University of Wollongong Thesis Collections

University of Wollongong Thesis Collection

University of Wollongong Year

Investigation of postweld heat treatment of quenched and tempered pressure vessel steels
Zoran Sterjovski
University of Wollongong

Sterjovski, Zoran, Investigation of postweld heat treatment of quenched and tempered pressure vessel steels, PhD thesis, Materials Engineering, University of Wollongong, 2003. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/464 This paper is posted at Research Online. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/464

NOTE
This online version of the thesis may have different page formatting and pagination from the paper copy held in the University of Wollongong Library.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT & RESIDUAL STRESSES

2.1.1 Postweld heat treatment
An integral and costly step in the manufacture or repair of transportable pressure vessels is postweld heat treatment (PWHT). PWHT is a stress relieving process whereby residual stresses are reduced by typically heating to 550-650C for a set time depending upon plate thickness. The vessel is generally held at peak temperature for 2 minutes per millimetre of thickness, with a minimum time of 30 minutes. The removal of residual stresses is not the only effect of PWHT. It also enables: the diffusion of hydrogen from the weld metal, softening of the hardened HAZ, notionally improving toughness, improvement of dimensional stability during machining, improvement in ductility due to recovery that takes place, improvement in resistance to stress corrosion cracking by reducing stresses and crack prone microstructures, and reduction in cold working effects. (Ham, 1999; Dumovic, 1999; Rosenbrock, 1999)

Clause 14.12 in AS4458-1997 Pressure Equipment Manufacture states, PWHT is intended to do either or both of the following: A. Reduce residual stresses and improve resistance to brittle fracture, stress corrosion or in some cases, fatigue or control distortion on subsequent machining. B. Achieve or restore the material properties required for the design and service conditions. (Australian Standard 4458, 1997) The PWHT requirements in Australian Standards and Codes are discussed in greater detail in Section 2.1.5 PWHT in Australian Codes and Standards. PWHT may be performed in a number of different ways depending on the size and configuration of the component to be treated. Complete or full vessel stress relief may be performed in annealing furnaces, as is the case for transportable pressure vessels. For

9 smaller components or in cases where localised PWHT is required, heat treatment can be performed with oxy-acetylene gas torches, heating mats or induction coils with the addition of heat insulation (Radaj, 1992). Temperature during PWHT is generally monitored using thermocouples for accuracy and reliability. A heat treatment chart (temperature versus time) for each thermocouple is produced and recorded for proof of correct heat treatment temperatures and cooling rates (see Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1: PWHT temperature profile against time (Radaj, 1992). It is common knowledge that exposure of materials to elevated temperatures causes degradation of material properties. For example, creep and tensile strength (yield and ultimate tensile) decrease at elevated temperatures. Therefore, consideration of the effects of PWHT on material properties has to be taken into account. In particular, multiple PWHT cycles, which can occasionally total 20-40 hours, extend the time available for the possible initiation of creep/creep fatigue mechanisms. Nevertheless, Australian and International Standards or design Codes still tend to neglect the effects of multiple PWHT (OBrien and Lumb, 2000).

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2.1.2 Residual stresses

Residual stresses are stresses that remain in a component after any external loading is removed (ASM Volume 6, 1983). Residual stresses in metal structures occur for many reasons during manufacturing processes such as rolling, forging, casting and welding. In welding, residual stresses result from thermal strains during heating and cooling cycles of the weld metal and the adjacent HAZ (Epselis, 1996, p8). They occur in all weldment zones and at the microscopic level they develop due to restraint of thermal expansion/contraction and volume changes associated with phase transformation. Since residual stresses can affect structural behaviour, it is important to be able to predict and model residual stresses under different scenarios. Modelling of residual stresses is not a simple task; there are many variables involved: Component configuration, Material type, Service temperature, Material thickness, Manufacturing processes, and Design.

Residual stresses can be classified into two groups according to the mechanism that produces them: Residual stresses produced by structural mismatch, and Residual stresses produced by an uneven distribution of non-elastic strains both mechanical and thermal strains. (ASM Handbook Volume 6, 1983). Both of the above mechanisms are possible with all welding processes. Residual stresses can be produced when materials of different lengths are forcibly connected (structural mismatch). Figure 2.2 shows a schematic diagram of a three bar frame, which can be used to explain residual stresses resulting from structural mismatch. Tensile residual stresses are produced in the shorter middle bar and compressive residual stresses are produced in the longer (outer) bars. Upon heating the middle bar, the residual stresses in

11 this bar decrease and may eventually become compressive due to thermal expansion and/or phase changes. The reverse sequence occurs on cooling.

Shorter middle bar

(a)
state (ASM Handbook Volume 6, 1983)

(b)

Figure 2.2: Schematic diagram of a three bar frame (a) stress free state and (b) stressed

Residual stresses can also be produced by an uneven distribution of non-elastic strains. Residual stresses produced by welding tend to occur by this mechanism. If a material is heated uniformly in a welding or alternative heating process then thermal expansion would occur uniformly and thermal stresses would not develop. However, as the joining process of welding directs heat at the joint, the material or component is not heated uniformly. As a result thermal stress results and residual stresses are produced. The magnitude of these residual stresses is greater when the weld joint is restrained (ASM Handbook Volume 6, 1983). Another method of classifying residual stresses is by the region in which they are located. In this classification there are macroscopic and microscopic residual stresses (McClintock et al, 1966; ASM Handbook Volume 6, 1983). Macroscopic residual stresses occur over a long range, extending over the macroscopic dimension of a component (McClintock et al, 1966). In all welded structures, residual

12 stresses are produced in regions around the weldment. Grinding operations are also known to produce localised residual stresses in thin layers in the sub-surface (AWS, 2000). Microscopic residual stresses are of a short range, and on the smallest of scales, they result from misfitting solute atoms and individual dislocations. On a slightly larger scale, residual stresses can be produced by dislocation pileups, kink boundaries, deformation twins and diffusionless shear transformations. The localised strains that develop are associated with localised accommodation stresses. These types of microscopic residual stresses play fundamental roles in plastic deformation, fatigue crack growth and the Baushinger effect. The Baushinger effect is based on the minute amount of reverse plastic deformation that may take place during unloading (McClintock et al, 1966). Another example of production of residual stresses on a microscopic scale is the formation of martensite. The low formation temperature and fast cooling rate typical of martensitic reaction in steels is associated with a volumetric expansion and hence localised residual stresses are produced upon completion of this reaction. Residual stresses may also be present in inhomogeneous solids when a new phase precipitates out of a solid solution (ASM Handbook Volume 6, 1983). There are many reasons or mechanisms by which residual stresses can occur. Apart from the martensitic transformation and formation of precipitates out of a solid phase, other examples include: decarburisation at the surface in the presence of an oxidising atmosphere resulting in a decrease in volume and an introduction of tensile residual stresses in a thin layer where decarburisation has occurred. nitriding - heating in an ammonia atmosphere allows nitride formation thus hardening and slightly expanding the steel (McClintock et al, 1966). Examples given in previous paragraphs may all be possible during welding of steel due to extreme process temperatures and other variables (gas/flux, flow rates, purging). Certain welding procedures can produce greater residual stresses than other welding

13 procedures and therefore welding expertise is required to develop procedures that minimise residual stresses. Considering a heat treatment process not involving a phase change, where the material undergoes a rapid cooling cycle, the surface and the interior of the component will contract at different rates (especially for thicker sections). This effect, together with lower yield strength experienced at higher temperatures, may induce plastic flow or permanent yielding. The surface, due to more rapid cooling, becomes rigid and stronger than the core. As the core contracts, the surface layer is subjected to force directed to the core and consequently develop residual compressive stresses. However, if a material undergoes a phase change during heat treatment, local yielding may be masked by volume changes associated with such a phase change. On cooling the surface regions will reach the transformation temperature first, and will expand if there is an increase in volume. The hotter interior will have lower strength and will deform plastically to accommodate such a change. When the interior cools and undergoes a similar expansion, it will be resisted by the high strength surface layer, which is thus put into tension, resulting in residual tensile stresses. Surface tensile stresses can contribute to crack initiation and propagation. (Lloyd, 2000) 2.1.2.1 Residual stresses related to welding As previously discussed, welding is the most common cause of significant residual stresses. The cooler parent metal restrains contraction of the weld metal upon cooling, leading inevitably large residual stresses. Moreover, phase and volumetric changes at the microscopic level also contribute to the residual stress phenomenon during welding. Being able to predict and model residual stresses in different weldment configurations is important in assessing the possibility of failure. Modelling of residual stresses is not a simple task; there are many variables involved: Weld geometry Temperature

14 Time Thickness Joint restraint Welding process Heat input, and Deposition sequences

Residual stresses in welding occur because heat is applied to a localised area and there is an abundance of non-uniform temperature profiles (ASM Handbook Volume 6, 1983). Figure 2.3 shows a schematic representation of changes in temperature and stresses during welding. Plane stresses are shown implying the stresses are uniform in the thickness direction.
T X Y T Section A-A Tension Y Compression T Section B-B Y T 0 Y residual 0 Y

Section C-C T

Residual Stress Y

Y T 0 Section D-D (a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.3: (a) Schematic representation of a single run butt weld and associated (b) temperature and (c) stress changes (ASM Handbook Volume 6, 1983).

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In describing Figure 2.3(a), the weld is shown by the shaded area. The molten weld pool region (current position of the arc) is shown by the origin, 0. Figure 2.3(b) shows the temperature profiles along different sections with Section B-B bisecting the melted region and Section C-C being at a close distance from the weld pool in the solid weld metal. As expected the greatest temperature gradient is at the weld pool as shown in Section B-B. Figure 2.3(c) shows the residual stresses as a result of welding. Section A-A ahead of the weld bead on the parent metal shows no residual stresses. In the melted region (Section B-B) there are thermal stresses present but they are close to zero because the molten metal cannot support any loads. In regions away from the arc (transverse to the direction of welding) where cooling is occurring, the stresses are larger due to the lower temperature and restrained contraction. The maximum magnitudes of compressive stresses and tensile stresses occur at Section D-D where the tensile stresses peak in the cooled weld metal and compressive stresses peak in the surrounding parent metal. This is more clearly shown in Figure 2.4, where the distribution of stresses in a butt-welded joint can be seen. Note that in the middle of the weld the residual tensile stresses present are very close to the yield point of the parent material (Gourd , 1991).

16

Weld Yield Stress

Stress

Tensile Stresses 0 -

Position
Compressive Stresses

Figure 2.4: Distribution of stresses in a single pass butt weld (Gourd, 1991). Since residual stresses exist without external forces, the resultant force and resultant moment produced by the residual stresses must disappear:

dA = 0
on any plane section where dA is area

(Equation 2.1)

dM = 0

(Equation 2.2)

where dM is resultant moment (ASM Handbook Volume 6, 1983) The residual stress pattern as indicated in Figure 2.4 occurs in materials of moderately low thicknesses. According to Lancaster (1980), in thick plate there is a contraction stress at right angles to the plate surface and consequently the stress field may intensify progressively as the joint is built up with weld runs. Figure 2.5 shows residual stresses measured before a short (15 minutes) and long (40 hours) PWHT, measured by remanent magnetisation, along the centre line of a submerged arc weld in a 165 mm thick plate of Mn-Mo steel (650 mm in length). The curves in Figure 2.5 represent residual stresses in

17 three directions, that is, stress in the longitudinal direction, transverse direction and the short transverse direction (perpendicular to the root face). The figure shows that residual stresses can either be compressive or tensile along the thickness of the plate, and that long PWHT times result in the redistribution of residual stresses. If it is assumed the three residual stresses measured represent principal stresses, the effective residual stress is: 1 2

r =

[( T L ) 2 + ( L ST ) 2 + ( ST T ) 2 ]

(Equation 2.3)

where T is transverse , L is longitudinal and ST is short transverse (perpendicular to the root face). A correlation between the toughness of a weldment and the presence of residual stresses has been found experimentally and this is discussed in Section 2.3.3.1 Fracture toughness. From a microstructural perspective, if austenite transforms to martensite at low temperatures the volume increase will be substantial because of the difference with falling temperature in thermal contraction curves of the face centred cubic and body centred cubic phases. This will lead to a reduction of localised residual stresses in the weldment if the weld metal (WM) transforms to martensite. However, this effect is unlikely because the low carbon WM transforms at higher temperatures to acicular ferrite, and may only be relevant to the heat affected zone (HAZ) of welds, which is a relatively small volume of the weldment.

18

Thickness Position (mm)

Fill

Root

(MPa)
(a)

Thickness Position (mm)

Fill

Root
(MPa)

(b)

Figure 2.5: Distribution of residual stresses along centre-line of narrow gap single vee
submerged arc weld in 165 mm thick Mn-Mo steel plate (a) after 15 minutes of PWHT at 600C and (b) after 40 hours of PWHT at 600 C (Suzuki et al, 1978, pp 87-112).

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2.1.3 Effect of PWHT on residual stresses

The main aim of PWHT is to relieve the residual stresses induced by welding processes. A state of the art review on PWHT by Shiga et al (1996, pp163-176) confirms that residual stresses decrease with an increase in temperature and holding time, and that the reduction of residual stresses can be correlated with the Holloman or Holloman-Jaffe parameter (see Equation 2.4) or the Larson-Miller parameter (see Equation 2.5) (Miller et al, 1980, pp955-962; Shiga et al, 1996, pp163-176). It was also reported in this review that residual stresses are markedly reduced in the range of 600-650C, corresponding to an approximate Larson-Miller parameter of 18 x10-3 to 19x10-3. The above-mentioned parameters are widely accepted temperature-time parameters. They are proportional to the quantity of heat involved in the heat treatment process.
HP = T (20 + log10 t ) x10 3 (Lochhead and Speirs, 1972)

(Equation 2.4) (Equation 2.5)

LMP = T (20 + log 10 t ) (Miller et al, 1980, pp955-962)

where HP is the Holloman parameter, LMP is the Larson Miller parameter, T is absolute temperature and t is time (hours). Legatt (1987, pp247-256) has reported that the level of residual stress after welding depends on the direction relative to the length of the weld. He showed that the residual stresses parallel to the weld length or in the longitudinal direction were higher than transverse residual stresses after PWHT. This work was carried out on 50 mm thick CMn-Nb-Al steels typically used for pressure vessels. Legatt also conducted weld metal stress relaxation tests against the Holloman-Jaffe Parameter (Equation 2.4). He showed that the maximum measured residual stresses are substantially greater than the upper bound of the stress relaxation data and also that stresses in the longitudinal direction are always greater than those measured in the transverse direction ( 50 N/mm2) and are insensitive to heat treatment. The degree of improvement in properties (particularly fracture toughness) after PWHT is dependant on the original residual stress distribution in welded joints (Blauel et al, 1987,

20 pp79-90) . This would suggest that if preventative measures were taken to minimise residual stresses, then the benefits following PWHT would be far more beneficial. The preventative measures could include: favourable weld geometry, sequential weld runs and/or temper bead runs.

2.1.4 Stress relieving to reduce residual stress

The most common method of stress relief is by heat treatment. Other methods of stress relief are typically mechanical. These include peening, vibrational techniques and manipulation of hydrostatic testing (overloading methods). Another alternate technique that can be used is temper beading. Temper beading manipulates bead placement and size to reduce residual stresses and it is mainly used in the United States of America, but it is gradually becoming more frequently used in Australia. All these techniques are discussed in the following sections.

2.1.4.1 Heat treatment as a form of stress relief

As briefly discussed in Section 2.1.1, thermal stress relieving involves heating a component to a temperature at which the material yield stress has fallen, allowing creep to take effect (Lloyd, 2000). Large residual stresses are no longer supported and, if temperatures are high enough, the stress distribution will become more uniform across the component. Such heat treatment may lead to tempering or ageing effects and alterations to the microstructure depending on the material and combination of temperature and time. In C-Mn steels stress relief heat treatment is beneficial in improving fracture toughness of the HAZ, allowing service at lower temperature. In butt welds of plate the general rule for satisfactory relief of residual stresses is that uniform stress relief heat treatment must be applied over a bandwidth that is twice the length of the weld (see Figure 2.6) (Papazoglou, 1981). Figure 2.6 also shows the heat bandwidth for circumferential butt welds.

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Heated bandwidth, 2L

Weld length, L

Weld Thickness, t

Radius, R Heated bandwidth, 5(Rt)0.5

Figure 2.6: Bandwidths for local stress relieving heat treatment in butt-welded (a) plate
and (b) pipe (Papazoglou, 1981). In heat treatment it is important to be able to achieve the correct temperature and temperature control within specified limits. Uniform heating and cooling rate must be obtained through the heaviest section to be treated, especially where the geometry is complex and the thickness is variable. Stress relieving heat treatments are generally avoided unless stipulated as mandatory by Codes and Standards, due to the costs involved and potential consequences of incorrect PWHT procedure.

2.1.4.2 Mechanical methods of stress relief (overloading, vibrational and peening)

Residual stresses can also be reduced by mechanical treatment without the need for heat treatment. Mechanical methods do not refine the metallurgical microstructure of the weldment but instead work on the principle of causing localised yielding with the combination of applied and residual stresses.

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Overloading
Overloading techniques involve the relaxation of stresses by permanent yielding via the hydrostatic test or the warm pressure test. Overloading techniques combine loading generated by external pressure together with the presence of residual stresses. A single overloading above the yield stress results in a decrease of any residual stresses. The overloading technique generates compressive residual stresses around existing defects, with a beneficial effect upon brittle fracture (Nichols, 1968; Okamata et al, 1990, pp199203). During the increase of pressure, external loads are added to the existing residual stresses causing localised plastic deformations. As the pressure is released, the elastic retention produces residual stresses that play the favourable role of prestressing (International Institute of Welding, 1987). The hydrostatic test is a mandatory test for pressure vessels conforming to AS1210 or AS4458. Limitations to the suitability of the process for stress relief include:

The question of compensating pads and attachments receiving adequate stress relief. Reaching the required stress levels for conservatively designed road tankers. (Epselis, 1996)

Vibrational Techniques
Vibrational methods of stress relief involve inducing one or more resonant or subresonant states in a welded structure using suitable force exciters, resulting in elastic straining of the treated surface (International Institute of Welding, 1987; Epselis, 1996). The success of vibratory stress relief depends on the type, size and complexity of the structure, where a balanced stress state is more important than the reduction of residual stresses.

23 Advantages of this technique over conventional heat treatment are that it is cheaper and can be more effective if the size and complexity of the structure are favourable. Disadvantages of vibrational stress relief include (Epselis, 1996):

Softening of the hardened HAZ does not occur. It is not recommended where brittle fracture is a serious risk. No favourable metallurgical changes take place as it a mechanical process. It offers no advantages over overloading techniques such as hydrostatic testing.

Shot Peening
Shot peening is a surface cold working process that is used to minimise the potential for fatigue, stress corrosion cracking and other modes of failure. Peening works on the principle of introducing residual compressive stress in the surface layer by bombarding it with small high velocity spherical media called shot (Diepart, 1992, pp 517-530). It is well known that cracks will not initiate or propagate in compressively stressed zones. Since numerous failures are initiated at the surface of components, compressive stresses induced by shot peening can considerably enhance the life of a component. Diepart (1992, pp 517-530) concludes that shot peening has made considerable advancements over the years but further work is needed in the area of shot media, shot velocity measurements, engineering models and non-destructive tests to measure residual stress profiles to avoid such pitfalls as irrelevant applications and inappropriate and incorrect peening methods.

2.1.4.3 Temper beading as a method of stress relief

Temper beading is another technique that can be used as a form of stress relief. In effect, the strategic sequencing and placement of the weld beads provides localised PWHT of preceding passes, thus achieving substantial tempering of the total weldment. Preheating and/or maintenance of interpass temperature during multi-pass welding also provides a form of dynamic or auto-PWHT.

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2.1.5 Postweld heat treatment in Australian Standards and Codes

2.1.5.1 Current Overview
Australian Standards related to pressure vessels suggest PWHT is mandatory for a listed set of pressure vessels. Included in this list are transportable and low temperature pressure vessels. The following are the Codes that cover pressure vessels of some description in Australia.

AS4458 1997 Pressure equipment Manufacture AS1210 1997 Pressure vessels AS/NZS 3509 1996 LP gas fuel vessels for automotive use AS3577 1999 Steel cylinders for compressed gases Welded-150 kg to 500kg.

The requirements of PWHT on pressure equipment have been carried over from superseded Standards over the years. Currently AS1210-1997, refers to AS4458-1997 for descriptive manufacturing requirements (including PWHT). Clause 14.3 on page 60 of AS4458-1997 lists pressure equipment requiring mandatory PWHT. Included in this list are vessels that are of great interest to this research project.

Transportable vessels as stipulated in the design section in AS1210-1997 (Clause 3.26.7) Low temperature equipment in carbon, carbon-manganese, and alloy steel intended for service at design temperatures where PWHT is required . Pressure equipment where substances liable to cause stress corrosion are present. Pressure equipment where the weld procedure cannot be qualified without PWHT. Pressure equipment of carbon, C-Mn and alloy steels where more than two welded joints meet.

Table 2.1 (partially extracted from Table 14.1 in AS4458-1997) designates the PWHT treatment requirements for different materials of varying thicknesses. It also specifies the required holding temperature and time. The Note References column indicates the specific notes that relate to that material. For example, in material group G (QT low

25 alloy steels) Notes 21 to 23 are applicable. These notes discuss cooling rates, normalising and tempering for this group of steels.

Table 2.1: Heat Treatment Thickness, Temperature and Time (Australian Standard
4458, 1997).

1 (1/4 hr min.)

The Australian Standard relating to LPG fuel tanks for automotive use is AS3509-1996. It states that PWHT of carbon steel vessels shall follow any repair welding except that heat treatment is not considered necessary following minor repair welding of pinholes exposed by leakage tests where the depth of weld metal removed is not greater than half of the shell thickness (Australian Standard, 3509, 1996). Furthermore, Clause 3.3 discusses the heat treatment requirements following welded construction of carbon steel LP gas fuel vessels. This clause explains that stress relieving heat treatment is not necessary provided type-testing shows the desired properties are achieved without heat treatment. Therefore if the weldment passes all the mechanical testing requirements without PWHT then PWHT is not required, and residual stresses are not taken into consideration. The Standard via Clause 3.3 also acknowledges that normalising treatment may be detrimental to the mechanical properties of the material, which must be verified through simulated heat treatment. The Australian Standard for welded steel cylinders for compressed gases, AS3577-1999, states that upon completion of all the welding and forming requirements each cylinder

26 shall be uniformly heat-treated by normalising or stress relieving treatments. Steels containing less than 0.15% carbon shall be normalised or if they contain grain refining additives they shall be stress relieved as recommended by the steel maker. Repair welding is also mentioned in Section 8 and it states that repair welds require re-heat treatment. The Standard does not state whether the heat treatment of repair welds is to be localised or include the entire vessel.

2.1.5.2 Historical overview

The SAA (Standards Association of Australia) Boiler Code was reviewed to ascertain the introduction or existence of PWHT requirements in pressure vessels. This Code dealt with the design, construction, inspection and operation of boilers and unfired pressure vessels. It was first issued in 1931 and amended and reprinted in 1952 for the fourth time. In the SAA Boiler Code 1952 in Section 8, there is no mention of stress relief requirements in Section VIII or any other section of the Code. However, in January 1959 an amendment, U35, was created and added to Section VIII of the SAA Boiler Code. This amendment was titled Design of Vessel containing Liquefied Petroleum Gases. Rule U35(b), transportable pressure vessels. This rule is commonly quoted in most of todays Standards. It reads: All transportable vessels (eg., trucks, trailers, semi trailers and skid tanks) containing liquefied petroleum gas shall be designed to Class 1 requirements and shall be radiographically examined and stress relieved. The Class 1 requirements are the most stringent requirements imposed on pressure vessels. The method of stress relief was not described in the SAA Boiler Code of 1959 but it is described in detail in the current Standard for the manufacture of pressure vessels, AS4458 (see Table 2.1).

27

2.1.6 Methods for measuring residual stresses

A number of different techniques can be used to measure residual stresses in metals and weldments. The American Welding Institute classifies these techniques into three groups as shown in Table 2.2. The techniques for measuring residual stresses are classified into stress relaxation, x-ray diffraction/neutron scattering and cracking categories (AWS, 2000).

Table 2.2: Classification techniques for measuring residual stresses (AWS, 2000)
A-1 Stress Relaxation using electric and mechanical strain gauges For solid cylinders and tubes For three dimensional solids A-2 Stress-relaxation using apparatus other For plates 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Sectioning technique using electric Gunnert technique Mathar-Soete drilling technique Stablein successive milling technique Heyn-Bauer successive machining Mesnager-Sachs boring out technique Gunnert Drilling Technique Rosenthal-Norton sectioning technique Grid system-dividing technique resistance strain gauges

technique

than electric and mechanical strain gauges 10. Brittle coating-drilling technique 11. Photoelastic coating drilling technique B C X-ray diffraction Cracking 12. X-ray film technique 13. X-ray diffractometer technique 14. Hydrogen-induced cracking technique 15. Stress corrosion cracking technique

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2.1.6.1 Stress relaxation techniques

In stress relaxation techniques residual stresses are measured by measuring the elastic strain release with the use of electric or mechanical strain gauges. The residual stresses are released by cutting the specimen into pieces or by removing a section from the material and hence the strain gauge is used for measuring the strain release. This technique can be successfully used on plates, cylinders or tubes (AWS, 2000). Additionally, strain release during stress relaxation can be measured using a grid system, brittle coating or photoelastic coatings. These techniques are used for measuring surface residual stresses in weldments as they provide reliable quantitative data. These techniques are based on the fact that strains taking place during unloading are elastic even though the material has undergone plastic deformation. Therefore it is possible to determine residual stresses without knowledge of the history of the material. A common technique for measuring residual stresses by stress relaxation is the hole drilling technique (AWS, 2000; Lloyd, 2000). This method was first proposed by Mathar and further developed by Soete (1949, pp354-364). In this technique, a small circular hole is drilled in a plate (which may or may not be a weldment) containing residual stresses. Those stresses in areas outside the hole are partially relaxed by drilling of the hole. It is possible to determine residual stresses that exist outside the drill hole (Soete, 1949, pp354-364). Figure 2.7 shows that a common way to measure residual stresses is to place strain gauges at 120 from each other and drill a hole in the centre. The magnitude and direction of the principal stresses are determined by calculating the strain changes at the three gauges.

29

Gauge No. 1

Gauge No. 3 Gauge No. 2

Figure 2.7: Hole drilling technique (AWS, 2000)
Limitations of the hole drilling method include (Ruud, 1981, pp35-40):

destructive method of measuring residual stresses; holes must be at least eight times the diameter apart; accessibility to drill holes; thickness of the specimen has to be at least four times the hole diameter; and areas where stress exceed 0.3 times the yield stress may give erroneous results due to local plastic strain during metal removal (drilling).

2.1.6.2 X-ray diffraction and neutron scattering techniques

Diffraction techniques rely on measuring the elastic strains in metals through lattice parameter variations. As the lattice parameter of a metal in the unstressed state is known, elastic strain in the metal/component can be determined. The technique is based on movement of the detector (x-ray or neutron) over a range of angles to measure the angles of diffraction, , which satisfy the Bragg condition of constructive interference. When the Bragg condition is satisfied, n = 2d sin , sharp increases in the scattered intensity are observed (Lloyd, 2000). The precise

30 determination of yields d (interplanar spacing) directly. In the presence of residual stresses the measured interplanar spacing will be changed by an amount, d. This change provides an internal strain gauge and hence the strains can be related to residual stresses using the elastic constant (Lloyd, 2000).

2.1.6.3 Observing cracks to measure residual stresses

Cracks induced by hydrogen or stress corrosion may provide qualitative data on residual stresses in complex structural components that have complicated residual stress distributions. The crack pattern in Figure 2.8 shows there are major tensile residual stresses present in that weld.

Figure 2.8: Crack pattern implying the presence of tensile residual stresses (AWS,
2000).

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2.1.6.4 Ultrasonic residual stress measurements

Ultrasonic techniques for measuring residual stresses are based on the linear relationship between applied stress and ultrasound velocity (Bray, 1989, pp191-197; Degytar et al, 1997, pp1162-1168; Schramm et al, 1994, pp157-160; Lloyd, 2000). It has been shown that residual stress can be measured ultrasonically by inducing an ultrasonic wave into the specimen and measuring the time of flight or another velocity related parameter. Limitations of this technique include:

ultrasound velocity is also affected by grain size and the presence of inclusions; coupling between the transducer and specimen must be reproducible; and special probe configurations may be required for the component being investigated.

Successful examples of ultrasonic methods of measuring residual stresses have been reported by Degytar et al (1997, pp1162-1168) and Schramm et al (1994, pp157-160).

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2.2 PRESSURE VESSELS DESIGN, MANUFACTURE AND CASE STUDIES

2.2.1 Introduction to pressure vessels
Transportable pressure vessels may be defined as vessels that are designed for the transport of fluids under pressure. Under AS1210-1997 there are four types of transportable pressure vessels, namely: Road tanker vessels permanently or temporarily mounted. Rail tanker vessels permanently mounted to a bogie. Portable vessels can be moved from place to place by road or rail. Tank shipping containers.

As is the case for all types of pressure vessels, transportable pressure vessels are allocated a class of construction. All welded metallic vessels are categorised into three main classes, according to the design, manufacture, testing and inspection requirements indicated by AS1210-1997 (Australian Standard 1210, 1997). Generally all transportable vessels are built to Class 1 requirements unless otherwise stated by the design engineer. Class 1 is the most stringent class and it involves the most demanding design, manufacturing, and testing and inspection requirements. Under certain conditions transportable pressure vessels may be allowed to be Class 2A vessels (less stringent). For example, a pressure vessel is Class 2A if it is a portable LPG vessels with less than 8000 litre capacity or if it will carry non-lethal fluid with a volume/pressure based restraint (Australian Standard 1210, 1997). Class 2 construction, which is less stringent than Class 1, may also be used for a vessel containing a nonharmful fluid of volume less than 5000 litres. For low temperature pressure vessels made of carbon and carbon-manganese steels, the minimum design temperature and thickness are based on the prevention of fracture initiation as determined by a wide range of notched and welded Wells wide plate tests. Generally, in these tests through-thickness defects up to 10 mm long located in locally

33 embrittled material are required to withstand approximately four times the yield point strain. A suitable safety margin (in service temperature) is applied if severe impact loading could occur, as in the case of transportable pressure vessels (Australian Standard 1210, 1997).

2.2.2 Parts of a transportable pressure vessel

A typical transportable pressure vessel consists of the following items. Shell and head consisting of plate steel subjected to cold forming and welding processes. Nozzles attachments used for the charge or discharge of fluid in or out of the pressure vessel, or instrument nozzles. Manhole an entry point into the vessel large enough for a person to fit into. The reasons for manholes are for inspection purposes. Compensating plates these are plates used to offset the loss off strength created by the presence of a manhole or nozzle. They are used for extra support where the pressure vessel is in contact with the trunnions. Trunnions tanker supports. Baffles. Flanges.

The welds required to manufacture a transportable pressure vessel are as follows. Longitudinal welds full penetration butt welds. Circumferential welds full penetration butt welds. Nozzle welds full penetration butt welds.

Figure 2.9 schematically shows the location of components and welds in a typical transportable pressure vessel (road tanker). Welding processes and consumables are discussed in detail in Section 2.3 Materials in Transportable Pressure Vessels.

34

Nozzles Shell

Flange Longitudinal weld

Head

Manhole

Circumferential weld

Trunnion

Baffle (internal)

Compensating pads

Trailer

Figure 2.9: Schematic representation of a typical road tanker

2.2.3 Case studies of failures in transportable pressure vessels

There have been approximately ten case studies in Australia involving accidents with road tankers manufactured from QT steel. One reported accident, which occurred in October 1995, involved a tanker manufactured from imported QT steel (equivalent to ASTM A517). The tanker was designed to AS1210-Class 1-1997 and manufactured to the equivalent of AS4458-1997.The PWHT history of the tanker was 30 minutes holding time at 570C determined for a shell thickness of 10 mm and a head thickness of 6 mm (Ambrose, 1992). After collision the front head was deformed by 900 mm to a partly concave shape (see Figure 2.10(a)) and the plate was folded 150 to give three folds meeting at one point, where a crack penetrated through the head wall (see Figure 2.10(b)). The crack site was more than 100 mm from any weld.

35

(a)

~10mm
(b) Figure 2.10: (a) Front head of QT steel tanker following a high velocity collision and (b) a penetrating crack formed in the PM region resulting from the high velocity collision (Ambrose, 1992). All reported cases of accidents involving transportable pressure vessels in Australia (not only manufactured from QT steels) show that catastrophic failure (failure that penetrates through thickness and causes leakage) occurred only in the parent plate (OBrien and Lumb, 2000). This observation is consistent with reports that conclude that the impact properties of simulated heat affected zone and WM structures are superior to the base plate, even with increased heat treatment time (Pimenta and Bastian, 2000, pp192-202).

36

2.3

MATERIALS

IN

TRANSPORTABLE

PRESSURE

VESSELS
A wide range of steels and compatible welding consumables are listed in the Australian Standards for the selection of pressure vessel plates/shells. This literature review covers mainly quenched and tempered steels (QT steels), and in particular BIS80PV, as this is both the major QT pressure vessel steel used in Australia and the primary steel investigated in this project. Different welding consumables for all relevant welding processes are also discussed. The impact and fracture toughness properties of steels that are used in transportable pressure vessels are considered to be very important. The performance of a transportable pressure vessel in impact/collision and how the vessel behaves in the presence of a crack (whether it is a design flaw or actual crack) is paramount and is the primary focus of this research. Some pressure equipment engineers are concerned with the effect of welding and postweld heat treatments on fracture properties and the lack of guidance and explanation in the Australian Standards in qualifying the acceptable number of heat treatments (heat treatment time) before mechanical properties are adversely affected, especially when QT steels are concerned.

2.3.1 Quenched and tempered steels (BIS80PV)

Quenched and tempered steels (QT steels) have been designed to meet industrial requirements for a combination of high strength, improved impact toughness and good weldability. QT steels are austenised, quenched to martensite and/or bainite, and tempered to the desired properties. Figure 2.11 shows a typical processing sequence for QT steel.

37

Figure 2.11: Typical processing sequence for QT steels (ASM Volume 1, 1983) BIS80PV is a high strength QT low alloy steel designed by Bisalloy Steels, Australia. It is a steel used in transportable pressurised road tankers by companies such as Kleenheat, Chemtrans and Shell. The classification requirements of BIS80 and BIS80PV are similar with the only difference being the frequency of mechanical tests conducted on the material and a slightly more stringent yield to ultimate tensile strength ratio for BIS80PV (Bisalloy, 2000). BIS80 can therefore be regularly converted or reclassified to BIS80PV with appropriate testing. Table 2.3 shows the typical chemical composition of a BIS80PV alloy and Table 2.4 shows the typical mechanical properties. BIS80 (structural grade) typically has a leaner alloy content in the BIS80PV range, and lower austenitising and tempering temperature than is typical for BIS80PV, and as a result does not meet the stress ratio requirement (0.93) for pressure vessel steel, as outlined in AS3597 (1993, p5). This steel is however considered a potential candidate for pressure vessels due to its high toughness and the emergence of literature demonstrating the exemption of PWHT based on a fracture mechanics approach (Smith, 2002). In many applications the reason for applying PWHT is to avoid the risk of brittle fracture, and this is achieved by minimising residual stresses and by increasing the fracture toughness of fracture sensitive regions (CGHAZ for example). The majority of existing Codes and Standards base the need for PWHT on a thickness criterion, however in the offshore platform industry a fracture mechanics approach to determine the need for PWHT is widely used (Smith, 2002). The fracture mechanics approach recognises the

38 influence of fundamental parameters (stress, toughness and defect geometry), which control the fracture of weldments. Table 2.3: Chemical composition of BIS80PV (Bisalloy, 2000). Element C Mn Si Mo Cr B Ti Ni Cu S P Weight % (Range) 0.15-0.21 0.80-1.30 0.15-0.50 0.40max 0.60-1.20 0.0005-0.006 0.015-0.050 0.30max 0.20max 0.015max 0.025max Weight % (Typical) 0.17 1.15 0.40 * 0.85 0.002 0.030 0.020 0.020 0.010 0.020

*Mo content is dependent on thickness of the plate Table 2.4: Minimum specified mechanical properties of BIS80PV (Bisalloy, 2000). Thickness Yield (mm) Strength (MPa) 3.25-16 16-65 65-100 690 690 620 Tensile Strength (MPa) 790 790 720 Elongation (%) Impact Energy (J) 40 235 16 14 40 40 to 293 0.38 mm average 0.25 mm minimum VHN Lateral Expansion at 20C

16

The mechanical properties in Table 2.4 are established from a test specimen taken from each end of the plate, midway between the centre and either edge. Note the Charpy results tabulated were obtained from specimens transverse to the direction of rolling, with the axis of the notch perpendicular to the rolled surface of the plate. The yield to

39 tensile strength ratio required is less than 0.93 and a typical absorbed energy at 20C (Charpy V-notch) is 40J. 2.3.1.2 Effects of alloying elements on BIS80PV Carbon In general, carbon increases the tensile properties of steel, the hardness and the hardenability. However, carbon content is limited in BIS80PV to the range between 0.17 to 0.21wt % for enhanced weldability and toughness properties. Carbon also plays a vital role in the formation of carbides, which impede dislocation motion and increase the strength of the steel (Reed-Hill et al, 1992). Manganese Manganese is an austenite stabiliser and is added to heat treatable steels as a hardenability promoter. In non-heat treated steels Mn provides solid solution strengthening. In BIS80PV the manganese content is relatively high, typically 1.15wt% (see Table 2.3) and makes a significant contribution to alloy hardenability. Manganese also generally reacts with sulfur to form manganese sulphides that prevent the formation of iron sulphides and hence minimise the probability of hot cracking in both the weld metal and base metal (Reed-Hill et al, 1992; Chevis, 1997). Silicon Silicon increases the casting fluidity and greatly improves oxidation resistance. In BIS80PV, silicon is limited to 0.40% because it can adversely affect the toughness of welds. The tolerance of steel to silicon can be enhanced by balancing with manganese, especially in the weld metal (Grong et al, 1986, pp27-48; Lundin and Wang, 1989). Silicon is normally regarded as a ferrite former, but can act like an austenite stabiliser by retarding cementite formation and hence suppressing decomposition of austenite to cementite and ferrite.

40 Molybdenum Molybdenum as an alloying addition affects the hardenability of heat-treated steel. Molybdenum is also added to suppress temper embrittlement (Chevis, 1997). Chromium Chromium is used to promote hardenability and thus increase through-hardening in thick plate sections. Another important effect of Cr is that it improves the oxidation resistance of the steel. Regarded as a ferrite stabiliser and a strong carbide former, Cr kinetically suppresses the austenitic transformation (Grong et al, 1986, p927-48). For up to 4% Cr the A1 and A3 temperatures are lowered, and in this sense Cr acts like an austenite stabiliser. Boron Boron has a very strong positive effect on the hardenability of steel. In BIS80PV boron is typically 0.002wt% and this is generally considered to be near the maximum weight percentage that is effective in increasing hardenability. Boron as an alloying addition of steel has the effect of delaying the austenite to ferrite transformation, allowing acicular or lath ferrite microstructures to form at relatively slower cooling rates (Chevis, 1997). Titanium Titanium is added to steel as protection for boron by preferentially reacting with residual nitrogen. Titanium nitride also restricts austenite grain growth and raises the grain coarsening temperature.

41 Nickel Nickel is added to copper containing steels mainly to provide protection against hot shortness. Hot shortness is embrittlement of a metal at elevated temperature caused by a low melting constituent segregated at grain boundaries during solidification (Kalpakjian, 1985). The most important role of Ni in welds is to improve toughness, especially at lower temperatures. Copper Extensive literature work was carried out by Chevis (1997) on the effects of copper as an alloying element. It has been reported (Irani et al, 1968, pp75-89; Grange et al, 1959) that copper contents above approximately 0.6% cause precipitation hardening. In BIS80PV copper content is typically 0.020% (see Table 2.3) suggesting that the presence of copper is principally for solid solution strengthening and improved corrosion resistance rather than for precipitation hardening. Calcium, sulphur & phosphorus Calcium is used to suppress MnS inclusions against the effects of rolling. In BIS80PV calcium content is usually in the vicinity of 0.0008%. Elongated MnS inclusions are very detrimental to mechanical properties in the thickness direction and become initiation sites of hydrogen induced blister cracks in wet hydrogen sulphide environments. Sulphur and phosphorus are kept to a minimum and are treated as impurities. Ductility can be compromised if S and P contents exceed the specified maximum listed in Table 2.4 (Bisalloy, 2000).

2.3.2 Welding of QT pressure vessel steels

Weldability is defined as the capacity of a metal to be welded under fabrication conditions and to perform satisfactorily in its intended service (Croker, 1994). QT steels

42 such as BIS80PV are generally considered to be readily weldable. They do however require sufficient preheat to avoid heat affected zone cracking due to hydrogen. Preheat slows the cooling rate after welding reducing weld zone hardening and allowing time for hydrogen effusion. However, preheat and heat input should not be so high that an excessively slow cooling rate negatively affects the strength and fracture toughness of the steel. Table 2.5 shows the maximum permissible heat input for Bisalloy QT steels. For successful welding of QT steels like BIS80PV the following conditions are recommended (Bisalloy, 2000): Correct storage and drying of consumables to avoid hydrogen cracking Low hydrogen electrodes (Lincoln Electric Company, 1973) Cleanliness of joint preparation Low preheat temperature (100-170C) depending on welding process Suitable welding process.

Table 2.5: Maximum permissible heat inputs for BIS80PV (Bisalloy, 2000). Maximum permissible heat inputs for BIS80PV steel Welding Process MMAW FCAW GMAW SAW 3-10 mm 2.5 kJ/mm 2.5 kJ/mm 2.5 kJ/mm 2.5 kJ/mm Plate Thickness 12-20 mm 3.5 kJ/mm 3.5 kJ/mm 3.5 kJ/mm 3.5 kJ/mm 25-32 mm 4.5 kJ/mm 4.5 kJ/mm 4.5 kJ/mm 4.5 kJ/mm

The maximum interpass temperature is the maximum temperature between weld runs and it is generally measured 50-75 mm form the edge of weld preparation after the weld run is complete. Table 2.6 shows the recommended preheat and maximum interpass temperatures for BIS80PV.

43 Table 2.6: Recommended preheat and maximum interpass temperatures for BIS80PV (Bisalloy, 2000) Plate Thickness Temperature Preheat Max. Interpass 3-12 mm 50-75C 150C 12-19 mm 75-100C 180C 19-25 mm 100-120C 200C

2.3.2.1 Typical welding processes used in manufacturing processes The welding process selected for the construction of a transportable pressure vessel is dependent on a number of factors. These factors include: size of the vessel, length of the welds, thickness of the plate, availability of processes, and the quantity of production (mass production or one off ).

Manual metal Arc welding (MMAW) MMAW or Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), as it is commonly known, is one of the most simple, flexible and therefore most common forms of electric arc welding. The process is used widely by small welding shops and home mechanics, for applications in industrial fabrication and structural steel erection (Lincoln Electric Company, 1973). Figure 2.12 shows a schematic representation of manual metal arc welding.

44

Covering

Electrode Arc Solidified slag Shielding gases

Weld Metal

Base Metal

Figure 2.12: Schematic representation of MMAW process (Lincoln Electric Company, 1973) An electric arc is struck between the electrically grounded work and a 0.2-0.4 metre length of flux covered metal rod (the electrode). The electrode is clamped into an electrode holder, which is joined to the cable to the power source. The tip of the electrode is bought into contact with the work and then the welder withdraws the tip to establish an arc and form a welding circuit. The heat from the arc melts the base metal in the immediate area as well as the electrode metal core (Lincoln Electric Company, 1973). As the welding process progresses, the electrode becomes shorter until it must be replaced. This periodic changing is one of the disadvantages of the process since it decreases the working time that the welder spends on actual welding. Other disadvantages of the process are limitations placed on the current because of resistance heating of the electrode. Also, the electrode temperature must not exceed the break down temperature of the electrode covering. The advantages of MMAW lie in the versatility and simplicity (and low cost) of the process, which make it a favoured welding process for many different applications.

45

MMAW welding can be used to weld BIS80PV. When welding using this process weaving should be avoided as it adds to the heat input of the weld and welds with a number of stringer runs are preferred over a single run weld at a higher heat input. MMAW electrodes recommended by the manufacturer of BIS80PV are; Alloycraft 11018G, Jetweld LH110-M and Austalloy 11018-Ti (Bisalloy, 2000). Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) GMAW is an arc welding process that uses a continuous electrode for filler metal and an external supplied gas for shielding. Shielding gases are generally argon, helium, carbon dioxide or mixtures thereof. The function of the shielding gas is to protect the molten metal from reacting with constituents of the atmosphere. The flux in MMAW serves a similar function. Figure 2.13 shows the principle of GMAW and the process can either be semi automatic or fully automated. Advantages of this process over MMAW include (1) higher travel speeds and deposition rates, especially on long welds typical of transportable pressure vessels and; (2) no slag is formed. Disadvantages of this process are that welding can not be carried out in windy conditions as the molten weld pool may be exposed to the harmful atmosphere and welders require relatively expensive safety equipment such as breathing apparatus. To counteract windy conditions a variation on the GMAW process, the fluxed core arc welding process can be used (see following subsection Fluxed core arc welding)

46

Solid wire electrode Current conductor

Shielding gas IN

Travel

Solidified weld metal Arc

Wire guide and contact tube Gas nozzle Shielding gas Work Molten weld

Figure 2.13: Schematic representation of GMAW process (Lincoln Electric Company, 1973). Solid alloy GMAW electrode wires with matching strength and notch toughness are available which are suitable for welding BIS80PV. To achieve the joint bend requirements of structural and pressure vessel codes an alloy wire suitable for use is Autocraft Ni-Cr-Mo (CIG) which is normally used with an Ar-CO2 mixture. The required preheat is proportional to the joint restraint and up to 170C preheat may be required (Bisalloy, 2000). Fluxed core arc welding (FCAW) The fluxed core arc welding process adopts principles from both the MMAW process and the GMAW process. The continuous wire is adopted from the GMAW process and the flux (adopted from MMAW) is positioned in the core of the filler consumable wire to protect it from breaking in the coil.

47 This welding process is particularly suitable for QT steels (Bisalloy, 2000; Lincoln Electric Company, 1973). When welding BIS80PV using this process no preheat is normally required for plate up to 12 mm in thickness, provided the heat input is at least 1.0 kJ/mm. If the manufacturer recommended heat inputs are not exceeded then the strength, ductility and notch toughness should be maintained in the weldment. Suitable consumables for welding with this process are Tensi-cor 110T and Fluxofil 42. These wires are normally used in conjunction with gas shielding (CO2 or Ar/CO2). (Bisalloy, 2000) The advantages of FCAW welding over GMAW and MMAW welding include: high welding speeds and deposition rates are possible, welding can be performed in windy conditions (compared to GMAW), the slag is easy to remove (compared to MMAW), and weld metal protection from the atmosphere is superior to MMAW.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) Submerged arc welding is an automated welding process in which the arc and molten metal are both shielded from the atmosphere by a blanket of fusible granular material, referred to as the flux. Figure 2.14 schematically shows the SAW process. Since the arc is completely covered by the flux, it is not visible and the weld is run without a flash or spark, and this is characteristic of open arc welding. The advantages of the process include preventing the rapid escape of heat due to the insulating blanket of flux deep penetration welds. The latter characteristic means that the preparation for welding can be deep and narrow with minimal use of filler material. The weld bead appearance is generally uniform due to the automation involved in the process and hence mechanical properties in the weld tend to be at least equal to those of the base metal. Also, very high deposition rates are possible in SAW.

48

ELECTRODE AIR
Feeds down to arcmoves to the right

FLUX
Solid Freezing Molten slag Freezing weld metal Molten pool of electrode flux and base metal

ARC

SOLID WELD METAL

BASE METAL

Figure 2.14: Schematic representation of SAW process (Lincoln Electric Company, 1973). There are two general types of consumables available for SAW. These include single pass and multipass consumables. Multipass welds should be deposited when welding BIS80PV to ensure the specified heat input is not exceeded. A preheat of 150C is recommended for plate exceeding 16 mm in thickness. Bisalloy recommends that the root runs for submerged arc welding be deposited by MMAW and then ground back to bare metal. SAW welding consumables providing matching properties to BIS80PV have classifications such as W769A.M2H10 for welding without PWHT. 2.3.2.2 The different zones as a result of welding In any weldment there are many distinct zones: the parent metal (PM); the weld metal (WM); and the intervening heat affected zone (HAZ) are the zones examined in this project. The HAZ is the region that has been microscopically affected by the heat of the welding process. It comprises of the coarse-grained HAZ (CGHAZ), fine-grained HAZ (FGHAZ) and the intercritical HAZ (ICHAZ).

49 Parent metal (PM) The PM or BM (base metal) is the metal to be welded. The PM region, except near the fusion boundary is unaffected by the welding process, and therefore it is not metallurgically affected by welding. However, due to the welding process the PM is likely to be in a state of residual transverse and longitudinal shrinkage stress (ASM Volume 6, 1983), of magnitudes that depend on the degree of restraint imposed on the weld.

Heat affected zone (HAZ) The HAZ is that part of the base metal that has not been melted by the heat of welding but whose mechanical properties and/or microstructure have been altered. (ASM Volume 6, 1983). In terms of microstructure the HAZ contains at least three different microstructural zones (coarse grained HAZ, fine grained HAZ and intercritical HAZ). Because grain growth is a function of temperature and the peak thermal cycle temperature decreases sharply with distance from the fusion zone, maximum grain size always occurs near the weld fusion boundary and decreases with distance away from the boundary. The major factor that determines the maximum grain size is the residence time at elevated temperatures where rapid grain growth can occur. The FGHAZ is defined as the region where the austenite grains formed as a result of the heat in the welding process decomposes into small pearlite colonies and ferrite grains (Messler, p545, 1999). The CGHAZ is defined as the region of coarse grains adjacent to the WM. The microstructure of this region results from the large austenite grains that formed due to the welding process increasing the temperature of this region well above the Ac3 temperature (Messler, p545, 1999).

50

The intercritical HAZ is defined as the region directly adjacent to the PM running parallel to the fusion line where the peak temperature is sufficient to cause partial austenitisation. When a weldment fails in this region under creep conditions it is referred to as a Type IV failure (Sterjovski, 1997). Weld metal (WM) The WM zone comprises a mixture of the filler metal and base metal, which is completely melted and relatively homogenous. At the outer boundary of the WM region is the weld interface zone. This is defined as the boundary between the unmelted base metal on one side (HAZ) and completely fused weld metal on the other side (ASM Volume 6, 1983). Figure 2.15 shows a schematic representation of the different zones in a typical butt weld and the corresponding temperature profile. In this figure the CGHAZ is referred to as the grain growth zone, the FGHAZ is the recrystallised zone, and the ICHAZ is the partially transformed zone.

51

Figure 2.15: Schematic representation of the zones found in a typical butt weld (Easterling, 1992, p126).

2.3.3 Desirable properties for transportable pressure vessel steels

This section of the literature primarily focuses on fracture toughness and briefly discusses other desirable properties such as tensile strength, fatigue strength and resistance to fire and stress corrosion cracking. Substantial fracture toughness, especially in the presence of a crack, is the most desirable property for transportable pressure vessels due to performance concerns of the vessel in collision. 2.3.3.1 Fracture and impact toughness Fracture mechanics theory is the most common tool used to assess the serviceability of components such as pressure vessels. Considerable work has been carried out in this field. A common view by Australian industry experts (Lumb and Ambrose, 2000) is that failure in transportable pressure vessels is most likely to be caused by stress due to mechanical damage resulting from impact during loading or collision.

52 The basic equation of fracture mechanics is (Dieter, 1988):

K 1 = a

(Equation 2.6)

where K1 is the stress intensity describing the stress field that exists around a crack, a is the semi-length of a defect (crack, design flaw, weld defect) with dimension of 2a, is the total general stress at the defect (see Equation 2.7) (Lumb and Ambrose, 2000; McClintock et al, 1966; Campbell et al, 1982), where stress can be expressed as

= P + I +R
where P is the stress resulting from pressure across the wall

(Equation 2.7)

I is any stress imposed externally R is the residual stress resulting from welding or other fabrication steps.
Following PWHT residual stresses (R) are reduced to 0.2-0.5 of the yield strength, and thus the total stress () is reduced (Lumb and Ambrose, 2000). It is important that this reduction in stress can ensure that KI remains below the critical stress concentration factor KIc. The critical stress intensity factor, KIc, is a material property as is yield strength and ultimate tensile strength (Dieter, 1988). It is independent of crack length, geometry or loading. However, KIc does change with metallurgical variables such as heat treatment, impurities and inclusions, as does yield strength and ultimate tensile strength (Dieter, 1988; Gulvin et al, 1967). The benefits of PWHT in terms of stresses are considered to be non-existent if

P + I + R leads to a value greater than 0.7KIc (Lumb and Ambrose, 2000). Burdekin
(1999) concluded that for fracture tough pressure steels the failure mode is plastic collapse and residual stress has minimal or no effect on structural integrity. Residual stress is likely to be a problem in pressure equipment if the service conditions can promote stress corrosion cracking. It is widely accepted that there is threshold stress

53 for the initiation of stress corrosion cracking and PWHT to reduce stress below this threshold is essential (Bloch et al, 1997, pp31-41). The effect of PWHT on fracture toughness is of great concern to the Australian pressure vessel industry and pressure vessel codes do not seem to cater for the effects of multiple heat treatments on fracture toughness especially for quenched and tempered steels. An early study carried out by Gulvin et al (1967), was focused on the effect of the heat treatment cycle, quantified by a temperature/time parameter on fracture and tensile properties of ferritic C and C-Mn steels. Gulvin et al showed that there was a trend for additional PWHT cycles to raise the ductile to brittle transition temperature (DBTT). Gulvin et al (1967) used the Holloman-Jaffe parameter (see Equation 2.4) to observe the changes that heat treatment imposes on properties such as ultimate tensile strength, yield strength and ductile to brittle transition temperature. Figures 2.16 and 2.17 show the effect of heat treatment variables (temperature and time) on Charpy V-notch transition temperature and yield strength, respectively. Figure 2.18 is schematic plot of property changes with the Holloman-Jaffe PWHT parameter.

54

Figure 2.16: Change of Charpy impact transition temperature for 27.1J as a function of the Holloman Parameter (Gulvin et al, 1967)

Change in Yield Strength (%)

Holloman Parameter (HP)

Figure 2.17: Percentage change in yield strength with Holloman parameter (Gulvin et al, 1967)

55

+8
Change of Yield Stress (%) Change of Ultimate Tensile Stress (%) Change of Charpy Impact Transition Temperature C (27.1J)

+4 0 -4 -8 -12 -16 +8 +4 0 -4 -8 -12 -20

+20 +40 17 18 Parameter Value (HP) 19

Figure 2.18: Summary of trends in property changes with the PWHT Holloman-Jaffe Parameter for C and C-Mn steels. Lines indicate best fit (Gulvin et al, 1967). Gulvin et al initially addressed the need in certain circumstances for the repeated application for heat treatments. This is typical of practices in industry where repair welding of faulty welds occurs and where any maintenance repairs during the service life might also require mandatory PWHT. The trend in Figure 2.19 reflects the effect on ultimate tensile strength of one, two and four PWHT cycles. Four cycles is considered to

56 be the maximum number of heat treatment cycles a transportable pressure vessel is likely to undergo during its service life (Lumb and OBrien, 2000). The graph shows a slight decline in ultimate tensile strength as result of multiple heat treatment cycles or increasing the value of the Holloman parameter resulting from cumulative heat treatment time.

Figure 2.19: Effect of repeated applications of heat treatment on UTS (Gulvin et al, 1967) The parametric approach was adopted by Gulvin et al because stress relief treatments vary widely due to vessel size, thickness, steel type, fabrication processes and complexity. By using a parametric technique a post weld heat treatment cycle can be described by a single variable. Lochhead and Speirs (1972) performed some similar work to Gulvin et al (1967) but on higher alloy steels that were quenched and tempered or normalised and tempered. They examined the effects of PWHT on the following types of pressure vessel steels.

ASTM A533 Grade B quenched and tempered Mn-Mo steel. BS 1501-271 normalised and tempered Mn-Cr-Mo-V steel. ASTM 387 Grade D quenched and tempered 2.25Cr-1Mo steel.

57 Work carried out on all of the above steels indicated that PWHT in the range of 610650C resulted in a decline in UTS, YS and 0.2% proof strength (Lochhead and Speirs, 1972). Other work done in this area was reported by Ulff (1970). Ulff investigated the effect of PWHT on the mechanical properties of five ferritic steels (four standard steels and one niobium containing steel). He plotted the changes in yield and ultimate tensile strengths and Charpy V-notch impact properties produced by PWHT. Ulff established a linear relationship between these changes and the Holloman parameter. The strength of the steel decreased with increasing Holloman parameter. QT steels (Lochhead and Speirs, 1972; OBrien and Lumb, 2000) appear to follow similar trends to the ferritic steels investigated by Gulvin et al. However, Ulff s work on the Charpy V-notch testing of the QT steel, A533, established no clear trend with the Holloman parameter (Lochhead and Speirs, 1972). OBrien and Lumb (2000), carried out work on 10 mm thick QT steel plate with a chemical composition similar to that of BIS80PV. They carried out simulated PWHT treatment cycles on this steel, which satisfied AS4458-1997 for quenched and tempered low alloy steel. The PWHT treatment cycle was carried out 5 times, with Charpy specimens being taken after each cycle. OBrien and Lumb also carried out work which enabled the ductile to brittle transition temperature (DBTT) to be established. The DBTT was determined for the as-received metal and also following each PWHT cycle. Negligible changes in hardness and microstructure were observed after multiple heat treatments. However, their results showed a decrease in Charpy value with an increase in the Holloman parameter, as well as a decrease in absorbed energy and lateral expansion with an increase in the number of PWHT cycles (see Figure 2.20). An increase in DBTT also occurred (see Figure 2.21).

58

100

16.6

16.86

Holloman Parameter 17.11

17.45 1.8

Holloman Parameter Hp=T(20+logt)x10-3

Absorbed Energy (Joules), Fibrosity (%)

Where: T is the temperature at degrees Rankine t is the time in hours

Lateral Expansion (mm)

50

1.0

Fibrosity Absorbed Energy 0 0 Lateral Expansion 1 2 3 4 5 0

No. of PWHT Cycles

Figure 2.20: Charpy V-notch results at 20C (OBrien and Lumb, 2000)
-20
Change of Charpy Impact Transition Temperature C (27.1J)

-10 0 +10 +20 +30 +40 17 18 19 Parameter Value (HP)

Holloman Parameter HP=T(20+logt)x10-3 Where: T is the temperature at degrees Rankine t is the time in hours, and hence HP increases with each repeated PWHT cycle

Figure 2.21: Charpy versus Holloman Parameter on a QT Steel (line represents line of best fit) (OBrien and Lumb, 2000).

59 2.3.3.2 Other desirable properties As already discussed, satisfactory yield and tensile strength are required of QT pressure vessel steels. A maximum yield to tensile ratio of 0.93 is required to ensure that significant yielding occurs before ultimate failure. However, this ratio is measured by a slow strain rate tensile test and its relevance to high strain rate loading under impact conditions is uncertain. Resistance to fire is another important property of steels used in transportable pressure vessels. Literature is limited in this area but the effects of PWHT on rupture in a fire are expected to be negligible (Epselis, 1996). Enhanced resistance to stress corrosion cracking is another desirable property of QT pressure vessel steels. The AWS (American Welding Society) has recognised that weld induced residual stresses do play a role in corrosion phenomena. To address this issue PWHT is specified in Codes and Standards even in thin walled piping and vessels where it would normally be exempt from code procedures (Bloch et al, 1997, pp31-41). Australian Standards, as do American Standards, specify PWHT where corrosion is deemed to be a concern. An example of such a case is pressures vessels that are being cleaned with caustic soda. Fatigue resistance is also important for materials used in transportable pressure vessels. Gurney (1979) argued that tensile residual stresses raise the mean stress and stress ratio. This in turn raises the stress cycle damage by preventing crack closure. However, compressive residual stresses away from a weld or in the mid thickness retard or demote fatigue by promoting crack tip closure (Gurney, 1979). From Gurneys findings it would seem that PWHT to reduce residual tensile stresses would be of benefit to the fatigue properties of pressure vessel steels in the weld region. Improved design, elimination/minimisation of poor workmanship to reduce stress concentration would also improve the fatigue life of transportable pressure vessels. The presence of fatigue cracking could lead to eventual failure by fatigue or facilitate through-wall cracking under impact conditions. Moreover, extensive fatigue cracking

60 could result in a critical crack length that induces fast fracture under the service stress conditions.

2.3.4 Techniques for measuring fracture and impact toughness

True fracture toughness tests involve the application of a tensile stress to a specimen prepared with a flaw of a known size and geometry (Dieter, 1988). These tests are generally time consuming and involve the use of expensive equipment. Impact tests are another type of test which are less time consuming and cheaper than conventional fracture toughness tests. An impact test evaluates the brittleness of a material under extremely rapid strain rates, whereas a fracture toughness test is performed at a much lower strain rate. (Dieter, 1988). The following sub-sections discuss crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) as a true fracture toughness test and Charpy impact tests. The importance of ductile to brittle transition temperatures (DBTT) is also discussed. 2.3.4.1 CTOD Test The crack tip opening displacement is generally similar to the ASTM KIc method. A bend specimen as shown in Figure 2.22(a) is used and a load versus crack-mouthopening-displacement (CMOD) plot is obtained as shown in Figure 2.22(b). Displacement at the crack tip is calculated from the CMOD experimental results and this displacement is called the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) (Campbell et al, 1982).

61

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.22: CTOD test specimen (a), and load versus crack mouth opening displacement (b). (Campbell et al, 1982) Equation 2.8 shows the formula for crack opening displacement, . In this equation, y and y are yield strength and yield strain, respectively. Equation 2.8 can be further simplified for small stresses because ln sec = 0.5 2 when is small (see Equation 2.9) (Australian Welding Research Association, 1980).
8 y a

ln{sec(

)} 2 y

(Equation 2.8)

2a K 2 = E y E y

(Equation 2.9)

The critical CTOD, c, at which a material of a certain thickness breaks may be determined experimentally. The CTOD is sensitive to the root radius of the notch and it is necessary to use either a fatigue crack or a very sharp notch to obtain valid results. The crack mouth opening displacement (or COD) should be measured at the surface of the specimen with a clip gauge, and at the crack tip should be calculated from the surface measurement.

62

CTOD methods have the advantage of concentrating on the actual crack extension process, which would seem relevant and appropriate to the pressure vessel industry. However, CTOD methods have the disadvantage of being indirect measurements of the parameter of interest, that is, the opening of the crack face at the crack tip. References and Australian Standards discussing the CTOD test in relation to welded components are available (Harrison, 1979; Australian Standard 2205.7.3, 1997]. 2.3.4.2 Charpy V-notch impact test The Charpy V-notch test is a pendulum-type single blow impact test in which the test piece, vee notched in the middle and supported at both ends as a simple beam, is broken by a falling pendulum that strikes the test piece opposite the notch. The energy absorbed is measured by the subsequent rise of the pendulum (Australian Standard 1544.2, 1989). Figure 2.23 shows the standard and subsidiary test pieces of a Charpy V-notch specimen. No generally accepted correlations have been established for Charpy values from samples of different dimensions. Therefore when comparing results the samples must be of the same dimensions.
R0.25mm 45

2mm 100.06mm

100.06mm 550.6mm

Figure 2.23: Test piece set up for a Charpy V-notch test (Australian Standard 1544.2, 1989) The advantage of the Charpy v-notch impact test is that it is a relatively cheap and quick test. It is ideal test for comparing the impact toughness for variable parameters such as

63 heat treatment and composition. The ductile to brittle transformation temperature can also be determined from impact tests. 2.3.4.3 Ductile to brittle transition temperature (DBTT) One of the major advantages of the Charpy v-notch impact test lies in the fact that it reproduces the ductile to brittle transformation temperature in steel in about the same temperature range observed in engineering structures. The DBTT is determined by performing Charpy impact tests at various temperatures and following one or more of the following procedures: 1. Finding the temperature for which the impact specimen shows a half brittle and half ductile fracture. Often referred to as the fracture appearance transition temperature (FATT). 2. Using the average energy criterion to determine the temperature at which the energy absorbed falls to one half the difference in energies required to completely fracture a ductile specimen and to completely fracture a brittle specimen. The average energy criterion is shown in Figure 2.24. 3. Taking the temperature at which a Charpy specimen breaks with a fixed amount of energy (27.1 J). This method is also shown in Figure 2.24 (Reed-Hill et al, 1992).

64

162.7 Max. Energy 135.6 J 135.6

Impact Strength (J)

108.5 Avg. Energy 71.2 81.3

54.2 27.1 J 27.1 Tavg. 0 -173 T27.1 Min. Energy 6.8 J

-73

27

127

227

Temperature (C)

Figure 2.24: Determining the DBTT using the average energy criterion method and the fixed energy method (Reed-Hill et al, 1992).

2.4 SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE

The literature survey has been concentrated on PWHT, residual stresses and the effect of PWHT on certain mechanical properties. The aim of the current research was to address deficiencies in understanding of the structure and properties of QT steels exposed to multiple PWHT cycles and to establish the relevance to the current Australian Pressure Vessel Standards. Lochhead and Speirs (1972) carried out PWHT in the range 610-690C on three steels, two of which were quenched and tempered, and the other being normalised and tempered. The temperatures in this range are much higher than the temperatures allowed for QT steels in the Australian Standards. PWHT temperature for the current research was performed at 570C, well below the original tempering temperature of the steel. The PWHT temperature range selected by Lochhead and Speirs (1972) was in the same range as the original tempering temperature of their plate. Such high temperatures are reported to compromise the benefits of tempering and have a detrimental effect on mechanical

65 properties (Nicholas, 2002). The results determined by Lochhead and Spears (1972) were achieved by varying temperature and having an extended PWHT holding time (6 hours). Although recovery is very pronounced at temperatures above 600C, and there is little evidence in the literature for recovery at 570C. This difference, combined with uncertainty about the plate thickness studied by Lochhead and Speirs (1972), downgrades the relevance of this work to PWHT conditions recommended by the Australian Standards. Ulff (1970) carried out similar work to Lochhead and Speirs (1972), but his research focussed on 5 ferritic steels. This work led the Swedish Pressure Vessel Commission to decrease the recommended stress relieving temperature for carbon steel from 600-650C to 550-600C. Additionally, work carried out by Gulvin et al (1972) on three normalised ferritic steels, demonstrated a decline in mechanical properties with increasing Holloman parameter. The work of Gulvin et al (1972), and the others before them (Ulff, 1970; Lochhead and Speirs, 1972), report deleterious effects on mechanical properties with an increasing Holloman parameter, but their focus was on varying temperature rather that varying time, and this results in a more pronounced effect on mechanical properties and the operation of different mechanisms of structural change. The current research focussed on the effect of PWHT cycles (time is variable and temperature is constant) at a lower temperature than that carried out by researchers in the 1970s (Ulff, 1970; Lochhead and Speirs 1972). In recent times, researchers such as OBrien and Lumb (2000) and Pimenta and Bastian (2001), have re-visited PWHT conditions due to process costs and potential adverse effects on the properties of the base plate. Pimenta and Bastian (2001) considered the effect of long-time PWHT on the properties of C-Mn steels. This research, in the same temperature range as earlier researchers, was conducted at 620C at varying times on a plate with a thickness of 65mm. They also considered the HAZ (simulated) and found it to perform better than the corresponding PM. The current research on QT steels (20mm in thickness) is at a much lower stress relieving temperature and investigates the WM and actual HAZ (as opposed to the simulated HAZ).

66 OBrien and Lumb (2000) reported that repeated PWHT cycles at 570C had a deleterious effect on the impact properties of QT steels. Their work indicated that further work was required to develop an understanding on the mechanistic effects of PWHT (in particular multiple PWHT cycles). Although, OBrien and Lumb (2000) showed that PWHT cycles reduce impact toughness, they did not consider the structure-property relationships that lead to this trend. Also, the heat treatment used by them, although in compliance with AS4458, involved only slow cooling after PWHT rather than the more economical route of still air cooling. The current research also differs from that of OBrien and Lumb (2000) because the WM and HAZ of the QT steels are also considered, as well as detailed analysis of the relationship between structure and properties. Residual stress values before and after PWHT are also limited in the literature. Most of the reports found in the literature suggest that tensile residual stresses are present in the weld, especially along the weld centre-line (ASM, 1983; AWS, 2000; Gurney, 1979). Suzuki et al (1978) reported a study of residual stresses in submerged arc welded QT steel (165 mm plate thickness). The residual stress values before PWHT were not reported, but they were for PWHT after 15 minutes and 40 hours both at 600C. Compressive residual stresses were recorded near the surface of this multi-run weld, and the results show the significance of time of PWHT. However, no residual stress results were found in the literature for multiple run welds of thinner (20 mm) QT plate for the temperature range (540-590C) and treatment time specified in the Australian Standard. Therefore, the current investigation was planned to provide information on new surface residual stresses in the WM before and after PWHT, as well as in the PM. Finally, a shortcoming in the literature was the lack of a model capable of predicting impact toughness with respect to cumulative PWHT time. Neural network modelling was selected for this project due to reported success in predicting impact toughness with respect to welding parameters (Bhadeshia et al, 1995; Tsuei, 2000). An extensive literature review on neural network modelling is presented in Chapter 6.