CHAPTER 4 Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data

In

this

chapter,

the

results

of

the

study

on

Mandelbrot Set and its associated fractals are presented and discussed. It consists of definitions, properties and procedures in the construction of fractal sets. This study focused on fractal sets, particularly on Mandelbrot Set. Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions: Subproblem No. 1. What is Mandelbrot Set ?

Consider a sequence of complex numbers with the following conditions:

where

is a constant complex number. The sequence begins with . Then the Mandelbrot such that the

set term

is defined as the set of all numbers

did not reach infinity, as the number of terms in went to infinity.

the sequence,

46

Theorem 4.1 The Mandelbrot set lies within exceeds 2, the Proof: If then sequence diverges. , then . So, if and ,

. If

. If

, , so the

sequence is increasing. Also, note that the sequence diverges. Example 4.1 Using the said conditions, Let defined as and these are

, so if

where

is

. Then the first two terms of sequence are . Generating the next terms of the sequence,

Consequently, the next two terms are , ,

or in general, the sequence can be written as

which shows that therefore,

, which does not tend to infinity,

belongs to Mandelbrot set. The graph of the is given in Figure 5.

Mandelbrot set for

47

Figure 5: The Mandelbrot Set for Example 4.2 Suppose is or tends to , then the sequence generated by which shows the sequence is unbounded infinity. Thus, does not belong to

Mandelbrot set. In determining the Mandelbrot Set and graphing this set in the complex plane, test a number , which remains constant during the iteration process and is substituted in

Each value

generated on the left side is fed back on . This produces a starting point is

the right side to generate a new value sequence . . Typically, the

48

Each

value

of

the

complex

constant

will

generate

different sequence. As the equation iterates, also changes. One of two changes and its magnitude will happen to the

things

magnitude of

. It will stay equal or below 2, or it will surpasses 2, case when the

eventually surpass 2. Once the magnitude of it will increase forever. In the first

magnitude of

stays small, the number

is a part of the

Mandelbrot Set. When the magnitude exceeds 2, the complex number is not part of the Mandelbrot Set.

Illustration 4.1 Figure 6 is a map of the points belonging to the Mandelbrot Set. This is computer generated. All the light area surrounding the black portion has escaping

orbits. Figure 6 shows the point belonging to the Mandelbrot Set seems to have the real number line as its line of symmetry. Also, majority of the points belonging to the set are located in the second and third quadrants of the

complex plane.

49

Figure 6. The Mandelbrot Set in Complex Plane Subproblem No.2. What are the steps to generate a

Mandelbrot set? The Mandelbrot Set consists of all the complex points such that the orbit of for each complex point has . When each sequence of

a magnitude which does not exceed

iterates are plotted in the complex plane, all the points lie within the circle of radius 2. The orbits or sequence of iterates are generated from a test point through the iteration of the formula

50

and computing the distance of each output from the origin or determining its magnitude. If the distance is greater than 2, then the test point does not belong to the

Mandelbrot Set. This implies that it goes to infinity after several iteration processes. If the distance is less than 2, then The belongs to Mandelbrot Set. following on how are the the concluded set steps can be of the

researchers

Mandelbrot

generated

without the aid of computer. Steps in generating the Mandelbrot Set: Step 1: Choose a point inside the circle of radius 2. This will be the test point . Then choose a value for points can . Usually this is also be chosen as but other long as one

remembers to start with this point in testing every point Suppose that and . value are

Step 2: Substitute these values to the function

51

to get the first point orbit.

of the

Step 3: Calculate the distance of this point from the origin by getting its absolute value.

Step 4: Using the value obtained in step 2 as and for Hence, as the same test point, solve

and its distance from the origin.

The this

for the next iteration will be for a specific number of

. Do iterations to

repeatedly

observe the orbit or sequence values. Table I shows the orbit sequence values for the test point along with

the distance from the origin of each sequence number.

52

Orbit or Sequences of Iterates corresponding to

Distance from the Origin

Table 1. Orbit of

53

Step 5: Plot the points in the complex plane to see the behavior of the orbit. This will help in determining whether the point is a member of the set or not. Figure 7 shows a plot for the orbit formed by this table of results. Notice that the distance value for is that ; almost double the test circle radius 2. This shows the test point does not belong to the

Mandelbrot Set.

Figure 7. The Graph with Escaping Orbit of

54

Step

6:

Choose

another

point

and

apply

steps is

. .

Suppose

. Always remember that

This step should be done to all the points within the circle. Table 2 gives the orbit or sequence

values for the test point

along with the

distance from the origin of each sequence number. Step 7: After testing sufficient number of points, plot all points whose orbits does not exceed the radius 2 in another complex plane. Remember, plot the test points not the orbit points nor the value of .

These test points will determine the Mandelbrot Set.

55

Orbit or Sequences of Iterates corresponding to

Distance from the Origin

Table 2. Orbit for

56

Figure 8 shows a plot for the orbit formed by this table only of values. Notice that the distance for is

, an indication that the test point is a member of

the Mandelbrot Set. As the iteration number increases, the orbit remains within the circle. Actually, there is no

guarantee that the orbit will stay inside the circle or not but since an appointed iteration level is reached in this case, where then accept that and the orbit remains inside the circle, the point belongs to the

Mandelbrot set.

Figure 8. The Non-escaping Orbit of 0.37 0.2i

57

Definition 4.1 Behavior of the Points in The point of in the complex plane will behave in any

of the following ways: 1. Points far from the Mandelbrot set rapidly move

towards infinity. 2. Points close to the Mandelbrot set slowly escape to infinity. 3. Points inside the Mandelbrot set never escape to infinity. Illustration 4.2 Start with a point in the Mandelbrot set, . Iterating the function the following values: Table 3. Values and distance from the origin Step # 1 2 3 4 Value in the Given Iteration Distance from the origin will give

58

At step 4, the distance of the point from the origin becomes greater than two. This means that the initial point does not belong to the Mandelbrot set. And note also that as the point iterates the distance of the points in the origin becomes higher and higher, this indicates that the point will tend to infinity. In Figure 9, the image shows the corresponding points on the complex plane.

Figure 9. Behavior of Points in Mandelbrot Set

59

Problem No.3. What are the properties of Mandelbrot set

The following are the properties of Mandelbrot set. Some proofs of theorems discussed in this section can be found in the book of Falconer. Proposition 1. Proof. Note that

and similarly, for So if and only if . values on .

The next result states that corresponding

opposite sides of the horizontal (real) axis of the complex plane determine other. Proposition 2. Proof. Note that sets that are complex conjugates of each

and similarly,

60

for So if and only if .

One more observation regarding the symmetry of the sets. Proposition 3. If is located on the real axis or the is symmetric

imaginary axis of the complex plane, then with respect to the real axis. Proof. Proposition If is a real . If number, then

so

by

is an imaginary number, then . iterates of a (complex) are equal to a finite

, so by proposition 1 and 2, Proposition 4. If the number under the and function

complex) number, then the orbit of Proof. Given that nonnegative integer ,

under

is bounded.

, this shows that for any

Thus, after , or the iteration of starting at , the

iterates of the first first

cycle through a sequence of iterates of

values. Since

are bounded, any bound of these

iterates bounds the entire orbit.

61

Theorem 4.2. For any

such that

contains

the closed, filled disk of radius origin and hence is an uncountable set. Proof. Since Take any point such that

centered at the

, then

inside the closed, filled disc of radius , then

centered at the origin. Note that if

Thus

the

magnitudes

of

the . ,

iterates

of

under

are

bounded by

, and hence

Theorem 4.3. For any Proof. Let and

is bounded. be complex numbers. Suppose . Then

and there exist Then,

for some nonnegative integer such that .

62

Therefore, . Thus

, for any nonnegative integer does not remain bounded as increases. Hence

Now suppose

. Then, taking

, either

that is,

Or

That is,

Solving for |c| gives

or

So if .

, then

, while if

then

A better bound than the one obtained in the theorem is possible by looking at higher iterates.

63

Theorem 4.4 The Mandelbrot set is connected. The Mandelbrot set is simply connected. This follows

from a theorem of Douady and Hubbard (1982) that there is a conformal isomorphism from the complement of the Mandelbrot set to the complement of the unit disk. It is conjectured that the Mandelbrot set is locally connected, and thus

pathwise connected, but this is currently unproved. Theorem 4.5. Fix a complex number . Let . If be a bound for and Proof. Note that that . Then this results to and let be in the set

for all nonnegative integers , then is in the set .

. Now suppose

Thus for all

is bounded by

, so that

64

The theorem determine when the origin of the complex plane can be found inside .

Problem No. 4. What are the other set of fractals that are closely related to Mandelbrot set? The following are the fractals that are closely

related to Mandelbrot set: 1. The Julia Set The Julia Set is closely related to the Mandelbrot Set because iteration the same equation but and . with slight is used in in the value

process

differences

assignments for

Recall that in order to draw a Mandelbrot Set, iterate the formula for each point always start with in circle of radius 2 and remains

. While in a Julia Set,

fixed throughout the iteration process while value of

varies. The

determines the shape of the Julia Set. In other , get all such that .

words, for all

This is one Julia Set. Based on foregoing discussion, the Julia Set is

defined as follows:

65

The Julia Set is a set of complex numbers the sequence defined by the equation

for which

remains bounded for a fixed point Each point

in the Mandelbrot Set.

is called the Julia Set index.

Generating a Julia Set Generally, the process of generating the Julia Set

follow the process of generating the Mandelbrot Set with a few exceptions. These exceptions give the Julia Sets their different shapes. When equation while the value of graphing a Julia Set, remains fixed in the

during the whole generation process, varies. The value of determined the

shape of the Julia Set. The Julia Sets are indexed by the elements of the Mandelbrot Sets. For every point in the Mandelbrot Set, there is a corresponding Julia Sets. The follows: Step 1: (Initial Stage) Choose from the test points belonging to the process/steps in generating Julia Set is as

Mandelbrot set. Choose 0.25+0.25i as the value of

66

Then

choose

another

point

from

the

complex

plane and assign it to

. This will be the first

test point to be plotted as member of the Julia Set if it does not escape to infinity. Suppose 0 or 0+0i will be the first test point. Step 2: Iterate the equation chosen point and using the

values to obtain the orbit of the

and calculate the distance of each point

from the origin. To illustrate, the following is the computation of the orbit of the chosen point . The computation of their distance from the origin also included. Let

67

Step 3: Plot the points obtained in the complex plane and connect them consecutively to see clearly the path of the orbit. The Graph in Figure 10 shows this. Step : Do steps 1 to 3 for every point complex plane using the same value for on the on each

iterates and plot them on the same complex plane.

68

Remember to plot the test point points or the .

, not the orbit

These points will generate a Julia Set for the point

Figure 10. Graph of the orbit of Julia set The figure below is a computer generated Julia set.

Figure 11. A Julia Set

69

Example 4.3 Suppose

, starting with

. In table 4 below shows the results iterates of each point and its magnitude. Table 4. Orbit of the points in Julia set with Points Distance to the origin

The points that

through

are shown in Figure 12, Note

is outside the circle of radius 2, so as the points

70

iterates the values obtained gets higher and higher. Thus should run farther away from the origin

Figure 12. Julia Set

and

2. Burning Ship Fractal Burning the function Ship fractal is generated by iterating

in

the

complex

plane

which

will

either

escape

or

it

remain bounded. The difference between this calculation and that for the Mandelbrot set is that the real and imaginary components are set to their respective absolute values

before squaring at each iteration. Figure 12 is an example of a burning ship fractal.

71

Figure 13. The Overview Image of the Burning Ship fractal

3. Buddhabrot Buddhabrot is a map related to the Mandelbrot set. Its name reflects its similarity to classical depictions of Gautama Buddha, seated in a meditation pose with a forehead mark and traditional topknot (ushnisha). Mathematically, the Mandelbrot set consists of the set of points in the complex plane for which the

iteratively defined sequence

where

does not tend to infinity.

72

The

Buddhabrot

is

rendered

by

first

creating

2-

dimensional array of counters, each counter corresponding to a final pixel of the image and initialized to zero. Then, a random sampling of c points are iterated through the Mandelbrot function. For points which do escape within a chosen maximum number of iterations, and therefore are not in the Mandelbrot set, their values are sent through the Mandelbrot function again and this time its path is plotted into the array. An example of Buddhabrot is shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14. A Buddhabrot Iterated to 20,000 Times.

73

4. Tricorn (Mandelbar set) The tricorn, sometimes called the Mandelbar set, is a fractal defined in a similar way to the Mandelbrot set, but using the mapping for the Mandelbrot set. The imaginary formula tricorn number by is generated of the by multiplying in the the instead of which is used

components one.

Mandelbrot is the

minus by the

This

complex line above

conjugation the in

represented formula

horizontal

, which is referred to as a bar, hence it

was named Mandelbar.

Figure 15. One of infinite Mandelbrot sets contained within the tricorn fractal

74

5.

Mandelbox In mathematics, the mandelbox is a fractal with a

boxlike shape found by Tom Lowe in 2010. It is defined in a similar way to the famous Mandelbrot set as the values of a parameter such that the origin does not escape to infinity under iteration of certain geometrical transformations. The mandelbox is defined as a map of continuous Julia sets, but, unlike the Mandelbrot set, can be defined in any

number of dimensions. As a result, it is an example of a multi-fractal system. It is typically drawn in three

dimensions for illustrative purposes. The following figures are example of a Mandelbox fractal.

Figure 16. A Maldelbox of Scale 2

75

Figure 17. A Maldelbox of Scale 3

6.

Mandelbulb The Mandelbulb is a three-dimensional analogue of the

Mandelbrot set, it was first constructed by Daniel White and Paul Nylander using spherical coordinates. A canonical 3-dimensional Mandelbrot set does not

exist, since there is no 3-dimensional analogue of the 2dimensional space of complex numbers. It is possible to construct Mandelbrot sets in 4 dimensions using

quaternions. However, this set does not exhibit detail at all scales like the 2D Mandelbrot set does.

76

White and Nylanders formula for the vector is

power of the

where ; and . Use the iteration is a vector where addition. For is defined as above and , with the result is a

dimensional

bulb-like

structure

fractal

surface .

detail and a number of lobes controlled by the parameter

Figure 18. A Ray-Traced Image of the 3D Mandelbulb for the Iteration

77

Quadratic Formula for Mandelbulb Other formulae in graphing multibrot set come from

identities which parameterized the sum of squares to give a power of the sum of squares such as:

So this gives, for example:

or various other permutations. Cubic Formula for Mandelbulb These formulae came from identities which parametrise the sum of squares to give a power of the sum of squares such as:

which can think of as a way to cube a triplet of numbers so that the modules is cubed. So this gives, or other permutations.

78

for example, which reduces to the complex fractal when and when .

Figure 19. A Cubic Fractal Quintic Formula for Mandelbulb Another way to create Mandelbulbs with cubic symmetry is by taking the complex iteration formula some integer for

and adding terms to make if symmetrical in

dimensions but keeping the cross-sections to be the same 2 dimensional fractal. The 4 comes from the fact that For example, take the case of where this is .

. In two dimensions

79

This can be extended to three dimensional to give:

4+

+ + 0

4+

+ + 0

4+

+ + 0
and which give different

for arbitrary constant

Mandelbulbs (usually set to 0). Figure 20 shows a Quintic Mandelbulb.

Figure 20. A Quintic Mandelbulb with

80

7. Multibrot set The Multibrot set is the set of values in the complex plane whose absolute value remains below some finite value throughout iterations by a member of the general univariate polynomial family of recursions

where

. The exponent

may be further generalized to

negative and fractional values. The following are examples of a graph of Multibrot set with positive powers. The example for include are the often is the original Mandelbrot set. And called and have Multibrot a fractal sets. These sets with

origin

perimeters,

- fold rotational symmetry.

81

Figure 21.

Figure 22.

82

Figure 23.

Figure 24.

83

Figure 25. On surrounds interesting the but other does hand, not When include is the negative origin. the set the There and set is the

complex

behaviour

between

origin, in a star-shaped area with (1 d)-fold rotational symmetry. The sets appear to have a circular perimeter, however this is just an artifact of the fixed maximum

radius allowed by the Escape Time algorithm, and is not a limit of the sets that actually extend in all directions to infinity. The following are examples of Multibrot set with

negative powers.

84

Figure 26.

Figure 27.

85

Figure 28.

Figure 29.

86

Figure 30.