Cognition (Memory, Thinking and Language) 7-9% MODELS OF MEMORY Three box/information processing model information is sensed, then

n encoded to STM, then encoded to LTM. Information is retrieved from LTM to the STM (Working memory) Sensory memory Sensory Memory a split second holding tank for incoming sensory information Iconic Memory- split second photograph of a scene. Ex. flashing a series of letters Echoic memory- split second memory of sounds. Ex. Parents ask you to recall what you just said when they think you arent listening. Short-term (working) memory-limited to about 7 items. Chunking- mnemonic device, divide items or numbers into chunks. Mnemonic device- memory aids. Long-term memory (LTM) limitless Explicit Memories with conscious recall a.Episodic memory- specific sequence of events b.Semantic memory memory of facts, meanings, words Implicit Memories without conscious recall c.Procedural memory- remembering how to drive stick shift after not driving stick in awhile

Prospective Memory- memory of future events such (remembering to take medications) tends to decrease as we age.
Levels of processing Model - the more deeply processed the more likely to recall it later RETRIEVAL Recall vs. recognition fill in the blank tests vs. multiple-choice tests Priming- (Example- retrieval cues- by giving the class the category of the word to be retrieved.) Primacy effect- tendency to recall the first item of a list. Recency effect- tendency to recall the last item of a list. Serial Position effect- recall is affected by the order of items on a list Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon- trying to remember a persons name (already in LTM) by listing things about their appearance/personality or going through the alphabet. Flashbulb memory- split second memory of an emotionally significant event. Mood-congruent memory- increases the likelihood of recall when you are in the same mood as memory. State-dependent memory- increases the likelihood of recall when you are in the same state of consciousness (example: losing keys while intoxicated will not remember where they are until intoxicated again ). Mnemonics- memory aids such as acronyms and Method of Loci picturing items or words at certain locations in a familiar place. Peg word system one bun, two shoe, three tree..visualize things on a bun when memorizing a list of words Smell- sense that is strongest/most associated with memory, olfactory nerves are connected to the hippocampus Constructive Memory- ability of humans to report false details/recollections of events (not intentionally). Many witnesses recall can be distorted. (misinformation effect) Elizabeth Loftus showed how leading questions can change peoples memories of events by describing car accident as smashed or hit. FORGETTING

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve At first we forget a lot of information rapidly but the amount remember levels off over time.
Proactive Interference- trying to recall new information (old interferes) Retroactive Interference- trying to recall old information (new interferes) TIP: Focus on what is trying to be recall (retroactive is older) Retrograde amnesia- unable to recall old information Anterograde amnesia- unable to encode new information. MEMORIES AND THE BRAIN Hippocampus is responsible for storing new memories in the brain.

Long Term Potentiation (LTP) neurons can strengthen connections between each other through repeated firing. This is associated with the formation of memories. Language Phonemes- smallest unit of sound language. Ex- sounding out C-A-T. Morpheme- smallest unit of language with meaning (Ex. Pre- is not a word but carries meaning) Syntax- rules of grammar ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE Babbling Stage- googoogaagaa Telegraphic Speech (about 2 years old) - (EX. - No book, movie). Like a telegraph they are missing several words to the sentence but you understand. Chomsky- born with language acquisition device (nature) children learn some grammar without instruction from parents. A critical period for developing this exists. Overgeneralization (aka overregularization)- misapplication of grammar rules. EX I holded the ball. Chomsky said this was proof that children dont simply model language Skinner- language is learned, modeled (nurture) through reinforcement. Whorfs Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis- language controls/limits our thinking. (EX. The Department of War was changed to the Dept. of Defense and the approval rating of this dept. immediately improved.

Thinking

Metacognition thinking about thinking

Prototype best example of a category (ex. Rose in the category of flower) PROBLEM SOLVING Algorithm- logical step by step rule that guarantees solving a problem (Ex. Searching every aisle in the grocery store ) Heuristic- a rule of thumb strategy used to solve a problem or make a judgement, a mental shortcut. (Ex- anytime you do a search on the internet.) Availability Heuristic- judging the likelihood of a situation based similar situations that are available in the immediate memory. (Ex. Fear of flying after seeing a plane crash in the news.) Representative Heuristic- judging the likelihood of a situation based on stereotypes or prototypes (Ex. Truck drivers who read poetry or Ivy League professors who like poetry.) Belief Bias make illogical conclusions to confirm preexisting beliefs. (EX. I believe blondes are dumb and I hear a blonde make a stupid statement so I say to myself, theres the proof that blondes are dumb Belief Perseverance- tendency not to change our preexisting beliefs even in the face of contradicting evidence. (EX. I tell you that research says blondes are of equal intelligence to brunettes yet you continue to believe blondes are dumber. IMPEDIMENTS TO PROBLEM SOLVING, Ethnocentrism- tendency for people to believe that ones culture is superior to others. Mental Set (rigidity) tendency for people to fall into established thought patterns or ways of solving problems. Using methods that worked in the past. Older people may drive to the library and spend 45 mins. to look up information that could have been googled on the internet) Functional Fixedness- inability to see a new use for an object. (EX- butter knife as screwdriver) Confirmation Bias- tendency for people to seek out information that confirms their beliefs. False Consensus Effect- tendency for people to overestimate the number of people who share their beliefs and values. Framing- the way a problem is presented (EX. Meat that is 80% lean vs. 20% fat) Divergent Thinking- thinking that searches for multiple answers.