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Knowledge-Based Diagnosis of Partial Discharges in Power Transformers

S. M. Strachan, S. Rudd, S. D. J. McArthur, M. D. Judd
University of Strathclyde Institute for Energy and Environment Glasgow, UK and S. Meijer and E. Gulski Delft University of Technology HV Components and Power Systems Delft, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT
The abstraction of meaningful diagnostic information from raw condition monitoring data in domains where diagnostic expertise and knowledge is limited and constantly evolving presents a significant research challenge. Expert diagnosis and location of partial discharges in High Voltage electrical plant is one such domain. This paper describes the functionality of a knowledge-based decision support system capable of providing engineers with a comprehensive diagnosis of the defects responsible for partial discharge activity detected in oil-filled power transformers. Plant data captured from partial discharge (PD) sensors can be processed to generate phase-resolved partial discharge (PRPD) patterns. This paper proposes a means of abstracting the salient features characterizing the observed PRPD patterns. Captured knowledge describing the visual interpretation of these patterns can be applied for defect diagnosis and location. The knowledge-based PRPD pattern interpretation system can support on-line plant condition assessment and defect diagnosis by presenting a comprehensive diagnosis of PD activity detected and classification of the defect source. The paper also discusses how the system justifies its diagnosis of the PD activity to offer the expert greater confidence in the result, a feature generally absent in black-box pattern recognition techniques. The incremental approach exhibited by the system reflects that of a PD experts visual interpretation of the PRPD pattern. The paper describes how this functional system design has evolved from the approach taken by PD experts to the visual interpretation of PRPD patterns. Index Terms Transformers, partial discharges, knowledge-based system, classification, diagnosis, condition monitoring, UHF sensors.

1 INTRODUCTION
WITH a design life of around 20-35 years (increasing to 50 years in practice with appropriate maintenance) [1], large power transformers at transmission voltages are widely regarded as reliable items of electrical plant. The crucial role performed by transformers in maintaining a secure and continuous delivery of electricity to consumers, demands their safe and reliable operation. While significantly more reliable in comparison to many other network components, it is the potential impact of a transformer malfunction that drives the requirement for effective condition monitoring of these commercially and technically valuable network assets. Transformer failures may result in loss of supplies to large
Manuscript received on 21March 2007, in final form 10 August 2007.

populations of customers, while the threat of explosions and fire causing irreparable damage to adjacent plant and injury to personnel pose a risk to safety and the environment with potentially serious legal and regulatory implications. Therefore, while transformers may have a generally reliable reputation in the operation of the network, the welfare of these critical network assets remains at the forefront of utilities asset management responsibilities and obligations. Condition monitoring technology captures operational plant data characterizing its vital signs, enabling subsequent on/off-line assessment of plant condition and performance. Numerous on-line and off-line condition monitoring technologies operating on a variety of observables are available for the detection of incipient failures within electrical power transformers [2].

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However, the novel nature of some condition monitoring and sensor technologies means that plant experts can find themselves presented with unfamiliar data sets with the potential to provide fresh insights into previously uncharacterized areas of plant behavior and associated phenomena. As this knowledge grows and evolves, a mechanism is required to harness, store and leverage the knowledge and understanding required to map these condition monitoring data sets to distinct observations in the plants behavior and its failure mechanisms. Partial discharge is one such phenomenon that is the subject of ongoing research focusing on its behavior, cause and effects, and methods of detection and diagnosis [3],[4]. Partial discharge (PD) activity is a prominent symptom of the service ageing and degradation of transformer insulation. Historically, monitoring of this phenomenon has been limited and as such a lot remains unknown of its causes, breakdown mechanisms, and exactly what influences its behavior. The development of an extensible knowledge based system will allow the incorporation of new knowledge of previously unknown PD behavior and new defect types as it is learned (either through empirical analysis or practical experience). What is known, is that the dielectric properties of plant insulation may be severely impaired if subjected to consistent PD activity over prolonged periods of time (e.g. initiated by transient over-voltage or incipient weaknesses in insulation, etc.). This may ultimately lead to complete failure where PD activity remains undetected and untreated. Insulation integrity is therefore regarded as a critical aspect of a transformers condition. As such, suitable safeguards are required to monitor transformer plant for the presence of potentially damaging PD activity. Historically, research into partial discharges has focused on the nature of these discharges occurring within solid and gas insulation systems [5],[6]. Investigations into the partial discharge phenomenon in liquid dielectrics (such as the oil insulation of a transformer) are more difficult and as a consequence are generally less well understood within the PD research community as a whole. Limited knowledge of the nature of partial discharges generated in the oil insulation of power plant with complex geometry, such as oil-filled power transformers, prompted some empirical research within the University of Strathclyde [7]. Partial discharge data captured using UHF sensor technology was analyzed by University of Strathclyde researchers in an attempt to understand the physical process underpinning dielectric breakdown within large oil-filled power transformers and the PD behavior arising from particular defect geometries [7][8]. This research sought to enhance the general PD communitys knowledge-base of PD behavior associated with this transformer plant and oil insulating medium. This paper proposes that as our knowledge base evolves and matures, and the linkage between the cause and effect of the PD phenomenon becomes more established and

better understood, this domain knowledge can be retained and embedded within a knowledge-based system facilitating future PD defect diagnosis and location. A knowledge-based decision support system is proposed as a means of providing a practical diagnostic explanation of PD behavior and defect geometry to end-users (e.g. maintenance personnel, asset managers, PD experts, plant manufacturers). The knowledge-based system proposed in this paper mimics a partial discharge experts approach to the interpretation of phase-resolved partial discharge (PRPD) patterns for the purpose of diagnosing the nature, severity and cause of detected PD activity. The system uses statistical parameters to characterize the key feature (or descriptors) of the PRPD pattern, which a PD expert would typically look for when performing their diagnosis. These descriptors are then used to explain in physical terms the behavior associated with the observed partial discharge activity. Understanding the PD behavior enables distinct aspects of the physical geometry and properties of the responsible defect source to be deduced and subsequently matched to the diagnostic rules of a knowledge base. Ultimately, knowledge of the defect site geometry can be used to classify and subsequently locate the PD defect source. This knowledge-based system contains knowledge derived from multiple experts which readily maintainable and generally applicable to any H.V. oil filled transformer. Another benefit of the knowledge-based approach is the provision of a meaningful diagnostic explanation accompanying the systems defect classification. This increases the users confidence in the system output. The paper describes the structured approach taken to the knowledge capture required to populate the respective rulebases with the appropriate areas of domain knowledge. Furthermore, the paper proposes that the modular system design provides an extensible framework, which can be readily augmented with fresh knowledge (e.g. concerning new types of PD, different plant types, different insulating mediums) as it evolves and matures through continued research and on-site experience. In addition, this system will assist experts in the recognition and understanding of new PD sources or different manifestations of existing ones.

2 PARTIAL DISCHARGE ACTIVITY IN OILFILLED POWER TRANSFORMERS

A partial discharge occurs in a high voltage (HV) transformer when the electric field strength exceeds the dielectric breakdown strength of the insulating medium in a localized area. This results in an electrical discharge that only partially bridges the insulation between conductors. High electron energies can break molecular bonds in adjacent solid or liquid dielectrics resulting in changes to the chemical properties of the insulating material and its subsequent ablation.

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Partial discharge activity may be categorized by the defect source responsible and its locale [4]. The range of defect classes for which the nature of the discharge behaviour was observed in the programme of research reported in [7] include: Bad Contact microdischarges between conducting surfaces separated by a thin layer of oil, e.g. between the threads of loose nuts and bolts. Floating Component small fixed conducting particle at floating potential that experiences a localised PD that does not bridge the gap to the system conductors. Suspended Particle small, free-moving conducting objects or debris within the insulating oil that can discharge to the system conductors. Rolling Particle conducting particles lying on a conductive surface until influenced by the electric field causing them to roll or bounce around. Protrusion fixed, sharp metallic protrusions on HV conductors. Surface Discharge at pressboard surface due to moisture ingress or material damage. Floating Electrodes large components such as stress shields that have become detached from the chamber, acquiring a floating potential that results in capacitive sparking. These defect classes represent those targeted by the knowledge-based system described in this paper.

3 UHF DETECTION OF PARTIAL DISCHARGES AND PHASE-RESOLVED PATTERN REPRESENTATION

circuit before being digitized. A phase signal derived from the power frequency waveform provides additional reference information for the digitized PD data. Each PD pulse recorded is associated with a particular time and point-on-wave. The amplitude of the displayed pulses is proportional to the intensity of the UHF signal. A typical display is shown in Figure 1, in which PD pulses occur in bursts on the rising and falling portions of the high voltage sinusoid of the power frequency waveform. Three main measurements are used to quantitatively describe the degradation of insulation resulting from partial discharge activity, these are: Discharge pulse magnitude trend - indicative of the rate of dielectric deterioration. Discharge pulse repetition rate/number of pulses indicative of defect severity, where periods of sustained activity are considered more damaging than periods of intermittent activity. Discharge pulse phase angle - indicative of the defects ignition and extinction conditions in relation to the electric field. These quantities are inherent in the PRPD pattern and collectively provide a suitable means of characterizing partial discharge activity for diagnostic interpretation and defect classification [11]. A PRPD pattern may be constructed using data derived from many different types of sensor and measurement systems. Therefore, using the PRPD pattern as the basis of the system diagnosis means that the system could in principle support different monitoring technologies.

4 KNOWLEDGE-BASED SUPPORT FOR PARTIAL DISCHARGE DEFECT DIAGNOSIS IN TRANSFORMERS

Historically, PD in transformers has not been monitored in service. Utilities have relied principally on laboratory based Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) to establish the extent and nature of the PD occurring within plant. While this monitoring technology has provided significant benefit in the detection of PDs within transformer plant, it has its limitations in diagnosing the nature, cause, severity and location of detected PD activity. The lack of understanding of the PD process associated with dielectric breakdown, has historically prompted the need for a less knowledge intensive and more data driven approach to PD defect classification [12]. On the other hand, the power transformer in general is a complex system due to the amount of different dielectrics in- and outside the transformer, all of them having their own failure mechanisms. In order to detect these failures in advance, several types of diagnostics are available and should be applied during the service life of a power transformer. In particular, as shown in [3] performing PD diagnosis may contribute to detect 21% of problems related to transformer vessel and to 14% of problems related to HV bushings.

Figure 1. Phase-resolved partial discharge pattern.

Recent research has demonstrated the efficacy of employing ultra-high frequency (UHF) detection of PD in the monitoring of transformers [9],[10]. When a PD occurs inside a transformer, an electromagnetic wave is radiated that resonates in the tank and can be detected using UHF sensors. Signals from the sensors are typically filtered, amplified and converted to a simple pulse by a detector

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However as on-line monitoring of in-service plant has become more practical and viable, PD experts are presented with an opportunity to gain new insights into the physics of the partial discharge process, and subsequently improve their understanding of this phenomenon. While previous research has demonstrated the application of machine learning pattern recognition techniques as a useful means of defect classification [13]-[15], some constraints are associated with these approaches, including: the trained classifiers remain specific to the transformer from which the initial training data set is derived; historical data sets are required to train the classifier; a classifier will only recognize defects on which it has been trained and as such must be retrained (or train new networks) to recognize new defects. More significantly however, the nature of these black-box algorithms is such that no practical explanation may be provided as justification for the output classification presented by the system. Machine learning techniques remain a useful means of defect classification, despite their limited explainability. As such, this paper does not discount the data driven approach, but instead recognizes the potential role of a knowledge-based system in providing decision support to plant experts. Providing a detailed diagnosis of the detected PD activity reassuringly offers the expert an explanation of the health and condition of transformer plant, and provides a degree of confidence in the system output, generally absent in use of black-box pattern recognition techniques. PD diagnostic knowledge can be captured from empirical and practical engineering experience, which relates measured partial discharge quantities to observed defects and the resulting breakdown processes, taking into account external influencing conditions such as plant geometry, propagation effects, attenuation, interference, etc. This knowledge can be implemented as heuristic rules to support engineers in the diagnosis of partial discharge activity when assessing the condition of transformer insulation. A CIGRE Task Force (15.11/33.03.02) involving some key contributors within the PD community has recognized the potential for knowledgebased decision support in this area [16]. The expert interpretation of the PRPD patterns suggests an emerging area of expertise which if suitably harnessed by means of a knowledge (rule) based expert system, offers a means of automating PD diagnosis and defect classification.

(i.e. PRPD descriptors) and associate these features with key characteristics of the PD behavior and hence the responsible defect geometry. Knowledge of the physical attributes of the defect can subsequently inform the classification and location of the PD defect source. The Unified Modeling Language (UML) Activity Diagram [17] of Figure 2 was defined through knowledge elicitation meetings conducted with experts specializing in the experimentation and understanding of the partial discharge phenomenon and specifically the interpretation of their causes and behavior from PRPD patterns derived from UHF condition monitoring data. A UML Activity Diagram can be used for process modeling in order to present knowledge engineers and domain experts with a clear understanding of the interaction between process tasks in terms of the input/output objects handled and delivered by the task, the task dependencies indicating the sequence of execution and the flow of information between tasks. This graphical representation enables fast and accurate validation of the modeled process by domain experts.
Inputs Tasks

5 EXPERT INTERPRETATION OF PHASE-RESOLVED PARTIAL DISCHARGE PATTERNS

This paper proposes a knowledge-based approach to the interpretation of phase-resolved partial discharge patterns that aims to mimic an experts visual interpretation of these patterns (Figure 2). By simply observing captured PRPD patterns, experts are able to intuitively abstract features in the PRPD patterns

Figure 2. Process of visual interpretation of PRPD patterns for PD defect diagnosis.

The Activity Diagram of Figure 2 in turn defined the functional framework of the knowledge-based expert system of Figure 3 and the structured approach taken to the acquisition of domain knowledge suitable for system implementation.

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The functional flow of the experts PRPD pattern interpretation process effectively mapped out the agenda for the knowledge acquisition exercise. When eliciting the diagnostic rules for the population of the appropriate rule-bases, aligned to each stage of the interpretation process, it was more intuitive for the expert to start with a PRPD pattern of a known defect class and/or location. It is then easier for the expert to deconstruct the defect source diagnosis into its physical characteristics first, before considering how these characteristics influence the resultant partial discharge activity and ultimately how this is evident in the characteristics of the PRPD pattern.

6 KNOWLEDGE-BASED EXPERT SYSTEM FOR PRPD PATTERN INTERPRETATION

The modular design of the system illustrated in Figure 3 reflects the experts incremental approach to the visual interpretation of PRPD patterns. Each stage of the interpretation process requires and utilizes knowledge relating to how the PRPD pattern, the PD activity and the responsible defect source can be recognized and characterized. This knowledge can be used to build up a practical explanation of the systems PD defect classification. The diagnostic rules elicited from PD experts, which enable the interpretation of the PRPD patterns, form a number of rule-bases. Each rule-base represents knowledge associated with a specific stage of the interpretation process illustrated in Figure 2. The objective of the rules contained in each rule base can be summarized as follows: Rule-base RB No.1 consists of rules that extract deduced and statistical features from the PRPD patterns, forming the basis for further interpretation. Rule-base RB No.2 uses knowledge of how the derived statistical fingerprint characterizing the PRPD pattern translates into features (i.e. PRPD descriptors) describing the observed characteristics of the PRPD pattern itself in terminology familiar to human experts. Rule-base RB No.3 uses knowledge of how these PRPD descriptors translate into physical aspects of the PD behavior. Rule-base RB No.4 uses knowledge of how the identified PD behavior translates into the physical characteristics of the responsible defect source (i.e. defect geometry). Rule-base RB No.5 uses knowledge of how the defect geometry can be used to identify suspected defect classes. Rule-base RB No.6 uses knowledge of the defect class to propose plausible locations for the defect site within a localized area of the plant item.

Figure 3. Functional description of knowledge-based PRPD pattern interpretation system.

The nature of the rules in each rule-base is detailed in Section 8. This knowledge-based approach provides the user with a justification for the systems defect classification. In addition, the level of detail in the explanation can be customized to suit the users level of expertise and experience. For example, maintenance engineers may be more concerned with identifying the type of PD defect source and its location, while PD experts or plant manufacturers may have a greater interest in the breakdown mechanisms associated with the PD activity underpinning this high-level diagnosis, and the potentially degrading effect this has on the plant insulation in the long term under different operating conditions (i.e. the PD behavior and defect geometry). The inference engine of an expert system is encoded in software and is responsible for processing input data to decide what should be done next, i.e. specifically which rules in the system rule-base to invoke or fire. If the rule conditions are satisfied and it is fired then the rule concludes that some predefined action to be performed (e.g. report a diagnosis to the screen, invoke another rule, etc.). The inference mechanism of the system described in this paper underpins the incremental approach to the knowledge-based diagnosis through its application of a forward-chaining reasoning mechanism across the rulebases. The selection and execution of PRPD pattern interpretation rules from the respective rule-bases is controlled by this inference mechanism, using existing diagnostic facts (determined by the conclusions of previously fired rules, asserted in the working memory) to fire relevant rules in the same or subsequent rule-bases

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[18]. Once fired, further rule conclusions are asserted, effectively augmenting the systems diagnosis while prompting subsequent rule firing in the appropriate rulebase as the system moves towards its diagnostic conclusion.

7 CAPTURING DIAGNOSTIC KNOWLEDGE FOR RULE-BASED IMPLEMENTATION

Knowledge may be considered to be either explicit or tacit. Explicit knowledge is generally that which is well defined, represented and understood, while tacit knowledge is generally experiential knowledge often associated with tasks performed by a specialist which have effectively become second-nature, and as such can be difficult to articulate. It is therefore tacit knowledge that often sets experts apart from non-experts and subsequently distinguishes expert systems from traditional information systems. Within the context of this paper the term knowledge relates to the expertise exhibited by domain experts in diagnosing and classifying PD defect sources from observations made on PRPD patterns. This tacit knowledge can be captured and utilized in an expert system through a structured process of knowledge engineering. Knowledge engineering is a structured method of transferring and transforming the tacit expert knowledge relating to a specific domain, from the mind of an expert into a computer-tractable form. The knowledge engineering process involves the acquisition of expert knowledge associated with a particular domain and task using a structured interview process focused on preselected case studies (i.e. PRPD patterns); representation of expert knowledge in an intelligible format for validation and utilization (i.e. knowledge transcripts and causal models); validation of expert knowledge before it can be confidently utilized (e.g. within a knowledge (rule)-based system). As mentioned, the output from each rule-base in this approach to PRPD pattern interpretation relies upon the output asserted by its antecedent rule-base. A forward chaining inference mechanism underpins the interaction between these rule-bases. This section examines the execution of the rules within the knowledge-based system in the construction of a PD diagnosis for a particular case study.
Figure 4. Input PRPD pattern used in the case study.

8.1.1 DEDUCED DISTRIBUTIONS The PRPD pattern provides an insight into the nature of the PD process, its intensity and the geometry of the responsible defect [11]. Distributions deduced from the PRPD pattern comprise both time varying and phase varying features characterizing sustained PD activity over a number of voltage cycles. Consequently, the following four distributions deduced from a PRPD pattern representing a one second snapshot of PD activity (Figure 5) characterize the changing partial discharge activity over a number of consecutive cycles (in this case 50 voltage cycles): The Discharge Pulse Count distribution Hn(). The Discharge Maximum Pulse Height distribution Hqm(). The Discharge Energy Magnitude distribution Hqs(). The Discharge Mean Pulse Height distribution Hqn().

Figure 5. Abstraction of deduced discharge mean pulse height distribution from phase-resolved partial discharge pattern.

8 RULE-BASE IMPLEMENTATION CASE STUDY

8.1 Rule-base No.1 Abstraction of Statistical Fingerprint from PRPD Pattern
Rule-base No.1 of Figure 3 deduces distributions from the input PRPD pattern (Figure 4), and subsequently derives statistical quantities from these distributions.

8.1.2 STATISTICAL QUANTITIES Separate H distributions are required to characterize the PD activity associated with each half of the voltage cycle (i.e. H+ and H-). The H+ and H- distributions can be characterized and described in terms of their mean, variance, skew and kurtosis statistical features. In addition, comparative statistical features characterize the difference in the mean discharge magnitude, inception phase angle and cross-correlation (i.e. shape) between the distributions positive and negative half cycles. Rule-base (RB) No.1 of Figure 3 calculates and combines these statistical parameters providing a statistical fingerprint of each H distribution and consequently the PRPD pattern.

8.2 Rule-base No.2 Abstraction of PRPD Pattern Descriptors

Rule-base No.2 of Figure 3 employs rules operating on specific combinations of the statistical parameters derived

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via rules in rule-base No.1 in order to characterize the salient features of the observed PRPD pattern shape (i.e. PRPD pattern descriptors) (Figure 6). For example, these quantities can be used to determine whether: the PRPD pattern representing PD pulse activity, is symmetrical or asymmetrical; pulses occur regularly across consecutive voltage cycles or appear intermittently; bursts of high-energy partial discharges appear; partial discharge pulses occur at the voltage zeros or peaks, etc. While still relatively abstract, the interpretation of the PRPD pattern is progressed, providing the basis for a more comprehensive and intuitive description of the PD behavior.
Causal Knowledge Models
Pulse magnitude at 0 o, 180o, 360o greater than zero indicates Pulses located on zero crossings

8.3 Rule-base No.3 Explanation of PD Behavior

Rule-base No.3 of Figure 3 interprets the PRPD pattern descriptors to provide an insight into the physical nature of the partial discharge activity generated by one or more defects (i.e. PD behavior). Experimental studies of the PD behavior of various defects in transformer oil led to the capture of the following extracts of knowledge from the compiled transcripts.
indicates Pulses located on zero crossings indicates

Dependent on rate of change of voltage

Issue of space charge

Skewness of distribution in +ve and ve half cycles >> 0

indicates

Asymmetrical PD activity: skewing of larger PD pulse amplitudes to earlier phase position

Knowledge Rules

IF

pulses located on zero crossings THEN PD dependent on rate of change of voltage AND issue of space charge

Knowledge Rules

pulse magnitude at 0 o, 180o, 360o greater than zero THEN pulses located on zero crossings IF positive skewness THEN Asymmetrical PD activity: skewing of larger PD pulse amplitudes to earlier phase position IF

Causal Knowledge Model derived from knowledge extract No.2 & No.3

Phase position symmetry

indicates

Conditions are the same for both polarities Low energy discharge

Chopped sine wave

indicates

Ratio of mean amplitude in +ve and ve half cycles close to one

indicates

Scale symmetry i.e. same amount of PD activity associated with +ve and ve half cycles

Knowledge Rules

IF phase position symmetry THEN conditions for partial discharge are same for both polarities IF chopped sine wave THEN low energy discharge

Scale symmetry
AND

Causal Knowledge Models

Shape symmetry

indicates

High correlation between activity associated with +ve and ve half cycles

Figure 7. A knowledge interpretation rules explaining the PD activity.

1.

Cross-correlation factor close to one indicates

Shape symmetry: i.e. same distribution shape of PD activity associated with +ve and ve half cycles

2.
Knowledge Rules IF scale symmetry AND shape symmetry THEN high correlation between activity associated with +ve and ve half

Figure 6. Knowledge rules for the abstraction of PRPD pattern descriptors.

The discharges would occur around the zero crossing when they are more dependent on the rate of change of voltage rather than absolute voltage. A classic example to illustrate this is a discharge in a void in solid insulation. Each discharge relieves the electrostatic field across the void. There is a space charge effect in that charge is trapped on the inner surfaces of the void. A truncated sinusoidal pattern implies low energy discharges are occurring at a sufficient rate to form the pattern envelope. If such a pattern is centered on the zero crossings it suggests a void. A void is a capacitive discharge governed by the combined electric field of the system voltage and local space charge. Void geometry can be symmetrical in shape.

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3.

4.

When looking at the PRPD pattern three types of symmetry can be identified; phase, shape and magnitude. Phase position symmetry means that field conditions for partial discharge are similar for both polarities. Shape and magnitude symmetry suggests that the defect is physically symmetrical. A PD exhibiting characteristics of a void discharge could not be located in bulk gaseous or liquid insulation. Therefore the PD site can be narrowed down to those regions where solid insulation is present or gas bubbles might form in the oil. For example, in the case of a transformer, a bushing would be a possibility.

Figure 7 illustrates how the knowledge interpretation rules translate the PRPD pattern descriptors (output from RBs 1, 2 and 3), into a diagnosis of the PD behaviour.

8.4 Rule-base No.4 Diagnosis of Defect Geometry and Characteristics

The physical characteristics of the defect source (i.e. defect geometry) can be interpreted from the PD behaviour (output from RB No.3) using the knowledge retained in rule-base No.4 of Figure 3. Figure 8 illustrates how knowledge interpretation rules translate characteristics of the PD behaviour into characteristics of the possible defect geometry.
Causal Knowledge Model derived from knowledge extract No.2 & No.3
Capacitive discharge mechanism

defect site. Figure 8 illustrates how an understanding of the linkage between the behavior of PD activity characterizing a defect source and the characteristics of the defect geometry of the defect make its classification possible. Figure 9 illustrates how RB No.5 uses knowledge of the defect geometry (derived from RB No.4) to classify the defect type associated with the input PRPD pattern. It is evident that while on the whole PDs arising from different defects may behave differently, they can share similar characteristics. In addition, more than one class of defect may exist simultaneously, or a particular class of defect may morph into another as a result of continued thermal or mechanical stress, or sustained discharging. Therefore, providing a diagnostic explanation of the pulse activity observed from successive PRPD patterns generated over a period of time supports the engineer in determining the nature, extent and severity of PD activity emanating from a defect source as it develops.
Capacitive discharge mechanism

Causal Knowledge Model derived from knowledge bulletin No.2

Geometrically symmetrical
AND

indicates Void defect

Low energy discharge

indicates

Dependent on rate of change of voltage Defect site geometrically symmetrical

Shape symmetry

indicates

Magnitude symmetry

indicates

Knowledge Rules

IF AND AND AND

capacitive discharge mechanism geometrically symmetrical low energy discharge dependent on rate of change of voltage THEN void defect

Knowledge Rules

IF

PD dependent on rate of change of voltage THEN capacitive discharge mechanism IF shape symmetry THEN geometrically symmetrical IF magnitude symmetry THEN geometrically symmetrical

Figure 9. Knowledge interpretation rules supporting the classification and location of partial discharge defects.

8.6 Rule-base No.6 Description of Plausible Partial Discharge Defect Source Location
Knowledge of the defect class alone will not provide an indication of the precise location of the defect source. However, considered in conjunction with other techniques (e.g. time of flight) 0, which can be used to identify the general locale of the defect, knowledge of the defect class can be a useful means of homing in on potential defect sites within the identified area of interest. Figure 10 illustrates how RB No.6 uses knowledge of the defect type classification (derived from RB No.5) to propose possible defect sites.

Figure 8. Knowledge interpretation rules explaining the PD defect.

8.5 Rule-base No.5 Classification of Partial Discharge Defect

Specific defects exhibit certain PD behaviors that, while influenced by the dielectric properties of the insulation and external conditions affecting the sensor signals, (e.g. propagation, attenuation, interference), are generally symptomatic of the physical nature and geometry of the

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Causal Knowledge Model derived from knowledge extract No.4
Void Defect indicates Time of Flight Output is top of A phase LV winding

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Possible location of defect site is LV bushing A Phase

Knowledge Rules

IF AND

Void Defect classification Time of Flight location is top of A phase LV winding THEN Possible location of defect site is LV bushing A Phase

Figure 10 A knowledge interpretation rules suggesting sites of PD activity

A summary of the diagnostic explanation output from each of the system rule-bases, for the case study discussed, is provided below: PRPD Pattern Descriptors (RB No.2) - Asymmetric PD activity - Scale symmetry - Shape symmetry - High correlation between activity in positive and negative half cycles. PD behaviour (RB No.3) - PD dependant on rate of change of voltage - Space charge present - Low energy discharges Defect geometry (RB No.4) - Capacitive discharge mechanism - Site geometry symmetrical Defect classification (RB No.5) - Void defect Defect location (RB No.6) - LV bushing

to better inform plant maintenance and asset management strategies. This supports more focused maintenance action (condition-based maintenance), supplying maintenance and plant engineers with instructive remedial advice. The knowledge-based approach to the interpretation of the PRPD patterns supports a modular system design. This in turn provides a generic framework for the incorporation of PD knowledge relating to different items of power system plant. As such, an extensible system design enables the knowledge-bases to be easily augmented with fresh knowledge (e.g. different defect types, plant types, insulation mediums) as knowledge and understanding of the PD phenomenon improves through ongoing empirical research and the growth of practical engineering experience.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The UK authors would like to thank the EPSRC for supporting this research through the Supergen V UK Energy Infrastructure (AMPerES) grant.

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[4]

CONCLUSION

[5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

This paper proposes a knowledge-based system as a means of replicating the visual recognition and interpretation process of PD experts when classifying the defect sources using PRPD patterns. This requires an understanding of the traits commonly associated with, and relationship between, observed partial discharge activity and responsible defect sources. This paper has proposed a means of capturing this currently expanding knowledge base and subsequently retaining relevant domain knowledge within a knowledge-based expert system designed to support plant experts, manufacturers and PD experts in the classification, and continued understanding, of the partial discharge phenomenon. It is envisaged that this knowledge-based approach will offer the advantage of supporting the classification of PD defects with a practical diagnostic explanation of the detected PD activity, currently absent in many of the data-driven and machine learning approaches advocated in adjacent areas of research. A more detailed diagnosis of the effects of PD activity experienced by transformer plant can subsequently be used

[10]

[11] [12] [13]

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S. M. Strachan et al.: Knowledge-Based Diagnosis of Partial Discharges in Power Transformers

Martin D. Judd (M02-SM04) graduated from the University of Hull in 1985 with a B.Sc. (Hons.) degree in electronic engineering. His employment experience includes work at Marconi Electronic Devices Ltd and EEV Ltd, both in Lincoln, England. Martin received a Ph.D. from the University of Strathclyde in 1996 for his research into the excitation of UHF signals by partial discharges in gas-insulated switchgear. From 1999 to 2004 he was an EPSRC Advanced Research Fellow. His fields of interest include high frequency electromagnetics, fast transients and their measurement and partial discharges. Dr Judd is a Senior Lecturer within the Electrical Plant and Diagnostics group at the University of Strathclyde. Sander Meijer received the M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering in the field of electrical power systems in 1995. In 2001 he obtained the Ph.D. degree from the Technical University of Delft. At present, he is assistant professor in the department of high-voltage technology and management. His main research topic is in the field of high frequency measuring techniques for insulation diagnosis of gas insulated systems, power transformers and high-voltage cables and electromagnetic compatibility. He is active in international working groups and is the secretary of Cigr WG D1.03 (gasinsulated systems). Edward Gulski received the M.Sc. degree in information technology in 1982 from Dresden University of Technology in Germany. In 1991 he received the Ph.D. degree from Delft University of Technology in The Netherlands. In 2004 he received the Doctor Habilitatus degree from Warsaw University of Technology in Poland. At present, he is an associate professor involved in education and research in the field of insulation diagnosis of HV components and Asset Management. He is member of the Executive Board of KSANDR organisation and responsible for research in education. He is chairmen of Cigre Working Group D1.17, ''HV asset condition assessment tools, data quality, and expert systems'', member of Cigre Study Committee D1 Materials and Emerging Technologies, convenor of Cigre Task Force D1.33.03 Partial Discharges Measurements, member of IEEE Working Group 400.3 and member of the IEEE Insulating Conductors Committee.

[14] C. Cachin and H.J. Wiesmann, PD Recognition with Knowledgebased Pre-processing and Neural Networks, IEEE Trans. Dielect. Electr. Insul., Vol.2, pp. 578-589, 1995. [15] E. Gulski, A. Krivda, Neural Networks as a Tool for Recognition of Partial Discharges, IEEE Trans. Electr. Insul., Vol. 28, pp. 9841001, 1993. [16] CIGRE Task Force 15.11/33.03.02, 2003, Knowledge Rules for Partial Discharge Diagnosis in Service, CIGRE Technical Report, 2003. [17] G. Booch, The Unified Modelling Language User Guide, Second Ed, Addison Wesley, 1998. [18] G.F. Luger, Artificial Intelligence Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving, Addison Wesley, Fourth Edition, 2002. [19] C.J. Bennoch and M.D. Judd, A UHF system for characterising individual PD sources within a multi-source environment, Int. Symp. High Voltage Engineering, Delft, The Netherland, 2003.

Scott Strachan received the B.Eng. (Hons.) and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Strathclyde. He currently holds the post of Research Fellow within the Institute of Energy and Environment. His research interests include, plant monitoring, asset management, data mining, knowledge management & engineering and intelligent systems applications in power engineering. Susan Rudd received the B.Sc. (Hons.) from the University of Strathclyde in 2004. She is a research student in the Institute for Energy and Environment. Her research interests include knowledge engineering, intelligent system applications in power engineering and condition monitoring.

Stephen McArthur (M93-SM07) received the B.Eng. (Hons.) and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Strathclyde. He is a Reader in the Institute for Energy and Environment. His research interests include intelligent system applications, condition monitoring and multi-agent systems.