instrument. However the pilot-tone method cannot detect distortion because the bitrate used is much smaller than the signals bitrate and therefore there can be a serious degradation in the main optical signal that will not be reflected in the pilot tone. Moreover, the pilot tone performance is affected by the number of wavelengths operating in the network, the frequencies used and the modulation index [33]. The power spectral density (PSD) of the optical signal is the dominant noise for the pilot tone. When many optical signals are multiplexed (WDM), their PSDs are summed up
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leading to a degradation in the pilot-tones carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR). The latter is proportional to 1/Ratio, which is defined as [34]: Ratio = N(N+1)/2 Assuming that N optical signals, of equal optical powers, are multiplexed together. Hence the pilot tone CNR in a system with eight wavelengths is decreased by 15.5 dB from that with a single wavelength. This example is shown in Figure 5-24.
Figure 5-24: Power spectral density at 2.5 Gbit/s of (a) a single wavelength (b) 8 multiplexed wavelengths. After ref [33] This method presents however two main limitations: The first is that the tones amplitude (thus the CNR) is affected by chromatic dispersion and PMD. The second limitation is that for high frequency tones that are located outside the datas bandwidth, they can be attenuated by the various optical filters that the signal passes through. Both of these limitations cause inaccuracy of the OSNR measurement. b) Pilot tones with phase modulation 1. CD Monitor Concept The Phase modulation to amplitude modulation (PM-AM) conversion effect, using a sinusoidally phase modulated data source, can be used for chromatic dispersion measurement [35]. However, the PM-AM method only gives the absolute value of dispersion. To determine the polarity, some parameters have to be changed, for example the wavelength. Before transmission, the data phase is modulated at the tone frequency, its electrical field can be described as follow [36]:
E (t ) = E 0 exp[ j (2f 0 t + b sin( 2f pt t ))]

E(t): Electrical field after the phase modulation. E0: Electrical field amplitude. f0: Electrical field frequency. b: Modulation index. fpt: Modulation frequency of the pilot tone.
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At the RF detection, the upper and lower sidebands of the tone interfere destructively in the absence of chromatic dispersion. After propagation through a dispersive fibre, the phase between the optical carrier and its sidebands is modified, this leads to a non-destructive interference. The amplitude of the tone is proportional to the dispersion following this expression [29]:
2 ( A) J 12 ( A) sin 2 ( PPM J 0
DL2 f 2
c
J0, J1: First kind Bessel functions of order 0 and 1. A: Depth of phase modulation. D: Dispersion parameter. L: Fibre length. : Wavelength. f: Tone frequency. c: Speed of light.
This equation shows that the magnitude of the AM component generated by the PM-AM [37] conversion would increase with CD even when the tone operates in the low frequency region. Thus unlike the techniques using AM pilot tones, it is possible to monitor the value of CD by using a relatively low-frequency (~2 GHz) PM pilot tone. However, similarly to the AM tones, the monitoring may increase by decreasing the modulation frequency, but in this case, the monitoring resolution will decrease. It is also shown that PM tones are less sensitive to SPM effect compare the AM tones. This is discussed in the following section. Schematic The following figure shows the experimental setup used for dispersion monitoring techniques using PM pilot tones:
CD Monitor
Spectrum Analyser
FR-SA
PD
Feed back Intensity Modulator Laser IM Phase Modulator PM DCF CD.C SMF
RF Tone EDFA Att EDFA
CD compensator
10 Gb/s or 40 Gb/s
Figure 5-25: Experimental setup to measure and compensate for CD using a PM pilot tone technique.
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The output of the laser is modulated at the bit rate using an intensity modulator to generate the data. A phase modulator is used to generate the PM pilot tone. After transmission, a portion of the optical signal is detected in the CD monitor using a photodetector. A spectrum analyser is used to measure the pilot tone amplitude (after PM-AM conversion) which is proportional to the residual dispersion (see Figure 5-26). Performance of this technique The figure below is a comparison between AM and PM pilot tone techniques for CD monitoring. The frequency of the AM pilot tone was set to 8GHz where we can observe a measurement range of 1000 ps/nm. By setting the frequency of the PM pilot tone to 2GHz and the depth of phase modulation to 0.09, the accumulated chromatic dispersion that can be monitored using this technique in a 10 Gbit/s NRZ system is higher than 15000ps/nm. In addition, the transfer function of the PM technique is linear, whereas the AM technique is not.
Figure 5-26: Comparison between AM and PM pilot tones methods for CD monitoring. Modulation index of pilot tone measured at the receiver while varying the CD. [29]
fpt
CD Range (ps/nm)
Resolution (ps/nm) 0.006%
Accuracy (ps/nm) 60
2 GHz
> 15000 [15]
c) XGM, SRS and SPM effect on pilot tones XGM and SRS At a frequency of a few tens of kHz, the pilot tone performance is affected by the slow dynamic properties of EDFAs [38]. The pilot tones that are superimposed on every optical
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channel experience cross-gain modulation (XGM) and cross-phase modulation (XPM) leading to the appearance of ghost tones. These tones can cause errors and mislead the network management system. This problem can be reduced (but not suppressed) by monitoring the frequencies after demultiplexing the WDM channels. Figure 5-27 shows the cross phase and cross gain modulation in an EDFA.
Figure 5-27: (a) amplitude of the cross modulation and (b) the phase of the cross modulation in an EDFA. After ref [22] A recently proposed method to overcome this problem was to use amplitudes and ratios of two adjacent channels [39]. The monitoring module consists of one arrayed-waveguide grating (AWG) followed by photodetectors then a processing unit. The WDM channels are processed with fast Fourier transforms (FFT) and the amplitudes and ratios of the pilot tones are measured. It was demonstrated that using this technique, multiple WDM channels can be simultaneously monitored with an accuracy of +/- 2GHz. Ghost tones can also arise from the stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) [40]. These effects can seriously undermine the pilot-tone based monitoring technique (maximum transmission distance of 400km for a 32-channel WDM network) and can only be negligible for tone frequencies higher than 100 MHz. Increasing the tone frequency leads to an increase in the CNR of the pilot tone and, to a certain extent, a decrease in the power penalty on the optical signal. It was argued in [21] that the main optical signal power penalty is significantly improved only when the pilot tone frequency is over 1GHz in a 2.5 Gbit/s network and 4GHz in a 10 Gbit/s system. However at these frequencies the pilot tone technique is no longer simple and cheap because more complicated circuitry needs to be deployed for tone detection. The following figure illustrates the degradation mechanism caused by XGM and SRS.
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Figure 5-28: The mechanisms of performance degradation caused by XGM and SRS. [29] SPM When using a high frequency pilot tone, the fibres refractive index can be modulated causing a phase modulation due to SPM. This phase modulation causes an amplitude modulation of the tone due to PM-AM conversion. This modulation introduces inaccuracy in the measurement. Various studies [41,42] have investigated the SPM effect on CD monitoring by quantifying the dispersion monitoring error while varying the optical signal power. The following figure shows the error in CD measurement due to SPM for both AM and PM tones.
Figure 5-29: Effect of SPM on pilot tone based CD monitoring technique; monitoring due to SPM. [29] It is shown (see figure above) that the AM pilot tone techniques are more sensitive to SPM than the PM pilot tones due to the fact that AM tones have often higher frequencies than the PM tones.
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5.2.2.
Sampling methods 5.2.3.1. Sampling Circuits
Sampling can be performed electronically using post-detection decision circuits or optically using an electro-optic sampling module. Post detection (electrical) sampling techniques can be further divided into single decision or dual decision circuits as described below. a) Electrical Sampling Histograms can be generated using a single D-type flip-flop as shown in Figure 5-30. It consists of a photodiode, a variable decision-threshold flip-flop and a pulse counter. A clock recovery circuit can be used to feed the clock input of the flip-flop if synchronous sampling is desired; otherwise an external clock is used for asynchronous sampling.
Clock
DATA
Counter Decision threshold

DATA
D-type FF
Figure 5-30: Single decision circuit configuration for histogram generation While the threshold level is swept through the eye at decision time, the number of samples that are taken as zeros is counted. This results in a step function as displayed in Figure 5-31a using numerical simulation [43]. After this, the first derivative of the data is taken and a histogram is obtained (see Figure 5-31b). Similarly, the histogram can be obtained using a dual decision circuit [44] as shown in Figure 5-32. In this configuration, the current coming from the photodiode is split into two; one is fed into a flip-flop with a fixed (reference) threshold level whereas the other part goes into a flip-flop that has a variable threshold. The output from the two flip-flops is then fed into an XOR gate. This turns to a high state only when the outputs from the two flipflops are logically different. Like the single decision circuit, the clock inputs of the two flipflops can be connected either to a clock recovery circuit for synchronous sampling or an external clock for asynchronous sampling.
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Figure 5-31: a) Number of spaces against threshold level b) Histogram
Clock
DATA
DATA
XOR
Counter
D-type FF
DATA
Decision threshold
DATA
D-type FF
Figure 5-32: Dual decision circuit configuration for histogram generation While the threshold level of one of the flip-flops is swept through the eye, the number of ones coming from the XOR gate is counted. In other words, the number of times the two decision circuits differ in their judgement (one or zero) is summed over the same decision threshold and a graph similar to Figure 5-33a is obtained. This technique was experimentally tested on a 2.5 Gbit/s pseudo-random signal traversing 20 km of single mode fibre. 10dB of relative crosstalk (in-band) was introduced at the start of the link while
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an EDFA was placed at the end to boost the power of the signal. The output of the monitoring circuit is sketched in Figure 5-33b.
Figure 5-33: a) Number of errors against threshold level (log scale) b) Histogram The histogram is achieved by taking the absolute value of the first derivative of the graph in Figure 5-33a (see Figure 5-33b). The advantage of this method over the single decision one is that the number of counts coming out of the XOR gate is significantly lower and therefore a (cheaper) low frequency counter can be utilised. In addition, the optimum decision level can be determined by extrapolating the graph and the Q-factor can be rapidly evaluated by applying the equation given below:
Q = 2erfc 1 ( BER)
(5.1)
This method has been tested in WDM networks to monitor channels quality and proved to be very successful [45,46,47]. b) Optical Sampling Sampling can also be performed in the optical domain by using an electro-optic sampling module. In [48,49] an electro-absorption modulator (EAM) was utilised for this purpose and a block diagram of the sampling circuit is shown in Figure 5-34. The module consists of an EAM, a clock source, an electrical pulse generator, a photoreceiver and a signal processing circuit. The latter records the amplitude of the signal exiting the (O/E) converter against the frequency of occurrence and the histogram is obtained. The advantage of using this technique is that the errors due to the electrical noise of the decision circuits (D-type flip flops) are discarded and a low bandwidth receiver can be used when asynchronous detection is desired.
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Figure 5-34: Block diagram of an optical sampling circuit.
5.2.3.2.
Impairments Patterns on Histograms
It has been shown that the degradation of an optical signal due to noise, crosstalk or dispersion can be detected with high sensitivity by evaluating amplitude histograms [50] [51]. It has also been shown that histograms, and especially marks histograms, take distinctive shapes (signatures) for each source of degradation. As the perturbations act on the histograms in a distinguishable way, the definition of appropriate signatures should allow fast and reliable estimation of the transmission quality as well as the source of degradation. The effects of crosstalk, dispersion and PMD have been confirmed experimentally and are discussed in the subsequent sections. As for ASE noise, it is assumed to follow a Gaussian distribution and therefore casts the same distribution on the marks and spaces.
a) Crosstalk Crosstalk is one of the main sources of degradation in WDM systems [52] and consists of a transfer of power from one channel to another. This occurs because of the imperfect characteristics of various optical components such as demultiplexers and optical switches and is referred to as linear crosstalk. It can also occur because of nonlinear effects such as light scattering, FWM or XPM and this type of crosstalk is referred as nonlinear crosstalk. The statistical effects of crosstalk on the histogram and especially on the marks distribution have been extensively studied and lead to an arcsine distribution (U-shape) [53]. A 10 Gbit/s experiment was carried out to define the effects of in-band crosstalk on the histogram and the results are shown in Figure 5-35. It can be observed from the above graphs that the typical effect of intra-band crosstalk on the histogram is the appearance of a floor or a plateau around the marks curve and its width increases with increasing relative power of the interfering signal. In the asynchronous mode the plateau is less visible on the lower side of the marks distribution because it is hidden by the distribution of the pulses transition edges.
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Figure 5-35: a) Synchronous b) Asynchronous histograms of a channel affected by different levels of crosstalk b) Dispersion In single mode fibre, the group velocity associated with the fundamental mode is frequency dependent. As a result, different spectral components of the pulse travel at slightly different speed leading to pulse broadening, a phenomenon referred to as group velocity dispersion, intramodal dispersion or simply fibre dispersion. The effects of dispersion on the eye diagram using a standard single mode fibre in a 10 Gbit/s system is shown in Figure 5-36 for back-to-back and fibre lengths of 13, 39 and 50km
Figure 5-36: Eye diagrams for a) back to back b) 13km c) 39km d) 50km.
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It can be observed that dispersion induces inter-symbol interference (ISI) as marks and spaces have multiple distinctive levels leading to an increase in the error probability. The corresponding synchronous and asynchronous histograms are shown in Figure 5-37and Figure 5-38
Figure 5-37: Synchronous histograms of different levels of residual dispersion
Figure 5-38: Asynchronous histograms of different levels of residual dispersion The effects of dispersion on the distributions are easily observed on the synchronous histogram. It can be seen that the zeros distribution is the mostly affected where two distinctive amplitude levels can be noticed. The ones distribution on the other hand is split into three levels. The effect of dispersion on the asynchronous histogram is characterised by the increase of the standard deviation of both spaces and marks and an upward shift of the means of the zero levels. c) Polarisation Mode Dispersion (PMD) In singlemode optical fibre, signal energy at a given wavelength is resolved into two orthogonal polarisation modes of slightly different propagation velocity leading to
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polarisation-mode dispersion (PMD). The difference in propagation time between the different modes is known as differential group delay (DGD). PMD effect on the histogram is very similar to dispersion and in reality cannot be differentiated. Figure 5-39 shows synchronous histograms of a channel affected by different levels of DGD. However, they may be separated by looking at the eye diagram as explained below. Figure 5-40 shows the observed degradation of the signal eye for a 10 Gbit/s NRZ system as the differential group delay is varied between 10 and 40ps.
Figure 5-39: Synchronous histograms of a channel affected by PMD
Figure 5-40: Effects of first order PMD on the eye diagram. a) =10ps, b) =15ps, c) =20ps, d) =40ps We note that the effects of polarisation mode dispersion is, in general, temporally asymmetric where the eye closure of one side is more important than the other one (compare with Figure 5-36). Only when the power is evenly split between the two principle states of polarisation does the effect become symmetrical and is similar to pulse
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broadening caused by chromatic dispersion. It can be seen from the above figure that PMD starts by gradually closing one side of the eye before noticing any significant change on the rest. As the differential group delay increases the difference in the opening between the left and right hand sides becomes more important and in severe cases DGD will lead to the collapse of the entire eye (Figure 5-40d). In addition, the side of the closure gives further information regarding the distribution of power; if most of the power is travelling in the fast axis then the left side of the eye is affected (our case). Conversely, if most of the power is travelling in the slow axis then the closure comes from the right.
5.2.3.3.
Signal Quality Evaluation and Impairment Detection
a) Using Synchronous Histograms Using the histogram, the Q-factor can be directly measured. This technique for in-service signal quality monitoring is simple and independent of the signal format. It can be applied to small signal degradation due to coherent crosstalk caused by optical components and to that which cannot be revealed by SNR monitoring [43]. Using this method, the standard deviation and the mean values of the mark/space rail of the eye pattern are derived. Assuming that the distribution of ASE noise approximates Gaussian distribution, the Qfactor and BER are given by:
Q BER = 1 2 erfc 2
(5.2)
Where 1, 0 and 1, 0 are the mean and standard deviation of the mark and space levels respectively. However, this method would yield to erroneous results if non-Gaussian degradations, such as crosstalk & inter-symbol interference, were the dominating source of perturbation (see histograms in Figure 5-35, Figure 5-37and Figure 5-38). In general these types of impairment are hidden by Gaussian noise and the total PDF appears to be Gaussian. Numerous algorithms were developed to separate these impairments and rectify the BER and Q-factor estimations to take the non-Gaussian components into account. One approach proposed in [54] is to fit inside the marks and spaces histogram several Gaussian distribution as shown in Figure 5-41a. The BER in this case depends on the combination of amplitudes, means and standard deviations of all the Gaussian pulses inside the histogram and is given by:
BER =
I D D I 0, n 1 + H ( I 1,m ).erfc 1,m H ( I 0,n ).erfc 2 2 m 2 n 0 , 1 , n m
(5.3)
where 0,n , 1,m are the standard deviations and I 0, n , I1,m are the means of the zeros and the ones respectively. D is the threshold level and the Gaussian pulses so that:
H(I) is the normalised amplitude of

(5.4)
H (I
n
0,n
) = H ( I 1,m ) = 0.5
m
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Figure 5-41: a) Superposition of Gaussian pulses on the histogram b) Ratio of estimated and measured BER against different OSNR for different fibre lengths.
Figure 5-41b
shows the ratio between the estimated and the measured BER when the Gaussian estimation is used (dashed lines) and when using the equation above (solid lines) for different levels of noise and chromatic dispersion. It can be observed that when dispersion is the dominant source of degradation (at high OSNR) the first equation tends to overestimate the BER i.e. indicating that the quality is worse than what it actually is. It can be clearly seen that the method of superimposing Gaussian pulses leads to significant improvement in signal quality estimation. Another approach proposed in [55] [56] is to subtract the Gaussian contribution from the total PDF using deconvolution. This will result in the separation of the contribution of noise from distortion and the potential identification of the different sources of impairment. As mentioned in the previous section each source of degradation affects the histogram in a specific way. However when a channel is degraded by more than one impairment, the final histogram is a convolution of their patterns. Figure 5.42a shows the marks histogram when the signal is perturbed by 19dB relative in-phase crosstalk (solid line), half-bit out-of-phase crosstalk (dashed line) with a received power of -20dBm. The dotted line represents the marks distribution of 19dB in-phase crosstalk and a received power of -32dBm. Notice because of a larger receiver noise, the plateau is now hidden.
Log(BER Estimated)/Log(BER Measured)
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Figure 5.42: a) Histogram for 19dB in-phase crosstalk (solid), bit out of phase (dashed), crosstalk & a large receiver noise (dotted). b) Histograms after deconvolution. The deconvolution is performed as follows; the measured PDF is smoothed by a Gaussian filter with width of 6/w0 where w0 is the width of the central peak of the PDF. The Gaussian function is a normalised function with varying width since the exact amount of Gaussian noise in not known. For a width of the Gaussian much smaller than the one of the PDF, the deconvolved PDF has the same structure as the original. Unless the deconvolution function fits the actual Gaussian noise, the crosstalk PDF will still be hidden. The deconvolved histograms are shown in Figure 5.42b. It is observed that the plateaus can be easily identified and have equal widths regardless of the noise level. Finally the BER is calculated using Gaussian statistics for the noise and the expression given below for the crosstalk.
BER =
D 0 1 1 D 1 erfc erfc + + 2 1 0 2
1 D + p / 2 1 D p / 2 1 1 erfc + erfc 4 1 1 4
(5.5)
where D is the decision threshold, 1, 0 and 1, 0 are the means and standard deviations of the mark and space levels respectively and p is the plateau width. In a real system the noise distribution is unknown and therefore it is difficult to utilise the above deconvolution method to extract distortion. A histogram method to predict the amount of Gaussian noise in the monitored channel, and therefore perform the deconvolution correctly, was proposed [57]. It consists of taking the histogram (of the ones or zeros) into the Fourier domain and multiplying it, in an iterative manner, by an exponential so that it compensates for the Gaussian distribution due to ASE noise. Assuming the histogram contains a Gaussian component and another arbitrary component, its Fourier transform H can be written as:
H(w) = exp(-w2) F(w)
(5.6)
Where F is the Fourier transform of the arbitrary component and is related to the standard deviation of the noise. The proposed technique involves multiplying the function H with an exponential function of width , so that it cancels out the Gaussian function. This can be written as:
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H(w) exp(w2) = exp[( - ) w2] F(w)
(5.7)
When is greater than in the equation above, the resultant function is a parabolic function and has two peaks, one on each side of the spectrum as illustrated in Figure 5-43. However when starts to approach , The side peaks start to subside and push towards the sides of the spectrum. By varying the width of the exponential function (i.e. varying) and tracking the side peaks, it is possible to obtain a good approximation of .
Figure 5-43: Plot of equation 2.8 as a function of . The deconvolution technique was experimentally tested in a 10 Gbit/s system where the ASE noise was varied by changing the input power to an EDFA [58]. Figure 5-45 shows the theoretical and estimated normalised standard deviation (i.e. divided by 1-0) of white noise. It can be seen that there is a good correlation between the two although the algorithm tends to slightly overestimate noise when the input power is greater than -10dBm and slightly underestimate it in the region less than -24dBm.
Figure 5-44: Side samplings and histograms of an eye diagram
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Finally synchronous sampling can be used to detect and estimate PMD by sampling the eye at three different places [59] [60]. Based on the observations made in the section c), a sampling scheme that exploits the distinctive characteristics of the PMD-affected eye was developed in order to monitor PMD in transmission systems. In addition to sampling at the centre of the eye, a fixed delay can be introduced to the clock signal to extract the histograms of both edges as shown in Figure 5-44.
Figure 5-45: Theoretical vs. measured standard deviation of ASE noise By performing the three-section eye sampling on both the transmitter and the receiver, information on the differential group delay and power splitting ratio between the two principle states of polarisation can be extracted. Results are shown in Figure 5-46. It can be observed that the error increases when most of the power is concentrated in one state of polarisation (=0.1) and decreases when the power is evenly split (=0.4-0.5). This is because the side samples of the eye diagram, when one polarisation state contains most of the power, change only slightly with increasing DGD leading to more errors in the estimation. However, when the power is equally split the rate of change of the side samples, as increases, is important. Figure 5-46b shows the estimated power splitting ratio . It can be observed that when > 30ps, the estimation of the power splitting is very accurate and becomes less precise for smaller because the side samples are similar for the different power ratios. This could be a very promising technique because it is the only method that can evaluate both the DGD and the power in the main states of polarisation. In addition it could be used as a feedback circuit to control either an optical or an electrical PMD compensator.
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Figure 5-46: a) Errors in DGD estimation b) Estimation of power splitting ratio b) Using Asynchronous Histograms Achieving signal monitoring in a WDM system using asynchronous sampling has been a major area of research during the last few years [61] [62]. It provides a clear advantage over the previous method since it truly achieves bitrate transparency. The asynchronous histogram is obtained by sampling the signal at higher (over-sampling) or lower (undersampling) rates. However and as observed in section 2.2, this also leads to sampling the signal transitions (from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0) that creates a floor between the marks and spaces histograms leading to an erroneous assessment of the Q factor. Furthermore this floor also depends on the sampling rate, the bit rate of the channel, the electrical and optical bandwidth and shape of the pulses used [63]. Most of the techniques found in the literature and reported here deal with the optimum approach of removing these cross-point data in order to correctly estimate the BER. The first technique proposed in [54] was to cut the inner-histogram between the means of the zeros and the ones then mirror the external parts around these two axes as shown in Figure 5-47a. Gaussian pulses are then fitted to the new histogram and the BER is calculated.
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Figure 5-47: a) Cut & flip technique for asynchronous histograms Figure 5-47b shows the ratio between the estimated and the measured BER when using this technique on a system with varying OSNR and residual chromatic dispersion. It can be seen that when noise is the dominant effect (back-to-back & 10km fibre) this procedure gives accurate results. However when dispersion is the most dominant source of degradation (25 & 30km fibre) this method tends to underestimate the BER meaning that the signal quality is worse than what is calculated. This is because dispersion, or indeed distortion in general, affects more the area between the two means, by creating multi-level patterns, than the external area. A different approach proposed by [64] was to cut and delete the floor at a certain level of the eye opening and then calculate an average Q factor as shown in Figure 5-48. This level is determined by , a value between 0.1 and 0.5. If is too small, the number of sampled points to determine the mean and standard deviation become insufficient whereas if it is too large then the standard deviation will include the sampled cross-points. It has been established experimentally that the optimum value for to give a good correlation between the estimate and the real Q factor is 0.3 [65]. Figure 5-49 shows the correlation between the estimated and the real Q factor for different values of (optical bandwidth = 4 x bitrate). The slope Qave/Q when =0.3 is 0.68. Although this technique shows a good correlation between the estimated and measured signal quality, it still has to be fully tested when perturbations come from distortion such as dispersion or crosstalk. In addition it may be used to determine the origin of the degradation. It has been argued in [66] that the combination of the eye opening and the standard deviation of the marks can be a clue in establishing the origin of the degradation as depicted in the graph below.
Log(BER Estimated)/Log(BER Measured)
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Figure 5-48: Cut & delete technique for asynchronous histograms
Figure 5-49: Dependence of Qavg on Q for different Comparing Figure 5-50(a) and (b), we can see that 1,ave increases faster with increasing dispersion than with decreasing OSNR. On the other hand, | 1,ave - 0,ave| decreases faster with decreasing OSNR than increasing dispersion. In addition the value 1,ave - | 1,ave - 0,ave| is always greater than the reference level (i.e. 1) in the presence of dispersion and lower in the case of increasing noise. Therefore by evaluating the reference level of the eye opening and the marks standard deviation at system installation and comparing them with the newly acquired parameters, the origin of the degradation can be determined. However this analysis only takes into account impairment due to noise and dispersion and ignores all other perturbations such as crosstalk, PMD and non-linearities.
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Figure 5-50: a) Dispersion and b) OSNR dependence of 1,ave and | 1,ave - 0,ave| Finally and unlike the aforementioned techniques, a new way of asynchronously estimating the Q factor without the need for cross-point removal has been proposed [63]. It relies on obtaining the pre-transmission histogram (i.e. at the transmitter) and convolving it with different Gaussian distributions then comparing it with the histogram at the receiver. An example of a 40 Gbit/s asynchronous histogram is illustrated in Figure 5-51.
Figure 5-51: 40 Gbit/s asynchronous histogram and its model Although this technique can accurately estimate the quality of the signal without the need to remove cross-point data, it can only be utilised when noise is the only source of degradation. It might be extended to tackle distortion by convolving the histogram with preestablished distributions (e.g. crosstalk or dispersion) but it would be impracticable in real systems since it will necessitate guessing the right mix.
Normalised Values
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5.2.3.
Digital methods 5.2.1.1. Bit-Interleaved Parity
Parity is a method of encoding such that the number of 1s in a frame or a stream of bits is even or odd. Figure 5-52 demonstrates an example of BIP-8 encoding. First groups of bytes (8 bits) are piled on the top of each other and the number of 1s in every column is counted. If this number is even, a 0 is placed in the bin and if the number is odd a 1 is added to the corresponding column in the bin so that the total number of 1s in every column is even. Sent Data: 01101000 10101110 10001101 00101001 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 BIP bin 0
Figure 5-52: Illustration of the BIP-8 Received Data: 11101000 10101100 10001111 10101001 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 BIP bin 0
Figure 5-53: Limits of the BIP method; shaded boxes represent errors. However and as illustrated in Figure 5-53 this method detects an error only if an odd number of bits is disturbed. An even number of errors within the same column will be selfcompensating and go undetected. It can be seen from the figure below that the BIP bin is identical to the bin in the previous figure although the received data is different (shaded boxes).
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5.2.1.2.
Cycle Redundancy Checking (CRC)
The CRC is both a powerful and easy-to-implement technique used to check data reliability in digital systems [67]. It consists of appending an extra n-bit sequence (at the transmitting node) to every frame called Frame Check Sequence (FCS). The FCS holds redundant information about the frame that helps the receiving end to detect errors in the frame. The main advantages of using this technique are: good error detection capabilities, ease of implementation and light overheads. The algorithm treats the bit streams as binary polynomials; for instance, if the data consists of the pattern 10100011 it is translated to the polynomial X 7+ X5 + X +1. Given the original frame, the transmitter generates a FCS such that the resulting frame (original frame + FCS) is dividable by a predefined polynomial. The latter is called the CRC polynomial. For a more elaborate explanation consider the following definitions: We call M the original frame to be transmitted. M has a length of k bits. F is the FCS of length n to be added to M. T is the concatenated frame that consists of M and F and thus it has a length of k + n bits. - P is n+1bits long and represents the predefined CRC polynomial. First, the frame M is shifted n-bits to the left or in polynomial terms, M is multiplied by Xn. After this, the product M*Xn is divided by the CRC polynomial P and the remainder is the frame check sequence F that will be appended to the raw data. The final frame T that will be transmitted can be written as: T = M * Xn + F Finally, when the frame arrives at the receiver it will be divided by the CRC polynomial (i.e. P) and if the remainder is not zero then the frame is corrupted. The algorithm can either be implemented in hardware or software.
5.2.1.3.
Bit Error Rate (BER) and Forward Error Correction (FEC)
Any method that can correct errors at the receiver without the need for a retransmission of the frame is referred to as forward error correction (FEC). Many algorithms have been proposed and the most popular ones are summarised in the table below [68]. The bit stream at the source is partitioned into binary words and extra bits are added to the every word in order to perform forward error correction. This operation is known as block encoding. The binary words before going through the block encoder will be referred to as datawords and after being encoded will be called codewords. Each dataword contains k bits and each codeword contains n bits so that the total number of added bits (for error correction) is n-k. The symbol t in the table denotes the number of errors that can be corrected in a codeword.
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Table 5-2: Examples of block codes. Code Name Hamming Golay Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH) Reed-Solomon (RS) n 2 -1 23 2 -1 2m-1
m m
k n-m 12 n- mt n- 2t
t 1 3 t t
Notes M is an integer Multiple error correction Designed to cope with burst errors
Currently there are two FEC standards; in-band FEC is used in SONET/SDH protocol, where the extra bits are inserted inside available overhead bytes. Because of the limited number of available bytes (only three bytes for end-to-end path function) [69], the code chosen was a 3-bit-error-correcting BCH code [70]. Out-of-band FEC is used in submarine systems and digital wrappers and it adds an additional ~7% bandwidth overhead. The code is based on Reed-Solomon (255,239), which can correct up to t=8 random symbol errors. In addition, the code has a coding gain of around 5.5 dB at a BER of 10-12 (see Figure 5-54) and can correct bursts of length up to 64 bits. BER
Without coding With coding 10-12
Coding gain Figure 5-54: The coding gain
SNR (dB)
The bit error rate after coding, which will be referred to as BERC, is different from the BER of the system and does not affect it in any way. The BER of the transmission channel is determined by the signal to noise ratio (SNR) while the BERC depends on the capability of error detection and correction of a given block code. In fact coding makes the probability of bit error worse assuming the same transmission rate. Suppose the probability of coded bit error is Pe, then the probability of i errors occurring in a n-bit codeword is:
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Pi = Pei (1- Pe)n i Usually Pe1 and hence Pi Pei. The number of combinations of i errors in a n-bit codeword is:
Ci ,n =
n! i!(n i )!
Therefore the probability of receiving a codeword with i errors is:
Pi ,n = C i , n Pi
Sometimes it is necessary to know the probability of a codeword containing at least i errors. This will be denoted as Pwe and given as: Pwe = Pi,n + Pi+1,n + Pi+2,n + ..+ Pn,n Since Pe1, the probability of getting more than i errors is negligible compared to the probability of getting i errors and thus Pwe could be approximated to Pi,n . Now suppose that FEC code can correct or detect errors up to a maximum number of t-bits. The probability of receiving a codeword with at least i = t + 1 errors is the same as the probability of receiving i errors and is given by
Pwe =
n! Pei i!(n i)!
Usually a transmission contains W number of words and the number of erroneous words that can go undetected is WE = W Pwe. Since there are i error bits in every undetected word, the total number of corrupted bits in the transmission is iWPwe. Assuming a uniform distribution of errors among the n codeword bits, the fraction of errors expected in the k data bits is r = k/n (r is also called the code rate). Hence the average number of data bits in error is irWPwe. The BER based on the relative frequency definition is the ratio between the average number of erroneous data bits and the total number of data bits (kW) and is given as:
BERC =
irWPwe (n 1)! Pet +1 = kW t!(n 1 t )!
Without coding the bit error rate (BER) is equal to Pe.
5.3 References
[1] Wrage, M. and Spinnler, B., "Distortion identification in WDM networks by analysis of electrical equalizer coefficients", Proc. ECOC 2004, vol. 4, pp 824-825. [2] Proakis, J. G., "Digital communications", 2nd edition, Boston: McGraw-Hill Series in Electrical and Computer Engineering, 1989. [3] M. Wrage, B. Spinnler, and I. Stork genannt Wersborg, Evaluation of electrical equalizer coefficients for optical performance monitoring in DWDM networks SPIE proceedings, APOC 2004, Beijing, paper 5625-2
4 Z. Pan, Chromatic dispersion monitoring and automated compensation for NRZ and RZ data using clock regeneration and fading without adding signalling, OFC, paper WH5, 2000.
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5 Akihidi Sano, Automatic dispersion equalization by monitoring extracted-clock power level in a 40Gb/s, 200km transmission line, ECOC, paper TuD.3.5, 1996 .
6 S. M. Reza Motaghian Nezam, Enhancing the monitoring range and sensitivity in CSRZ
chromatic dispersion monitors using a dispersion-biased RF clock tone, IEEE, PTL, vol. 16, no. 5, p1391, 2004. 7 Michael Duser, Burst aggregation control and scalability of wavelength-routed optical burst-switched (WR-OBS) networks, ECOC, paper 2.4.7, 2002. 8 S. M. Reza Motaghian Nezam, PMD monitoring in WDM systems for NRZ data using a chromatic-dispersion-regenerated clock, OFC, paper WE5, 2002. 9 C. Yu, Chromatic-dispersion-insensitive PMD monitoring for NRZ data based on clock power measurement using a narrowband FBG notch filter, ECOC, vol. 2, p290, paper Tu4.2.3, 2003. 10 S. M. Reza Motaghian Nezam, First-order PMD monitoring for NRZ data using RF clock regeneration techniques, IEEE, JLT, vol. 22, no. 4, p1086, 2004. 11 John Cameron, Time evolution of polarization mode dispersion in optical fibres, IEEE, PTL, vol. 10, no. 9, p1265, 1998. 12 A. E. Willner, Tunability and monitoring of chromatic dispersion and PMD in optical networks, LEOS, Paper TuI1, p201, 2002. 13 M. Tomizawa. Automatic dispersion equalization by tunable laser for installation of highspeed optical transmission system. OFC, paper TuT2, p96, 1997. 14 T. E. Dimmick, Optical dispersion monitoring technique using double sideband subcarriers, IEEE, PTL, vol. 12, no. 7, p900, July 2000. 15 K. J. Park, Performance comparisons of chromatic dispersion-monitoring techniques using pilot tones, IEEE, PTL, vol. 15, no. 6, p873, June 2003.
16 G. Rossi, Optical performance monitoring in reconfigurable WDM optical networks using subcarrier multiplexing. JLT, vol. 18, no. 12, p1639, December 2000.
17 M. N. Petersen, Dispersion monitoring and compensation using single in-band subcarrier tone OFC, paper WH4, 2001. 18 Giammarco Rossi, Optical performance monitoring in reconfigurable WDM optical networks using subcarrier multiplexing IEEE, JLT, vol. 18, no. 12, December 2000. 19 M. N. Petersen, Online chromatic dispersion monitoring and compensation using a single inband subcarrier tone, IEEE, PTL, no. 14, p570, 2002. 20 Shoichiro Kuwahara, Automatic dispersion compensation for WDM system by modesplitting of tone-modulated CS-RZ signal ECOC, paper 6.1.3, 2002. 21 P. W. Hakki, Polarization mode dispersion compensation by phase diversity detection, IEEE PTL, vol. 9, p121, 1997. 22 H. Bullow, Electronic equalization of fibre PMD-induced distortion at 10 GB/s, OFC, paper W11, 1998. 23 J. H. Winters, Experimental equalization of polarization dispersion, IEEE PTL, vol.2, p591, 1990.
24 A. E. Willner, Tunable compensation of channel degrading effects using nonlinear
chirped passive fibre Bragg gratings, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, vol. 5, no. 5, September / October 1999. 25 S. M. Reza Motaghian Nezam, Measuring fibre and component DGD using polarized limited-bandwidth optical sources and monitoring the DOP, IEEE, PTL, vol. 16, no. 7, July 2004. 26 Ming-Seng Kao, Effect of polarization mode dispersion on a coherent optical system with pilot carrier, IEE, JLT, vol. 11, no. 2, February 1993. 27 S. M. Reza Motaghian Nezam, Degree of polarization based PMD monitoring for subcarrier-multiplexed signals via equalized carrier/sideband filtering IEEE, JLT, vol. 22, no. 4, April 2004. 28 K. J. Park, Polarisation-mode dispersion monitoring technique based on polarisation scrambling, EL, vol. 38, no. 2, p83, 2002. 29 H. C. Ji, Optical performance monitoring techniques based on pilot tones for WDM network applications OSA, JON, vol. 3, no. 7, p510, 2004. 30 A transport network layer based on optical network elements. G.R. Hill et al. Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 11, No. 5/6, 1993. 31 Optical performance monitoring techniques. G. Bendelli, C. Cavazzoni, R. Girardi, R. Lano. European Conf. Opt. Comm. (ECOC) Munich 2000. V4 pp. 113-116. 32 G. Bendilli. European Conf. Opt. Comm. 99, pII-114. 33 Transmission capacity of optical path overhead transfer scheme using pilot tone for optical path network. Y. Hamazuni et al. Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 15, No. 12, 1997. 34 Y. Benlachtar Transfer Thesis, UCL, 2004.
35 M. Tomizawa, Nonlinear influence on PM-AM conversion measurement of group
velocity dispersion in optical fibres. Electronics Letters, vol. 30, no. 17, p1434, 1994. 36 Y. Yamabayashi, Direct dispersion measurement of multiple fibre section concatenated with linear amplifier repeaters, IMTC, paper THAM 9-5, p1040, 1994. 37 Tomizawa, Masahito, Automatic dispersion equalization by tunable laser for installation of high-speed optical transmission system, OFC, Paper TuT2, p96, 1997. 38 Time dependent perturbation theory and tones in cascaded Erbium-Doped fibre amplifier systems. Yan Sun et al. Journal of Lightwave Technology Vol. 15, No. 7, 1997. 39 Optical frequency monitoring technique using AWG and pilot tones. C.J. Youn et al. Electronics letters Vol.37 No.16, pp.1032-1033. 2001. 40 Effects of stimulated Raman scattering on pilot tone based WDM supervisory technique. H.S. Chung et al. Optical Fibre Communication Conference, 2000. WK7-1 pp. 185-187. 41 C. Youn, Effects of SPM and PMD on Chromatic Dispersion Monitoring Techniques Using Pilot Tones, OFC, vol. 1, paper WP2, p403, 2003. 42 K. J. Park, Chromatic dispersion monitoring technique in WDM network OFC, paper ThGG88, p735, 2002.
43 S. Ohtero and N Takachio, Optical signal quality monitor using direct Q-factor measurement, Photonics Technology Letters. Vol.11, No.10 pp.1307-1309, October 1999. 44 Wiesmann, R.; Bleck, O.; Heppner, H., Cost effective performance monitoring in WDM systems, Optical Fibre Communication Conference, 2000 ,Volume: 2 , 7-10, P171, March 2000. 45 Richter, A.; Bock, H.; Fischler, W.; Elbers, J.-P.; Glingener, C.; Bach, R.; Grupp, W., Field trial of optical performance monitor in dynamically configurable DWDM network, Electronics Letters ,Volume: 37 , Issue: 6 , Pages:370 371,15 Mar 2001 46 Richter, A.; Fischler, W.; Bock, H.; Bach, R.; Grupp, W., Optical performance monitoring in transparent and configurable DWDM networks, Optoelectronics, IEE Proceedings- ,Volume: 149 , Issue: 1, Pages:1 - 5, Feb. 2002 47 Fischler, W.; Richter, A.; Bock, H.; Elbers, J.-P.; Glingener, C., Monitoring the optical performance in a transparent and configurable metro area network, Lasers and ElectroOptics Society, 2001. LEOS 2001. The 14th Annual Meeting of the IEEE ,Volume: 2 , P479, 12-13 Nov. 2001 48 Shake, I.; Takara, H.; Kawanishi, S., Simple Q factor monitoring for BER estimation using opened eye diagrams captured by high-speed asynchronous electrooptical sampling, Photonics Technology Letters, IEEE ,Volume: 15 , Issue: 4, Pages:620 - 622, April 2003 49 Shake, I.; Takara, H.; Kawanishi, S., Simple measurement of eye diagram and BER using high-speed asynchronous sampling, Lightwave Technology, Journal of ,Volume: 22 , Issue: 5, Pages:1296 - 1302, May 2004 50 N. Hanik, A. Gladisch, C. Caspar and B. Strebel, Application of amplitude histograms to monitor performance of optical channels, European Conf. Opt. Comm. (ECOC) Madrid 98. pp. 707-708, 1998 51 K. Mueller, N. Hanik, A. Gladisch, C. Caspar, H. M. Foisel, Application of amplitude histograms for quality of service measurements of optical channels and fault identification, Electronics Letters., Vol.35, No.5 pp. 403-404, March 4th 1999 52 E. Iannone et al, Modelling of In-band Crosstalk in WDM Optical Networks, IEEE Journal of lightwave technology. Vol. 17, Number 7, 1999 53 Legg, P.J.; Tur, M.; Andonovic, I., Solution paths to limit interferometric noise induced performance degradation in ASK/direct detection lightwave networks, Lightwave Technology, Journal of ,Volume: 14 , Issue: 9, Pages:1943 1954, Sept. 1996 54 Rasztovits-Wiech, M.; Studer, K.; Leeb, W.R., Bit error probability estimation algorithm for signal supervision in all-optical networks, Electronics Letters ,Volume: 35 , Issue: 20, Pages:1754 1755, 30 Sept. 1999 55 C. M. Weinert, C. Caspar, M. Konitzer and M. Rohde, Histogram method for identification and evaluation of crosstalk, Electronic letters. Vol. 36 No.6 pp.558-559, 16th march 2000 56 C. M. Weinert, Histogram method performance monitoring of the optical channel, European Conf. Opt. Comm. (ECOC) Munich. V4 pp. 121-122, 2000
57 Benlachtar, Y.; Killey, R.; Bayvel, P., Identification of sources of degradation in optical channels using deconvolution technique, Optical Fibre Communications Conference, OFC 2003, Pages:109 - 110 vol.1, 23-28 March 2003 58 Benlachtar, Y.; Killey, R.I.; Bayvel, P., Experimental investigation of a deconvolution technique for identification of channel impairment, Lasers and Electro-Optics Society, LEOS 2003. The 16th Annual Meeting of the IEEE ,Volume: 1, Pages:146 - 147 vol.1, 2728 Oct. 2003 59 Y. Benlachtar, M. Scopes, R. I. Killey, P. Bayvel, Novel Eye Monitoring Technique for Detection of First Order PMD, To be presented in the Conference on Lasers and ElectroOptics, CLEO 2005 60 Y. Benlachtar, R.I. Killey and P. Bayvel, Novel Three-Point Sampling Technique for Detection of First Order PMD, Winter school e-Photon One. Aveiro, Portugal. Pages: C81C84, 23-25 Feb 2005 61 Shake, I.; Takara, W.; Kawanishi, S.; Yamabayashi, Y., Optical signal quality monitoring method based on optical sampling, Electronics Letters ,Volume: 34 , Issue: 22, Pages:2152 2154, 29 Oct. 1998 62 Andre, P.S.B.; Teixeira, A.L.J.; Lima, M.J.N.; Pinto, J.L.; da Rocha, J.R.F., Optical performance monitor based on asynchronous detection, Lasers and Electro-Optics Society, LEOS 2001. The 14th Annual Meeting of the IEEE ,Volume: 1, Pages:30 - 31 vol.1, 12-13 Nov. 2001 63 Andre, P.S.B.; Luis, A.J; Teixeira, A.L.J.; Lima, M.J.N and Monteiro, P.N, Asynchronous sampled amplitude histogram models for optical performance monitoring in high-speed networks, Journal of Optical Networking, Volume 3, No. 8, Pages: 636 642, August 2004 64 Shake, I.; Otani, E.; Takara, H.; Uchiyama, K.; Yamabayashi, Y.; Morioka, T., Bit rate flexible quality monitoring of 10 to 160 Gbit/s optical signals based on optical sampling technique, Electronics Letters ,Volume: 36 , Issue: 25, Pages:2087 - 2088, 7 Dec. 2000. 65 Shake, I.; Takara, H., Averaged Q-factor method using amplitude histogram evaluation for transparent monitoring of optical signal-to-noise ratio degradation in optical transmission system, Lightwave Technology, Journal of ,Volume: 20 , Issue: 8, Pages:1367 1373, Aug. 2002. 66 Shake, I.; Takara, H., Chromatic dispersion dependence of asynchronous amplitude histogram evaluation of NRZ signal, Lightwave Technology, Journal of ,Volume: 21 , Issue: 10, Pages:2154 2161, Oct. 2003 67 Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) tutorial. http://www.rad.com/networks/1994/err_con/crc.htm 68 Electronic communications 4th edition. D. Roddy, J. Coolen. Prentice Hall International Editions. 1995. 69 Design and characterization of an error-correcting code for the SONET. W. D. Grover & T. E. Moore. IEEE Transactions on Communications. Vol. 38, Number 4 (1990). 70 Equalization and FEC techniques for optical tranceivers. Kamran Azadet et al. IEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits. Vol. 37, Number 3 (2002).

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IST IP NOBEL "Next generation Optical network for Broadband European Leadership"

Optical Performance Monitoring (OPM) and Signal Quality Analysis

5.1 OPM in transparent circuit switched networks

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25 1.5 40 60 -80 0.1 <20 Volume phase grating 689615.8

30 40 -55 500~1000 600-1000

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5.1.2 Electrical Equalisers for OPM Applications (5.1.6)

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5.2 Advanced OPM concepts

SMF Edge Node

Feed back Switch SW DCF Comp

Tunable compensation device

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After transmission (accumulated dispersion):

Optical and electrical spectrum

Phase difference between E D ( +1 0 ) and E D ( 1 0 )

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After transmission (accumulated dispersion): E D ( ) = F [ E (t )].e

= Range = 620 ps / nm = Range = 39 ps / nm

10 Gb/s or 40 Gb/s NRZ or RZ Tx

CD compensator EDFA Att EDFA

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High speed Power detector

R=V1/V Ratio V0 LPF

Resolution (ps/nm) ~60 [4] ~2 [6]

10: Sensitivity=0.05dB/ps/nm with 0.1dB sensitivity [See ]

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10 Gb/s or 40 Gb/s NRZ or RZ Tx

PMD compensator EDFA Att EDFA

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High speed Power d t t EBPF f0 = 10GHz

OBPF 0 = 10GHz BW 8GH

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High speed Power d t t EBPF f0 = 10GHz

FBG 10Gb/s D~630ps/nm

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10 Gb/s or 40 Gb/s NRZ or RZ Tx

CD compensator EDFA Att EDFA

SSB-U/L 00 / 900 0 = 20 to 32GHz

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CD Range (ps/nm) 40 Gbit/s Advantage of the technique ~70

Pilot tones monitoring techniques

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SMF Intensity Modulator Laser IM

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fpt 10 Gbit/s 8 GHz 16 GHz 1 GHz 2. PMD

CD Range (ps/nm) ~ 1000 [17] ~ 38 [14] -800 / +700 [20]

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E (t ) = E 0 exp[ j (2f 0 t + b sin( 2f pt t ))]

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