Finite deformation of a volume element

R0 X (2) P0 Q0 X (0) x (0) P Q

S0 R S

Consider a tetrahedron in the reference conguration such that its vertices P0, Q0, R0 and S0 have position vectors X (0), X (0) + X (1), X (0) + X (2), and X (0) + X (3), respectively. The volume of the tertrahedron in the reference conguration is
1 hA = 1 V = 3 3 X 1 =6 X (1) (1) 1 2 ( X (2) (3)

X )

(3)

( X
(1)

(2)

=1 6 eRST XR XS XT

(2)

(3)

In the deformation, particles initially at P0, Q0, R0 and S0 move to P , Q, R and S , and have position vectors x(0), x(0) + x(1), x(0) + x(2) and x(0) + x(3).

The volume of the deformed tetrahedron P QRS is

v = 1 6 x

(1)

( x

(2)

(3)

)=1 6 eijk xi xj xk .

(1)

(2)

(3)

The deformation is dened by Eqs. of form xi = xi(XR , t). Thus, e.g.,

xi

(1)

= xi(XR + XR , t) xi(XR , t) = XS

(0)

(1)

(0)

(1)

xi (0) (1) 2 (XR , t) + O (XR ) . XS

Thus, the expression for v becomes

v = 1 6 eijk

xi xj xk (1) (2) (3) (p) 4 XR XS XT + O (XR ) . XR XS XT

Using empq det A = eijk AimAjpAkq , we can write

1 eRST v = 6

(x1, x2, x3) (1) (2) (3) (p) 4 XR XS XT + O (XR ) , (X1, X2, X3)

where the Jacobian determinant (or Jacobian, for short) of the deformation, x1 x1 x1 X1 X2 X3 x (x1, x2, x3) x2 x2 2 = X1 X2 X3 = det F , (X1, X2, X3) x3 x3 x3 X X X
1 2 3

has been introduced. Proceeding to the limit XR 0 (R, p = 1, 2, 3), we get

(p)

(x1, x2, x3) dv = = det F . dV (X1, X2, X3)

If the material is incompressible, then det F = 1.

Small deformation of a volume element

Expand det F :

1 + u1 X1 ui u 2 det F = det iR + = X1 XR u3 X
1

u1 X2 u + X2 2 u3 X2

u1 X3 u2 X3 u + X3 3

2 = 1+ ui +O ui Xi XR

Thus, in the case of small displacement gradients,

dv ui = det F 1 + = 1 + Eii. dV Xi
The quantity Eii is called the dilatation and it is denoted by . is the trace of the innitesimal strain tensor and so it is the rst invariant of that tensor. Thus,

= Eii = tr E = E1 + E2 + E3.
For small deformation, is the measure of the change of volume per unit initial volume of an element.

Conservation of mass Lagrangian description

Suppose that the material in the volume element P0Q0R0S0 has the mass m in the reference conguration. Conservation of mass requires that the mass of the material in the material volume element remains constant during the deformation. Therefore, the initial and nal mass denisities, 0 and , are

0 = lim
Hence,

m , V 0 V

= lim

m . v 0 v

dv = = det F 0 dV and this is the statement of the conservation of mass in the material description. This also justies the assumption det F = 0, since in the opposite case, either 0 = 0 or .
Note that for a motion given in the Lagrangian form, x = x(X , t), the conservation of mass gives

(X , t) = (X , 0) det F (X , t),
which is an algebraic equation of density following a particle in a given motion.

Conservation of mass Eulerian description

Consider the velocity eld v (x, t) and an arbitrary but xed region R in space. The mass inside the region R, ZZZ mR(t) = (x, t) dV,
R

where the density is given in the spatial description. The mass changes at rate

dmR = dt

ZZZ

dV. R t

The change of mR is due to motion of material particles in to or out of the region. Consider a particle occupying the position x at time t. Its displacement n from t t to t is

u = x x(X (x, t), t t) n x(X , t) = x x t t = v (x, t) t + O (t)

2

+ O (t)

u x(X,t t)

S R S

X =X (x,t)

All particles on the material line from x u to the point x on the surface S bounding R move through the surface in time t.

x(X,t )

The volume occupied by the particles traversing a small surface element S around x per time interval t is | u n S |. Thus, ZZ dmR = v n dS, dt S where n is the outward normal of the surface S bounding the region R. The minus sign is introduced because the ow is out of the region if v n > 0. We can now write

ZZZ 0=
R arbitrary

dV + t R

ZZ v n dS =
S

ZZZ
R

+ (v ) t

dV

+ (v ) = 0 equation of continuity. t

This partial dierential equation expresses the conservation of mass in the spatial description. It has the following equivalent forms:

vi + v () + ( v ) = 0 or + vi + =0 t t xi xi D D vi =0 + ( v ) = 0 or + Dt Dt xi
If the material in incompressible, then D/Dt = 0 or, equivalently,

v = 0 or

vi = 0; xi

Dii = 0 or tr D = 0.

The material time derivative of a volume integral

Let be some physical quantity (such as mass or energy) associated with the particles of the body, and let be the amount of per unit mass. The amount of per unit volume is, thus, and the amount of contained in a xed region R at a given time t is ZZZ R(t) = (x, t) (x, t) dV.
R

Thus,

ZZZ ZZZ ZZ dR () D = dV = dV v n dS. dt t D t R R S The rst term on the right-hand side is due to the rate of change of the amount of , which is associated with the particles that instantly occupy R at t, and it is called the material time derivative of R. (In the case of mass, which is conserved, = 1 and DmR/Dt = 0.) The second term gives the net inux of to the region R due to particles crossing the surface. Thus, ZZZ n o DR () = + (v ) dV Dt t R| {z }
+ +(v )+v t t

ZZZ =
R

+ (v ) dV + | t {z }
=0

ZZZ

ZZZ D + v dV = dV R | t R Dt {z }
=D/Dt

Conservation of linear momentum

Newtons 2nd law states that

D(mv ) = p, Dt where p is the resultant force acting on a particle with mass m and velocity v . For a continuum, the law is generalized as follows:
The rate of change of linear momentum of the particles that instantanously lie within a xed region R is proportional to the resultant force applied to the material occupying R. This resultant force consist of the body forces (b per unit mass) acting on the particles in R, together with the resultant of the surface force (t(n) per unit area) acting on the surface of R, i.e., ZZZ ZZZ ZZ D (n) v dV = b dV + t dS Dt R R S Using t(n) = n T , where n is an outward normal of S , and the divergence theorem gives ZZZ ZZZ ZZ ZZZ D v dV = b dV + n T dS = (b + T ) dV D t R R S R | {z } RRR RRR Dv = Dt dV = f dV R R ZZZ R arbitrary (b + T f ) dV = 0 b + T = f
R

Conservation of angular momentum

For a particle, the angular momentum conservation law reads

D(mx v ) = x p, Dt
where p is the resultant force applied and x is the position vector from an arbitrarily chosen origin. For a continuum, an analogous law reads ZZZ ZZZ ZZ D x v dV = x b dV + x (n T ) dS Dt R R S Since x (n T ) = eijk eixj (n T )k = eijk ei npxj Tpk , we have | {z } =np Tpk ZZ ZZZ (xj Tpk ) x (n T ) dS = dV. eijk ei x p S R RRR RRR D Thus, as D x v d V = D (x v ) dV , we have t R R Dt

ZZZ

D (x v ) dV = R Dt

ZZZ x b dV +
R

ZZZ eijk ei
R

(xj Tpk ) dV xp

D (xj Tpk ) (x v ) = x b + eijk ei Dt xp

Now, since

D Dt ( x

D D v) = ( D t x) v + x ( Dt v ) = v v + x f = x f and

(xj Tpk ) Tpk Tpk = jpTpk + xj = Tjk + xj , xp xp xp

we get

Tpk x f = x b + eijk ei Tjk + xj = x b + eijk eiTjk + x T xp x (b + T f ) +eijk eiTjk = 0 | {z }

=0

eijk Tjk = 0

Tij = Tji

Thus, conservation of angular momentum implies that the stress tensor is symmetric. In writing

D Dt

ZZZ x v dV =
R

ZZZ x b dV +
R

ZZ x (n T ) dS
S

it was implicitly assumed that there are no body or surface couples acting on the material in R. (The only torque is that imposed by the resultant force acting on a region of the continuum.) If such couples exist, stress tensor is no longer symmetric. We will not consider such couples.

Conservation of energy

The kinetic energy K contained instantly in region R is ZZZ 1 K=2 vivi dV.
R

The remainder of the total energy inside R is called internal energy E , and it is expressed in terms of the internal energy density e by ZZZ E= e dV.
R

The law of conservation of energy states: the material derivative of K + E is equal to the sum of the rate of mechanical work by the body and surface forces acting on R and the rate at which other energy enters R. In practice, the law becomes useful only if some properties of E or e are specied. This leads to the consideration of constitutive relations. Other energy may mean, e.g., heat ux across S , energy arising from chemical reactions inside R, energy arriving by radiation, or electromagnetic energy. Here we will only consider heat ux (vector) q .

Thus,

D Dt

ZZZ
R

1 ( 2 v + e) dV =

ZZZ b v dV +
R

ZZ {(n T ) v n q } dS
S

ZZZ =
R

ZZ b v dV +
S

n (T v q ) dS

ZZZ

1 2 D( 2 v + e)

ZZZ dV =
R

Dt Dt

{b v + (T v q )} dV. (Tij vj ) xi

Thus,

1 2 D( 2 v + e)

= b v + (T v q ) = b v q +

= 2v f and i(Tij vj ) = vj iTij + Tij ivj = v ( T )+ Tij ivj , Now, as Dv 2/Dt = 2v v De vj vj = Tij q + v (b + T f ) = Tij q Dt xi xi v v v j i j 1 1 =2 (Tij + Tji) Tij q = Tij Dij q q = 2 + xi xj xi = tr (T D ) q . Here, tr (T D ) = Tij Dij is the rate of working by stress.
To make progress, one needs to assign some further properties to e and q , e.g., use an equation of state of form e = e(, T ), where T is the temperature, or Fouriers law q = T , where is constant. These are not universal laws but depend on the materials studied.

The principle of virtual work

Consider a stress eld T (x), which satises the equilibrium equation

T + b = 0,
and a velocity eld v (x, t), both of which are determined inside a region R. Let

D=1 2 {( v ) + v }
be the deformation-rate tensor. No connection between v and T is assumed; v can be any dierentiable velocity eld and T any equlibrium stress eld. Form the product Tij Dij and integrate over the region R: ZZZ ZZZ ZZZ 1 vj vj vi Tij Dij dV = dV = Tij + dV Tij 2 x x x j i i R R R ZZZ ZZZ (Tij vj ) Tij dV = { (T v ) v ( T )} dV = vj xi xi R R ZZ ZZZ ZZ ZZZ (n) = n (T v ) dS + v (b) dV = t v dS + b v dV
S R S R

i.e., the rate of working of an equilibrium stress eld T in a velocity eld v is equal to the sum of the rates of working of the surface and body forces associated with T in the same eld. This is the principle of virtual work (PVW). An analogous law can be obtained by replacing v u and D E . PVW is a basis of various variational theorems.