Prime Numbers and The Convergents of A Continued Fraction

Prime Numbers and the Convergents of a Continued
Fraction
Cahlen Humphreys
Boise State University
Independent Study
Introduction
Figure: John Wallis 1616-1703
The term Continued Fraction was rst coined by John Wallis in his book
Opera Mathematica in 1693. In this book he describes what continued
fractions are and what the n
th
convergent of a continued fraction is, as
well as properties of convergents that we use today.
C. Humphreys (BSU) Prime Numbers and the Convergents of a Continued Fraction 2 / 30
Introduction
Continued fractions have applications in
1
Mathematical Cryptography [1].
2
Atomic Physics [2].
3
Cosmology [3].
4
Ecology [4].
The security of many cryptosystems rely on a computationally dicult
mathematical problem (see eg. [1], [5], [6]).
Introduction
1
2
Atomic Physics [2].
3
Cosmology [3].
4
Ecology [4].
Introduction
1
2
Atomic Physics [2].
3
Cosmology [3].
4
Ecology [4].
Introduction
1
2
Atomic Physics [2].
3
Cosmology [3].
4
Ecology [4].
Introduction
1
2
Atomic Physics [2].
3
Cosmology [3].
4
Ecology [4].
Introduction
1
2
Atomic Physics [2].
3
Cosmology [3].
4
Ecology [4].
Introduction
The security of one such cryptosystem in particular called RSA relies on
the diculty of a factoring problem [1]. Factoring algorithms and attacks
have been developed using continued fractions that help defeat the
security of this cryptosystem.
1
Wieners Method [7].
2
CFRAC [8].
Introduction
1
Wieners Method [7].
2
CFRAC [8].
Introduction
1
Wieners Method [7].
2
CFRAC [8].
Introduction
A continued fraction of the form
a
0
+
b
0
a
1
+
b
1
a
2
+
.
.
.
where a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, . . . and b
0
, b
1
, . . . may be real or complex numbers. A
Simple Continued Fraction is of the same form except
b
0
= b
1
= b
2
= = 1, a
0
is either positive, negative, or zero, and
a
1
, a
2
, . . . are all positive integers.
Introduction
We use the alternate notation
a
0
+
1
a
1
+
1
a
2
+
1
a
3
+
and
[a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . ]
instead of the traditional notation for the expansion of a simple continued
fraction, primarily to save space.
Theorem 1 (Euler, [11])
A number is rational if and only if it can expressed as a simple nite
continued fraction. Similarly, a number is irrational if and only if it can be
expressed as an simple innite continued fraction.
Introduction
We use the alternate notation
a
0
+
1
a
1
+
1
a
2
+
1
a
3
+
and
[a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . ]
instead of the traditional notation for the expansion of a simple continued
fraction, primarily to save space.
Theorem 1 (Euler, [11])
A number is rational if and only if it can expressed as a simple nite
continued fraction. Similarly, a number is irrational if and only if it can be
expressed as an simple innite continued fraction.
Convergents
Denition 2 (Wallis, [9])
The continued fraction [a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . , a
n
] where n is a non-negative integer
less than or equal to k is called the n
th
convergent of the continued
fraction [a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . , a
k
]. The n
th
convergent is denoted by C
n
.
Convergents of a continued fraction are essentially a segment of a
continued fraction that we compute. For example, let
= a
0
+
1
a
1
+
1
a
2
+ +
1
a
k
then a convergent C
n
of for n < k is
C
n
=
A
n
B
n
= a
0
+
1
a
1
+
1
a
2
+ +
1
a
n
. .
Finite, by Theorem 1 a rational number.
.
Convergents
Denition 2 (Wallis, [9])
The continued fraction [a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . , a
n
] where n is a non-negative integer
less than or equal to k is called the n
th
convergent of the continued
fraction [a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . , a
k
]. The n
th
convergent is denoted by C
n
.
Convergents of a continued fraction are essentially a segment of a
continued fraction that we compute. For example, let
= a
0
+
1
a
1
+
1
a
2
+ +
1
a
k
then a convergent C
n
of for n < k is
C
n
=
A
n
B
n
= a
0
+
1
a
1
+
1
a
2
+ +
1
a
n
. .
Finite, by Theorem 1 a rational number.
.
Convergents
We also have some very nice properties that involve the convergents of a
continued fraction.
Theorem 3 (Olds, [10])
The numerators A
n
and the denominators B
n
of the n
th
convergent C
n
of
the continued fraction
a
1
+
1
a
2
+
1
a
3
+ +
1
a
k
satisfy the equations
A
n
= a
n
A
n1
+ A
n2
,
B
n
= a
n
B
n1
+ B
n2
,
where (n = 3, 4, 5, . . . , k), with the initial values
A
1
= a
1
, A
2
= a
2
a
1
+ 1, B
1
= 1, and B
2
= a
2
.
Convergents
We also have some very nice properties that involve the convergents of a
continued fraction.
Theorem 3 (Olds, [10])
The numerators A
n
and the denominators B
n
of the n
th
convergent C
n
of
the continued fraction
a
1
+
1
a
2
+
1
a
3
+ +
1
a
k
satisfy the equations
A
n
= a
n
A
n1
+ A
n2
,
B
n
= a
n
B
n1
+ B
n2
,
where (n = 3, 4, 5, . . . , k), with the initial values
A
1
= a
1
, A
2
= a
2
a
1
+ 1, B
1
= 1, and B
2
= a
2
.
Convergents
Theorem 4 (Dirichlet, [12])
Let x be irrational, then there are innitely many rationals numbers
A
B
such that
x
A
B

1
B
2
.
Manufacturers will sometimes create cryptosystems with backdoors as any
easy way to gain access in the event that a private key is lost.
Andersons RSA Trapdoor [13] is one such backdoor. Andersons RSA
Trapdoor generates primes p and p
where N = pp
is easy to factor by the

manufacturer. Kaliski proved it could be broken with help from Theorem 4
[14].
Convergents
A
B
such that
x
A
B

1
B
2
.
where N = pp

[14].
Convergents
A
B
such that
x
A
B

1
B
2
.
where N = pp

[14].
Convergents
Let x be irrational, and let
A
B
be a rational in lowest terms with B > 0,
suppose that
x
A
B

1
2B
2
.
Then
A
B
is a convergent in the continued fraction expansion of x.
Big O Notation
Big O Notation, also called Landaus Symbol, is a symbolism used in
mathematics and computer science that is used to describe the asymptotic
nature of functions.
Denition 6 (Bachmann, [16])
Suppose f (x) and g(x) are two functions dened on a subset of the real
numbers, we write f (x) = O(g(x)) if an only if there exists constants N
and C such that |f (x)| C|g(x)| for all x > N.
Theorem 7 (Bachmann, [16])
If f
1
(x) = O(g
1
(x)) and f
2
(x) = O(g
2
(x)), then
f
1
(x) + f
2
(x) = O(max (g
1
(x), g
2
(x))).
If f
1
(x) = O(g
1
(x)) and f
2
(x) = O(g
2
(x)), then
f
1
(x) f
2
(x) = O(g
1
(x) g
2
(x)).
Big O Notation
If f
1
(x) = O(g
1
(x)) and f
2
(x) = O(g
2
(x)), then
f
1
(x) + f
2
(x) = O(max (g
1
(x), g
2
(x))).
If f
1
(x) = O(g
1
(x)) and f
2
(x) = O(g
2
(x)), then
f
1
(x) f
2
(x) = O(g
1
(x) g
2
(x)).
Big O Notation
If f
1
(x) = O(g
1
(x)) and f
2
(x) = O(g
2
(x)), then
f
1
(x) + f
2
(x) = O(max (g
1
(x), g
2
(x))).
If f
1
(x) = O(g
1
(x)) and f
2
(x) = O(g
2
(x)), then
f
1
(x) f
2
(x) = O(g
1
(x) g
2
(x)).
Big O Notation
If f
1
(x) = O(g
1
(x)) and f
2
(x) = O(g
2
(x)), then
f
1
(x) + f
2
(x) = O(max (g
1
(x), g
2
(x))).
If f
1
(x) = O(g
1
(x)) and f
2
(x) = O(g
2
(x)), then
f
1
(x) f
2
(x) = O(g
1
(x) g
2
(x)).
Motivation
In 1939 P. Erdos and K. Mahler showed that there are irrational numbers
for which each of the denominators of the convergents of their continued
fraction expansion is a prime number.
Theorem 9 (P. Erdos, K. Mahler, [15])
For almost all irrational numbers , the greatest prime factor of the
denominator B
n
of the n
th
convergent C
n
= A
n
/B
n
of the continued
fraction expansion of , increases rapidly with n.
Motivation
denominator B
n
of the n
th
convergent C
n
= A
n
/B
n
of the continued
Motivation
denominator B
n
of the n
th
convergent C
n
= A
n
/B
n
of the continued
Our Research
In our research we focus on the numerator A
n
instead of B
n
.
Theorem 10
numerator A
n
of the n
th
convergent C
n
= A
n
/B
n
of the continued fraction
expansion of , increases rapidly with n.
Our Research
In our research we focus on the numerator A
n
instead of B
n
.
Theorem 10
numerator A
n
of the n
th
convergent C
n
= A
n
/B
n
Our Research
Denote G(k) as the greatest prime factor of the number k.
Theorem 11 (P. Erdos, K. Mahler, [15], Lemma 1)
Let S be the set of all positive integers k for which
k , G(k) e
ln k
20 ln (ln k)
then, for large > 0,
kS
1
k
= O
_
(ln )
3
_
.
Our Research
Denote G(k) as the greatest prime factor of the number k.
Theorem 11 (P. Erdos, K. Mahler, [15], Lemma 1)
Let S be the set of all positive integers k for which
k , G(k) e
ln k
20 ln (ln k)
then, for large > 0,
kS
1
k
= O
_
(ln )
3
_
.
Our Research
We give a much more detailed description of Theorem 11 by splitting it up
into three Lemmas.
Let L = e
ln k
20 ln ln k
and S = {k : G(k) L}, and
S = T
i
where T = {k x : G(k) L}.
Lemma 12
If A = {k T
i
: (r N)(r
2
(ln x)
10
and r
2
|k)}, then |A| = O
_
x
(ln x)
5
_
.
Lemma 13
If B = {k T
i
A : k

x}, then |B| = O
_
x
(ln x)
4
_
.
Lemma 14
If C = {k T
i
(A B) : k <

x}, then |A| +|B| +
x = O
_
x
(ln x)
4
_
.
Our Research
into three Lemmas. Let L = e
ln k
20 ln ln k
S = T
i
Lemma 12
If A = {k T
i
: (r N)(r
2
(ln x)
10
and r
2
|k)}, then |A| = O
_
x
(ln x)
5
_
.
Lemma 13
If B = {k T
i
A : k

x}, then |B| = O
_
x
(ln x)
4
_
.
Lemma 14
If C = {k T
i
(A B) : k <

x}, then |A| +|B| +
x = O
_
x
(ln x)
4
_
.
Our Research
ln k
20 ln ln k
S = T
i
Lemma 12
If A = {k T
i
: (r N)(r
2
(ln x)
10
and r
2
|k)}, then |A| = O
_
x
(ln x)
5
_
.
Lemma 13
If B = {k T
i
A : k

x}, then |B| = O
_
x
(ln x)
4
_
.
Lemma 14
If C = {k T
i
(A B) : k <

x}, then |A| +|B| +
x = O
_
x
(ln x)
4
_
.
Our Research
ln k
20 ln ln k
S = T
i
Lemma 12
If A = {k T
i
: (r N)(r
2
(ln x)
10
and r
2
|k)}, then |A| = O
_
x
(ln x)
5
_
.
Lemma 13
If B = {k T
i
A : k

x}, then |B| = O
_
x
(ln x)
4
_
.
Lemma 14
If C = {k T
i
(A B) : k <

x}, then |A| +|B| +
x = O
_
x
(ln x)
4
_
.
Our Research
Theorem 15
The n
th
convergent of the simple continued fraction of the irrational
number x where 0 x 1, is the reciprocal to the n
th
convergent of 1/x.
The measure of the set of all in 0 1, such that the numerator B
n
of one of the convergents A
n
/B
n
of is equal to a given integer k 1, is
not greater than 1/k.
Our Research
Theorem 15
The n
th
convergent of the simple continued fraction of the irrational
number x where 0 x 1, is the reciprocal to the n
th
convergent of 1/x.
The measure of the set of all in 0 1, such that the numerator B
n
of one of the convergents A
n
/B
n
of is equal to a given integer k 1, is
not greater than 1/k.
Our Research
With Theorem 16 proved, we were able to use (Theorem 1, [15]) in the
paper by P. Erdos and K. Mahler to show that,
Corollary 17
numerator A
n
of the n
th
convergent C
n
= A
n
/B
n
Our Research
With Theorem 16 proved, we were able to use (Theorem 1, [15]) in the
paper by P. Erdos and K. Mahler to show that,
Corollary 17
numerator A
n
of the n
th
convergent C
n
= A
n
/B
n
Experimental Data
We created a program in maple that recorded the number of prime
numerators for n e and n where 0 < n 500.
1
For n e we collected prime numerators for up to 500 convergents for
each n.
2
For n we collected prime numerators for up to 700 convergents for
each n.
We then made graphs for 234 e and 230 .
Experimental Data
1
each n.
2
each n.
Experimental Data
1
each n.
2
each n.
Experimental Data
1
each n.
2
each n.
Experimental Data
Experimental Data
Experiment Data
We also collected data for e and where both the numerators and the
denominators of their convergents were prime numbers. We found that as
the convergents increased the number of convergents that had both prime
numerators and denominators stayed constant.
Experimental Data
Experimental Data
Future Research
Explore the nature of convergents of irrational numbers where both the
numerators and denominators are prime numbers.
Thank you
Thank you to,
Dr. Liljana Babinkostova
The Dept. of Mathematics at Boise State University and the SRI for
funding my trip to NCUR 2013.
Thank you
Thank you to,
Dr. Liljana Babinkostova
The Dept. of Mathematics at Boise State University and the SRI for
funding my trip to NCUR 2013.
Thank you
Another roof, another proof. - Paul Erdos
The End.
References
[1] R. Rivest, A. Shamir, and L. Adleman. A method for obtaining
digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems, Communications of
the ACM. 21 (2): 120-126. 1978.
[2] Horacek, J. Method of continued fractions with application to
atomic physics, Physical Review A. 28 (4): 2151-2156. 1983.
[3] Sharaf, M. A., Symbolic analytical developments of the zero
pressure cosmological model of the universe, Astrophysics & Space
Science 318, no. 1/2: 133-140. 2008.
[4] Nedashkovskiy N.A., and Kroshka T.I. Solution of one class of
nonlinear balance models of intersectoral ecological-economic
interaction, Cybernetics and Systems Analysis. 47 (5): 684-694. 2011.
References
[5] Elgamal, T., A public key cryptosystem and a signature scheme
based on discrete logarithms, IEEE Transactions on Information
Theory. 31 (4): 469-472. 1985.
[6] Die, W., and M. Hellman., New directions in cryptography, IEEE
Transactions on Information Theory. 22 (6): 644-654. 1976.
[7] Wiener, M.J., Cryptanalysis of short RSA secret exponents. IEEE
Transactions on Information Theory. 36 (3): 553-558. 1990.
[8] Lehmer, D. H., and R. E. Powers., On factoring large numbers,
Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 37 (10): 770-777.
1931.
[9] Wallis, John., Arithmetica innitorum, The Bavarian State Library.
1656.
References
[10] Olds, C.D., Continued Fractions, Random House, Stanford, CA,
1963.
[11] Euler, Leonhard., De fractionibus continuis dissertatio,
Commentarii academiae scientiarum Petropolitanae 9, pp. 98-137.
1744.
[12] Dirichlet, P.G.L., Vorlesungen uber Zahlentheorie, Vieweg. 1894.
[13] Anderson, R.J., A Practical RSA trapdoor, Electronics Letters. 29
(11). 1993.
[14] B.S. Kaliski Jun., Andersons RSA Trapdoor Can Be Broken,
Electronics Letters, 29(15):1387-1388. 1993.
References
[15] Erdos, P., Mahler, K., Some Arithmetical Properties Of The
Convergents Of A Continued Fraction, London Math. Soc. 12-18.
1939.
[16] Bachmann, Paul., Analytische Zahlentheorie, Encyklopadie der
mathematischen Wissenschaften. 1900.

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