Instruments for Engineering Measurement

P.O.Box 2222 PRIMROSE, South Africa e-mail: iem@hot.co.za Tel: 828-6169 Fax 822-1377

STRAIN GAUGES MADE IN SOUTH AFRICA

IEM WIRE GRID STRAIN GAUGES

STRAIN GAUGES MADE IN SOUTH AFRICA

Instruments for Engineering Measurement, Germiston January 1998

Strain gauges of various types have been imported to South Africa for many years, from countries such as Germany, Japan and USA. Local manufacture was never considered to be a viable enterprise, because of the large investment needed for high-tech equipment and the high skills required, in the face of a relatively small customer base. Since late 1997, one particular type of strain gauge - wire grid embedded in phenolic resin - is now manufactured here, according to the know-how and experience of a Hungarian company, KALIBER, who have been making wire grid strain gauges since the mid-1960s. The wire grid strain gauge lends itself to small quantity manufacture, is easy to handle and apply, and its measuring accuracy compares very well to the foil grid type, to which South African users are accustomed. This description attempts to explain the working of strain gauges, as well as present some applications. Numerous measurement problems in industry can be simply solved by the application of strain gauges.

Some uses of strain gauges

Materials Testing: When establishing the strain capabilities of metals, composites, synthetics, building materials, civil engineering samples, geological samples and numerous other materials, strain gauges offer a low cost and accurate means of strain measurement. Stress analysis: Mechanical and structural engineers can benefit from simple verification of design stresses by means of strain gauges. They can even be used on models, and the results scaled up to the full-size version. Load monitoring: Without weakening or modifying structures, strain gauges will read the applied load, in this way simplifying many measurement tasks. Examples include: Materials testing machines: specially built rigs for testing finished products (e.g. conveyor rollers) often have no provision for load measurement. In this case, strain gauges can be applied to load-bearing members, and the strain resulting from load can be calibrated to be displayed directly in load units. Crane load: The structures of cranes are designed to be safe under all normal operating conditions. The stress in the members is small, but with some thought, strain gauges can be applied to measure load on the hook. In the case of mobile cranes, a load-moment reading can be obtained without too much trouble. Container mass: One of the most difficult values to measure is the level of granular material (e.g. cement) in storage silos. Strain gauges applied to the silo legs provide a mass reading which approaches the accuracy of loadcells, at a fraction of the cost. Transducers: Of course, the most important application of strain gauges is in various transducers which measure mechanical parameters, such as: pressure - a simple pressure gauge can be converted to a transducer, by applying strain

gauges to its Bourdon tube, but naturally there are purpose-made pressure transducers which measure a wide range of pressures very accurately. Torque: stationary or rotating torque can be measured, for such applications as torque wrench calibration, pump testing, engine testing with dynamometers, and even the simple measurement of window winder effort in vehicles. More sophisticated torque measurement is in the strain gauge application to a special wheel, which replaces the normal driving wheel, and gives actual tractive force information that can be used for power analysis and later simulation. Mass/ Force - Precision electronic weighing would not have been possible without the strain gauge. Loadcells approach perfection in the manufacturers continual endeavours to produce a better loadcell - all using strain gauges. Example of container level measurement

What is a strain gauge ?

A strain gauge is - as the name suggests - a device for measuring strain. It is small and light, and is attached to the measuring surface with adhesive. A typical strain gauge is illustrated below a ruler to give an idea of its size :

The illustrated type is a 10/120, the type convention describing its grid length and resistance: 10mm and 120 ohms. Its thickness is about 0,1 mm. Sizes vary, with the smallest having grid lengths of less than 1 mm, to relatively huge gauges, with grid lengths of more than 100 mm. Application means is with a good quality adhesive, usually cyanoacrylate or epoxy, but other adhesives, such as phenolics or polyesters are used in some special applications.

Technical description
In principle, a strain gauge is simply a length of wire, stretched between two measurement points. The distance L is the so-called BASE LENGTH, the length over which the measurement takes place. Any movement between the measurement points causes the wire to alter dimension, extension causes the wire to stretch, (wire becomes longer and thinner) and contraction causes it to compress (shorter and thicker). This dimension alteration changes the resistance of the wire minutely but predictably. It is this resistance change which makes the strain gauge into a transducer, converting mechanical strain into an electrical quantity. Just like in a tensile test sample, the cross-section of the wire changes according to its Poissons Ratio. If secondary effects, such as micro-metallurgical changes are ignored, then the resistance change due to the wires deformation will be close to 2, in other words, the resistance change will be 2x the strain change. Putting this to numbers, a 1000 m/m strain will cause a 2000 / resistance change. The ideal wire needs to have the following properties:

- the deformation characteristics of the wire should be such that the ratio of resistance/strain remains constant over the expected strain range - the wire should be soft enough, so that its reinforcing effect on the measured article can be neglected - to be able to practically measure the resistance change, the base resistance should be as high as possible. - the resistance change in the wire should be due to change in strain and nothing else. One of the worst interfering factors with most wire materials is its own temperature coefficient of resistance which, for most materials is greater than the resistance change caused by the strain (for example, copper has a Resistance TC of 4000 //C). The wire material which seems to satisfy most of the requirements for strain gauge usage, is constantan, with a resistivity of 0,49 /m/mm2, a resistance TC of around 20 //C and an elastic modulus about half of steel. In the IEM wire grid strain gauges, double annealed constantan wire is used, with diameters of 0,03 and 0,02mm, with resistance values of 710 and 1510 /m respectively. It follows from these values, that making a strain gauge with a single wire as shown, is only practical for L= 170 mm or more. This will result in a resistance of 120 . There is another problem as well. Copper leadwires and constantan wire make a very effective thermocouple, producing 46 millivolts per degree temperature difference between the ends, which will interfere with the readings produced by dc measuring instruments . The thermocouple as well as the length problems are solved by folding the gauge wire as shown, and this now becomes the measuring grid. The leadwires are now close to each other, even in long strain gauges, and ostensibly at the same temperature, causing cancellation of the thermocouple effect.

LEGEND TO THE FIGURE: 1. Leadwire terminal 2. Grid attachment point 3. Grid 4. Carrier base 5. Grid cover The number of loops varies with base length L and the required resistance.

Because the strain gauge output is a change in electrical resistance, the grid cannot be in electrical contact with the (usually) metal surface of the measured sample. The common method is to embed the measuring grid in a carrier of suitably soft, stable and chemically inert insulating material. For the measurement, the entire strain gauge will be attached to the sample with adhesive, and the carrier must be such that it allows the sample strain to be accurately transferred to the grid. For the IEM wire grid strain gauges, phenolic resin is used for the carrier.

IEM strain gauges are available in the following grid configurations: - one direction - two-direction (rosette) - three-direction (rosette) The various configurations are available to simplify the most diverse measuring tasks. Rosettes are used to measure strain components, which determine principal strains by calculation.

Measuring principle
Strain gauges are transducers whose resistance changes with strain according to the following relation: R= k. R R - strain gauge initial resistance

Application
According to the laws of physics, mechanical deformation (strain) in load-carrying members is proportional to the mechanical stress in those members. The measurement of strain provides important information about load distribution in structures, providing a practical, time-saving and low-cost alternative to complex calculations, especially if the structures themselves are complex. Alternatively, actual stress levels may be verified by the measurement of strain values. Strain gauges provide quick and highly accurate results, in fields as diverse as machine design, civil engineering, chemical engineering and medical investigations. Areas of application are virtually limitless, from high-frequency dynamic measurements to static measurements demanding high long-term stability. In each instance, fast and economical results are available for virtually any mechanical entity, such as force, pressure, acceleration, angle and more. In addition to simple measurement tasks, strain gauges can be used as feedback elements in openor closed-loop control, as they provide an electrical output signal.

R - change in resistance - mechanical strain k - gauge factor

To determine the strain, we have to measure the change in electrical resistance. A change in the shape of the measured surface is transferred from the adhesive to the strain gauge carrier, and from the carrier to the measuring grid. The resistance of the grid changes accordingly (R+R). By far, the most widely used method for transforming the change in resistance to a voltage is connecting the strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge circuit. Either alternating or direct current can be used for excitation of the bridge. Using a suitable amplifier, the voltage is then amplified to a level suitable for driving an indicator or recorder. Measurements can be influenced by temperature, the type and magnitude of the wanted strain, magnitude of the measuring current and some other factors.

Construction of IEM strain gauges

In essence, a strain gauge is a measuring grid embedded in suitable carrier material, and provided with electrical leads to simplify connection to the measuring circuit. For the purposes of measurement, special properties are demanded of the measuring grid, which are best satisfied by constantan, an alloy comprising 45% nickel and 55% copper. The carrier material is a modified phenolic resin, having the properties of extraordinary insulation resistance and very low moisture absorption. The thickness of the strain gauges is 0,1 mm.

Technical data
Gauge factor (k-factor): This is the most important parameter which determines the characteristics of strain gauges. It gives the proportion of the measured resistance change (R) to strain (): k = 1 . R R

The gauge factor of the IEM strain gauges is constant at 2,05 1%.

Nominal resistance and its tolerance: IEM strain gauges are normally manufactured with nominal resistances of: 100; 120; 300; 350; and 600 ohms, but other values have been made as well, for example 175 ohms (half of 350) for certain types of loadcell usage. The nominal resistances can usually be maintained within a tolerance of 0,5%, which allows a close enough match for zero balancing. Closer matching, down to 0,1% is possible, if required by the Customer. Electrical loading Excessive current through the measuring grid causes self-heating and consequent drifting of the measured value. The maximum allowable current depends on various factors: - thickness of the adhesive film - thermal conductivity of the measuring surface - ambient temperature. Generally, a suitable value is 20 - 25 mA at room temperature, when the strain gauge is applied to a fairly good thermal conductor, such as steel. Insulation resistance Measurement accuracy is influenced by insulation resistance. The measured strain value is a very small resistance change (of the order of 0,1 ohm in 120), and leakage resistances from the strain gauge terminals and wiring will almost certainly produce measurable errors.

After application, the strain gauge terminals must be cleaned of solder flux residue, because this absorbs moisture and causes a varying resistance in parallel with the strain gauge. Because we cannot measure the leakage resistance directly, we measure the leakage resistance between strain gauge and the sample, assuming that the solder flux, or other contamination is evenly spread over the entire application area. As a general rule, the insulation resistance, measured between sample and any strain gauge terminal should be at least as many Megohms as the gauge's nominal resistance in ohms. Insulation resistance must not be measured with a high voltage megger, because of the danger of flashover from the grid to the measured sample (the grid is 10 - 20 m from the sample!). Multimeters with a nanosiemens conductivity range, or a 2000 M resistance range are suitable. Maximum strain The maximum strain value which can be accurately measured is determined by a combination of factors, such as the maximum strain capability of carrier and adhesive, bonding stiffness between adhesive and gauge, and temperature. KALIBER strain gauges have a maximum strain capability of 2% (or 20 000 m/m) at room temperature. Beyond this value, the strain gauge grid or carrier are likely to fail

Temperature The allowable temperature range for strain measurements depends strongly on the type of measurement and the adhesive used. Various temperature limits are summarised by the following table: ADHESIVE TRADE NAME TEMPERATURE RANGE C Type of measurement Static Phenolic resin Epoxy resin Epoxy resin Cyanoacrylate J111 Araldite 105 Araldite 103 CA (IEM) -70 to +120 -60 to +50 -40 to +120 -70 to +90 Dynamic -70 to +160 -60 to +80 -40 to +160 -70 to +150

The strain gauges themselves have no temperature coefficient, and will measure strain in the measuring object with good fidelity, including the strain induced by temperature change, resulting in an apparent reading which is the linear temperature expansion coefficient of the object: 12/C for steel and 23/C for aluminium. If the temperature-induced strain is not wanted, only mechanically induced strain, the strain gauge can be connected in a half- or full Wheatstone bridge circuit. This will cancel the temperature effect, and also multiply the wanted strain reading. The temperature coefficient of the gauge factor is such that it cancels the temperature coefficient of the elasticity modulus of steel, so measurements on steel will result in a sensitivity coefficient of within a few .

Bonding of strain gauges to the measuring surface

The accuracy of measured values is greatly influenced by the choice of adhesive and the method of bonding. Attention has to be especially paid to the following: Preparation of the surface The area where the strain gauge is to be bonded has to be carefully sanded. It is essential that paint, corrosion and surface irregularities be removed. If the surface is ground or polished, then slight roughening with 100 grit sandpaper is recommended to increase contact area. Fine sandblasting gives very good results. Degreasing of the surface This must be done thoroughly, using acetone, alcohol or other organic solvent. We have used alcohol with success on all metallic surfaces. Use of adhesives In South Africa, the IEM strain gauges have been successfully applied using polyester, cyanoacrylate and epoxy (Pratley Quickset, Pratley 123). Adhesives from other strain gauge suppliers will certainly work very well. Adhesives listed in the table are recommended by KALIBER: The Araldite types are two-component epoxy resins. Araldite 105 has to be mixed in the ratio 1:1, Araldite 138 in the ratio 1:0,4 and used within 15 minutes at room temperature. A thin, even layer of adhesive has to be applied to the measuring surface, then the strain gauge placed in position. Through a thin protective film of polyethylene or teflon, the gauge must be firmly pressed by hand, squeezing out excess adhesive. There must be no air bubble under the gauge.

Bonding times: Araldite 105 : 24-36 hours at 20C, 2-4 hours at 60-70C Araldite 138 : 24-30 hours at 20C, 2-4 hours at 60-70C CA: 2 minutes with hand pressure. Ready for measurement after 1-2 minutes. The adhesive can be the same as the strain gauge carrier (J 111), in which case the application will have excellent properties, because the bond is homogeneous and the adhesive layer very thin. This type of application can be made by IEM on order. For the best measurement accuracy, it is advisable to put a few load cycles on the applied gauge before actual measurement, so that internal stresses in the adhesive may be relieved. If the measurement application is long-term (longer than a few days) then the application area should be protected by a suitable compound, such as silicon sealer or waterproofing putty. Designers: Kaliber Instrument and Measuring Technology, Rzsafa-u 13-17, H-1134 BUDAPEST XIII, HUNGARY. Tel: (0936)(1) 350-3133 Fax: (0936)(1) 340-3718 Manufacturers: Instruments for Engineering Measurement, P.O.Box 2222, PRIMROSE 1416, South Africa. Tel 828-6169, Fax: 822-1377

Instruments for Engineering Measurement

P.O.Box 2222 PRIMROSE, South Africa e-mail: iem@hot.co.za Tel: 828-6169 Fax 822-1377

PRECISION WIRE GRID STRAIN GAUGES PRICE LIST

JANUARY 2001

ONE-DIRECTION:

Price per gauge

Grid length mm / Resistance 7/100 ------------------------------------------------------ R 25,00 7/120------------------------------------------------------- R 25,00 10/120------------------------------------------------------ R 25,00 15/350------------------------------------------------------ R 56,00 20/120------------------------------------------------------ R 25,00 20/300------------------------------------------------------ R 30,00 20/600------------------------------------------------------ R 56,00 100/300---------------------------------------------------- R 95, 00 150/210 ---------------------------------------------------- R 95, 00 TWO-DIRECTION: 90 - 7/120-------------------------------------------------- R 75,00 90 -10/120------------------------------------------------- R 75,00 90 -20/120------------------------------------------------- R 75,00 THREE-DIRECTION: 45/90- 7/120---------------------------------------------- R 99,00 45/90-10/120--------------------------------------------- R 99,00 45/90-20/120--------------------------------------------- R 99,00 SPECIAL SIZES AND SHAPES: ON REQUEST

* POPULAR * POPULAR * SPECIAL * SPECIAL

* POPULAR

* POPULAR

FLEXIBLE SOLDER TERMINALS ------------------------- R 8,00

(strip of 10 terminals)

CLEANING FLUID Pure isopropyl alcohol --------------------------------- R 90,00 ( 5 l bottle) ADHESIVE CA cyanoacrylate --------------------------------------- R 40,00 ( 20g bottle) PROTECTIVE COVERING AGENT PCP putty/foil 200 x 70mm x 2mm ----------------- R 190,00 (strip) Delivery (depending on how many): * POPULAR and/or quantities 1 to 40 pieces : ex stock 1 week, *SPECIAL and/or quantities 40 100 pieces: 1 4 weeks, other types and quantities to be confirmed.

Prices: NET, EXCLUDING VAT

IEM strain gauges are made in South Africa. They can be ordered in any quantity, even 1 off. Special configurations, lengths and resistances are available on request