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Steel and Ductile Iron Flexible Pipe Products 327

the performance of buried pipes. It is interesting to note that for the

24- and the 30-in tests, wall crushing starts at deflections in the range
of 3.5 to 4.0 percent. For the 18-in tests, wall buckling occurred first
and took place at about 6.0 percent deflection.

Overall performance. The pipe performed well for a pipe of that lev-
el of stiffness and wall area. The resulting deflections were reason-
able and about what would be expected. The seam integrity was
good. No seams opened or failed during the tests, even at extreme
heights of cover.
Live load tests. In tests with simulated H-20 live load, the pipe did not
perform well in tests with a minimum cover (before loading) of 1 ft.
However, tests showed the pipe would perform well with a cover of 2
ft. The actual minimum cover at which the pipe will perform well is
between 1 and 2 ft. Additional tests would be required to determine
the actual critical minimum cover. Results show the performance of
the pipe could be enhanced if the ring stiffness and the local longitu-
dinal stiffness were increased.
Load deflection tests. The 18- and 30-in pipes demonstrated a capaci-
ty for a height of cover (before wall crushing or severe deformation) of
52 to 64 ft in soil at 95 percent of standard Proctor density, and 30 ft
in soil at 90 percent standard density. The 24-in-diameter test pipes
were thinner than intended and, therefore, more flexible than would
be permitted in practice. The performance limits for the 24-in pipes
tested ranged from 24 to 27 ft of cover.

AISI Handbook
Design information for corrugated steel products is available in the
Handbook of Steel Drainage and Highway Construction Products,
which is published by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI).
Also, many manufacturers publish design information for their prod-
ucts. Such information should be secured and considered by the
designer. For corrugated steel pipes with circular sections, standard
analysis and design procedures which have been discussed in this book
apply and may be used by the design engineer. See Table 6.4.
Example 6.2—Corrugated steel A 48-in-diameter (3 in by 1 in) corrugated
steel pipe is to be placed in an embankment with 60 ft of soil cover. The soil
in the pipe zone is to be coarse sand with some fines and is to be compacted
to 90 percent Proctor density.
What thickness is required so that the pipe deflection does not exceed 5
percent?
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 Steel and Ductile Iron Flexible Pipe Products 329

Use Spangler's equation.

Ay = Q.lyH
D EI/r3 + 0.061£'

H = 60 ft D = 48 in

Let
y = 120 lb/ft3
E = 30 X 106 lb/in2
E' = 1000 lb/in (from Table 3.4)

Solve for EI/r3.

- 0.061 E'

(0.1) (120) (60) (1/1441 -0.061(1000)

0.05

= 100 - 61 = 39

or

I== 39r3 = 39 (24)3

E 30 X 106

= 0.018 in4/in
= 0.22 in4/ft

From Table 6.4, the uncoated thickness should be 0.1345 in.

Now assume the yield stress vy for the steel is 33,000 lb/in2. What wall
area is required for ring compression design with a safety factor of 2?
CTy

Design compression stress fc — — — 16,500 lb/in

Vertical soil pressure Pv = (120) (60) = 7200 lb/ft2

or
330 Chapter Six

PDL PD
fc =
2A 2A/L

Solve for AIL.

A = PD= (50) (48) = Q .n2/in

L 2/c 2(16,500)

= (0.073 in2/in) (12 in/ft) = 0.88 in2/ft

From Table 6.4, the uncoated thickness is 0.0598 in. Thus, the deflection
design controls, and the thickness found in the beginning of the example is
the required thickness.

Steel pressure pipes are used in many varied and diverse applica-
tions in industrial, agricultural, and municipal markets. The discus-
sion here will be limited to steel pipe used primarily in the municipal
water market (see Table 6.5). However, principles used are applicable
to all steel pressure pipe.

AWWA M11, Steel Pipe—A Guide for Design

and Installation
This manual gives procedures for determining the required thickness
for steel pressure pipe. The internal pressure used in design should be
that to which the pipe may be subjected during its lifetime. The thick-
ness selected should be that which satisfies the most severe require-
ment. The minimum thickness of a cylinder should be selected to limit

TABLE 6.5 Selected Standards for Steel Pressure Pipes in Water Service
AWWA C200 Steel water pipe 6 in and larger
AWWA C203 Coal-tar protective coatings and linings for steel water pipelines—
enamel and tape applied hot
AWWA C205 Cement-mortar protective lining and coating for steel water pipe—4
in and larger—shop-applied
AWWA C206 Field welding of steel water pipe
AWWA C207 Steel pipe flanges for waterworks service—sizes 4 through 144 in
AWWA C208 Dimensions for fabricated steel water pipe fittings
AWWA C209 Cold-applied tape coatings for special sections, connections, and
fittings for steel water pipelines
AWWA C210 Coal-tar epoxy coating system for the interior and exterior of steel
water pipe
AWWA C213 Fusion-bonded epoxy coating for the interior and exterior of steel
water pipelines
AWWA C214 Tape coating systems for the exterior of steel water pipelines
AWWA C602 Cement-mortar lining of water pipelines in place—4 in (100 mm)
and larger
AWWA Mil Steel pipe design and installation
 Steel and Ductile Iron Flexible Pipe Products 331

the circumferential tension stress to a certain level. The maximum

pressure in the pipe must be used in the design calculations. Surge or
water hammer pressures and pressures created by the pumping oper-
ations must also be considered.
With pressure determined, the wall thickness is found by using Eq.
(4.2):

2crmax
where t = minimum specified wall thickness, in
PI = internal pressure, lb/in2
D = outside diameter of pipe steel cylinder (not including
coatings), in
o"max — allowable stress, lb/in2
For steel pipe, a design stress equal to 50 percent of the specified
minimum yield strength is often accepted for steel water pipe. This
design (working) stress is determined with relation to the steel's yield
strength rather than its ultimate strength. For some applications, oth-
er safety factors may apply. For example, the Bureau of Reclamation
in its design criteria for penstocks has adopted a safety factor of 3
based on the ultimate tensile strength or a safety factor 1.33 based on
the minimum yield strength.
Table 6.6 is reprinted from AWWA Mil. It lists grades of steel refer-
enced in AWWA C200, Standard for Steel Water Pipe 6 Inches and
Larger, and gives design stresses to be used as a basis for working
pressure. Also given are the yield stresses and the ultimate stresses
for the various grades of steel.
The designer can easily calculate working pressure, via Eq. (4.2),
corresponding to 50 percent of the specified minimum yield strength
for several types of steel commonly used. A required thickness may not
be available from a manufacturer. It is, therefore, recommended that
the pipe manufacturers be consulted before final selection of diameter
and wall thicknesses.
For transient pressures, the hoop stress may be allowed to rise,
within limits, above 50 percent of yield for transient loads. When ulti-
mate tensile strength is considered, a safety factor well over 2 is real-
ized. The stress of transitory surge pressures together with static
pressure may be taken at 75 percent of the yield point stress, but
should not exceed the mill test pressure. The designer should, howev-
er, never overlook the effect of water hammer or surge pressures in
design.
Internal pressure, external pressure, special physical loading, type
of lining and coating, and other practical requirements govern wall
332 Chapter Six

TABLE 6.6 Grades of Steel Used in AWWA C200

Design stress Minimum Minimum ultimate
Specifications for 50% of yield point, yield point, tensile strength,
fabricated pipe lb/in2 lb/in2 lb/in2
ASTMA36 18,000 36,000 58,000
ASTMA283GRC 15,000 30,000 55,000
GRD 16,500 33,000 60,000
ASTMA570GR30 15,000 30,000 49,000
GR33 16,500 33,000 52,000
GR36 18,000 36,000 53,000
GR40 20,000 40,000 55,000
GR45 22,500 45,000 60,000
GR50 25,000 50,000 65,000
ASTMA572GR42 21,000 42,000 60,000
GR50 25,000 50,000 65,000
GR60 30,000 60,000 75,000
Design stress Minimum Minimum ultimate
Specifications for 50% of yield point, yield point, tensile strength,
manufactured pipe lb/in2 lb/in2 lb/in2
ASTMA53,
A 135,
and A 139 GRA 15,000 30,000 48,000
GRB 17,500 35,000 60,000
ASTMA139 GRC 21,000 42,000 60,000
GRD 23,000 46,000 60,000
GRE 26,000 52,000 66,000

thickness. Good practice with regard to internal pressure is to use a

working tensile stress of 50 percent of the yield point stress under the
influence of maximum design pressure. Select linings, coatings, and
cathodic protection, as necessary, to provide the required level of cor-
rosion protection.
The wall thickness selected must resist external loadings imposed
on the pipe. Such loadings may take the form of outside pressure,
either atmospheric or hydrostatic, both of which are uniform and act
radially as collapsing forces. Buried pipe must be designed to resist
earth pressure in the trench or fill condition. These considerations are
discussed in Chaps. 2 and 3.
For external pressure or internal vacuum, buckling should be con-
sidered. The following formula from Chap. 3 applies:
E (3.14)
4 (1 - v2) \R
where R = radius to neutral axis of shell (for thin pipes, difference
between inside diameter, outside diameter, and neutral-
axis diameter is negligible), in
 Steel and Ductile Iron Flexible Pipe Products 333

t = wall thickness, in
Pcr = collapsing pressure, lb/in2
E = modulus of elasticity (30,000,000 for steel)
v = Poisson's ratio (usually taken as 0.30 for steel)
Substituting the above values of E and v gives

Pc = 528 X 10 6 f-^y (6.3)

For convenience to the reader, the more exact approach to buckling

is repeated here from Chap. 3 as follows:
\1/2

where qa = allowable buckling pressure, lb/in2

FS = design factor
2.5 for(h/D)>2
3.0 for(h/D)<2
h = height of ground surface above top of pipe, in
D = diameter of pipe, in
Rw = water buoyancy factor
= 1 - (0.33hw/h) Q<hw<h
hw = height of water surface above top of pipe, in
B' = empirical coefficient of elastic support (dimensionless)
Coefficient B' was given by Luscher in 1966. The equation is as fol-
lows:
_,_
JD —
(1 + v) [ (2h + D)2 + D2 (1 - 2v) ]

The B' has some dependence on Poisson's ratio for the soil. However,
this effect is small, as is shown in Fig. 3.22. The above equation sim-
plifies when the value for Poisson's ratio is taken as V2. This equation
is conservative and should be used for the calculation of B'.

D —
1.5(2/1 +Z>) 2
Minimum plate or sheet thicknesses for handling are based on two
formulas adopted by many specifying agencies:

U
OQQ P t° 54-in ID (6.4)
288
334 Chapter Six

t = —TTr — PiPe sizes greater than 54-in ID (6.5)

In no case shall the shell thickness be less than 14 gage (0.0747 in).
Example 6.3—A 108-in transmission A 108-in-diameter water transmission
line is to be installed. Steel has been selected as the piping material. The
joint is to be a bell-and-spigot type of joint welded both inside and out as
shown:

-Weld

T\\\W\\\\\\\\\\\\\W .g^\\\\\\\\\\\\W^\\\\\\\\\W

Weld'

The wall thickness is to be 0.5 in. Because of the large diameter, the pipe
will be very flexible and will be braced with internal bracing (stills) when
manufactured. These stills will remain in the pipe sections until the pipes
have been Installed and pipe zone soil has been placed and compacted to the
specified density. The stills will be removed after backfilling is complete.
The pipeline will then be lined with a Portland cement type of mortar before
the line is placed in service.
Design parameters:
Wall thickness 0.5 in
Yield stress 36,000 lb/in2
Ultimate strength 60,000 lb/in2
Modulus 29 X 106 lb/in2
Poisson's ratio 0.3
Thermal coefficient of expansion 6.5 X 10~6 (1/°F)
Ductile-brittle transition temperature 70°F
Surge pressure allowance 40 lb/in2
Cover depth 6 ft
Pipe zone soil Crushed stone
Pipe zone density 90 percent standard Proctor
Water temperature 34°F
Evaluate the proposed steel pipe for this application. Are there any spe-
cial precautions which should be taken or special construction methods
which should be followed?
1. Check pipe stiffness PS and evaluate possible ring deflection.

F El
PS = f- = 6.7 ^
Ay r*
 Steel and Ductile Iron Flexible Pipe Products 335

= 6.7 (29 X 106) (0.5)3

(12) (54)3
- 12.85 lb/in2
This pipe is quite flexible. However, the pipe is going to be held in the unde-
flected state until pipe zone soil is compacted and the overburden is placed.
The resulting deflection after the stills are removed will be quite low.
2. Check the pressure design. First, find the hoop stress for design pres-
sure plus surge.

Second, find the hoop stress for design pressure only.

The yield stress is 36,000 lb/in2. The safety factor is greater than 2; there-
fore, pressure design is all right.
3. Consider longitudinal stresses. AWWA C206 indicates that tempera-
ture considerations should be made in design. AWWA C206 and AWWA Mil
suggest the use of either closure welds or expansion joints to alleviate
stresses due to temperature change.
Longitudinal stresses will also be produced by the Poisson effect.
Temperature stresses and Poisson stresses, along with bending stresses due
to nonparallel loading in the bell-spigot connection, may be large enough to
cause failure.
Assume the pipe is placed and tack-welded during the day. It is July and
August, and the pipe temperature during tack welding is between 80 and
130°F. The tack welds hold firm, and the welding process is completed by a
welding crew who are following behind the pipe-laying crew. No closure
welds or expansion joints are being used. After the line is completed, it is
put in service with water at 120 lb/in2 and 34°F. (See Chap. 4, the steel pipe
longitudinal stresses section.)
First, find the longitudinal stress due to the Poisson effect.
vp = vvh but vh = 12,960 lb/in2
a, = (0.3) (12,960) = 3888 lb/in2
Second, find the longitudinal stress due to temperature change.
vT = EOL (AT)
= (29 X 106) (6.5 X 10~6) (AT)
= (188.5) (AT)
336 Chapter Six

Assume AT = 70°F. Then

<JT = 13,195 lb/in2
Third, what is the total longitudinal stress?
07, = cr (Poisson) + a (temperature)
= 3888 4- 13,195 = 17,083 lb/in2
Fourth, the nonparallel loading in the bell and spigot will produce a bend-
ing moment and will effectively magnify the stress found above. What is
that magnification factor?
MC
o A- stress = 05 = —
Bending —

where M = moment = vjjAt = crL (bt) (t)

t = thickness
A = area = bt

" 12
Therefore,
_ (qL) (bt) (t) ft/2)
"B~ b?nz
= 6crL
Then, the bending stress is 6 times the longitudinal stress. However, the
maximum stress is the sum of the bending stress and the longitudinal
stress.
= =
°inax °~B + °L 7°L

The magnification factor is 7. Therefore, amax = (7)(17,083) = 119,581 lb/in2.

The pipe will fail before this stress is reached. In fact, it did. This pipeline
was actually designed and constructed as described in this example. The
designer failed to consider longitudinal stresses and did not allow for clo-
sure or expansion joints. There were three separate failures caused by lon-
gitudinal stresses. Each time a repair was made, the line was returned to
service. After the third failure, a general repair was ordered. Every other
joint was cut to relieve the built-in stresses. As the joints were cut, there
were snap-back openings of as much as 1 in. The temperature of the pipe
during the repair was 55° F, which is 21° higher than the service tempera-
 Steel and Ductile Iron Flexible Pipe Products 337

ture, so there will still be some stress at 34°F. Had the steel been more duc-
tile, it might have been able to relieve itself by simply stretching. For the
steel selected, the ductile-brittle transition temperature was 70°F.
Therefore, the steel behaved in a brittle manner and failed.

Ductile Iron Pipe

Ductile iron pipe has essentially replaced gray cast iron pipe. Ductile
iron (DI) is, as its name implies, more ductile than gray cast iron, but
still retains somewhat brittle properties. It is very popular among pub-
lic works people who repair and maintain water systems. Many per-
ceive this pipe to be able to withstand abuse during handling and
repair operations.
The corrosion rate for ductile iron is essentially the same as for gray
cast iron. However, since the wall is usually thinner, corrosion is more
critical. Design procedures call for a corrosion allowance called a ser-
vice factor. When pipe is installed in highly corrosive soil, steps should
be taken to protect it. Ductile iron pipe usually has a cement-mortar
lining. This lining improves the hydraulic efficiency and also provides
some corrosion protection. Other linings and coatings are available.
See Table 6.7.

Example 6.4—A 30-in DI pipe Calculate the thickness for 30-in ductile iron
(DI) pipe laid on a flat-bottom trench with backfill tamped to the centerline
of the pipe, laying condition type 2 (Fig. 6.46), under 10 ft of cover for a
working pressure of 200 lb/in2. (See ductile iron section in Chap. 4 for design
procedure for pressure pipe. Also see AWWA C150. Certain tables from
AWWA C150 have been reproduced here for the reader's convenience. This
example is taken from AWWA C150.)
1. Design for trench load. First, earth load (Table 6.8) Pe = 8.3 lb/in2 may
be obtained from Fig. 2.19. Truck load (Table 6.8) Pt = 0.7 lb/in2, and trench
load Pv = Pe + Pt = 9.0 lb/in2.
Second, select Table 6.13 for diameter-thickness ratios for laying condi-
tion type 2. Third, entering the Pv of 9.0 lb/in2 in Table 6.13, we see that the

TABLE 6.7 Selected Standards for Ductile Iron Pipe

AWWA C104 Cement mortar lining for ductile iron
AWWA C105 Polyethylene encasement for ductile iron
AWWA C110 Ductile iron and gray iron fittings
AWWA Clll Rubber-gasket joints for ductile iron
AWWA C115 Flanged ductile iron
AWWA C150 Thickness design of ductile iron pipe
AWWA C151 Ductile iron pipe in metal- and sand-lined molds
AWWA C600 Installation of ductile iron water mains and their appurtenances
ASTM E 8 Materials properties test
ASTM A 539 Physical properties
338 Chapter Six

Type 1 Type 2

Types

Type 4 Type5

Figure 6.46 Standard pipe-laying conditions. (Reprinted, by permission, from ANSI/AWWA

C-150/A21.50-96, American Water Works Association, 1996.)

bending stress design requires a D/t of 128. From Table 6.12, diameter D of
30-in-OD pipe is 32.00 in. Net thickness t for bending stress is

Fourth, also from Table 6.13, the deflection design requires D/tl of 108.
Minimum thickness 11 for deflection design is
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