Waupaca County Land Information Office

Aerial Photography
Table of Contents:

Introduction to Aerial Photography Basics of Photogrammetry Basics of Orthophotography Online Resouces Published Resources

Introduction to Aerial Photography

Aerial photographs are among the most important, widely available, and commonly utilized kinds of remotely sensed images. They are used for all manner of land resources, cartographic, and appraisal surveys in the public and private sectors. They are often employed as "base maps" upon which thematic data are portrayed. Locating appropriate aerial photographs is a fundamental first step for many land mapping and evaluation projects, and air photos often form the basis for interpretation of other kinds of remote sensing. Many on-line sources for aerial photography exist for state and federal agencies as well as private companies. On-line availability varies from simple descriptions with agency addresses to searchable databases with metadata, locality maps, and/or browse images. Metadata refers to a summary of the basic attributes of the imagery--film type, frame number, date, location, lens, etc. A recent trend is to convert analog aerial photographs into raster images called digital orthophoto quads (DOQ). These images have been resampled to fit accurately onto a ground coordinate grid with very high pixel resolution--usually 1 or 2 m; they may be used with a GIS in combination with other kinds of cartographic data. DOQs are now being tested and produced for many regions of the United States. Below we cover some of the basics of aerial photography, photogrammetry, and

orhtophotography. Certainly we cannot cover everything that you may need to know, so we have also included a list of useful web sites and books.

Basics of Photogrammetry
This section presents basic information about the techniques and goals of the science of photogrammetry. Much of the material in this section is summarized from the text "Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation", by T. Lillesand and W. Kiefer, and the reader is referred to this primary source for more detailed information. In addition, entire texts are devoted to the subject, such as "Elements of Photogrammetry" by Wolf. Photogrammetry can be defined as the science of obtaining reliable measurements and producing maps by means of photography. Photogrammetric techniques are required to accurately determine relationships of features on aerial photographs, including ground distances and angles, the heights of objects, and terrain elevations. When a vertical aerial photo is taken, the only point on the scene that is directly below the camera axis is called the ground principal point. Lines drawn to connect marks located along opposite sides of the photo (fiducial marks) intersect precisely at the principal point. This relationship, together with the flying height and the camera, form the basic coordinate system used to quantify various elements of the image. Identifiable points on the ground (ground control points) are used to determine distances and geometric properties of the image, including camera height above the ground, degree of tilt at the time the photo was taken, and distance between photo centers, and to correct for distortions on the image. Distortions that commonly occur on aerial photographs include: relief displacement of vertical features (the top of tall objects appear to lean away from the principal point); and image parallax (the misalignment of the principal point-fiducial axes from image to image based on unavoidable changes in the orientation of the aircraft along its flight axis). In order to correct (or rectify) these distortions, overlapping photos and ground control points are integrated to produce a stereo model of the terrain, which forms the basis of photogrammetric mapping and orthophotography. Ground control, or accurate geodetic data, is essential for all photogrammetric operations. Several types of stereo plotters are used to produce maps from which image distortions have been corrected, but all consist of a projection system, a viewing system, and a measuring system. Stereoplotters essentially duplicate the position and orientation of the aerial camera at the time an individual stereo pair was acquired. The stereo model is then projected orthographically (perpendicular) to a map sheet, and adjusted by scaling and leveling to correct image distortions. By the mid 1990's it became practical to perform this work with scanned photoimages in a computer. The most widespread use of photogrammetry is in the construction and revision of topographic

maps. The US Geological Survey (USGS) relies on photogrammetric techniques to produce and update its topographic map series. Orthophotos are being produced for many parts of the country, and combine the constant scale of a map with the accuracy and detail of an aerial photograph. Modern mapping and orthophotography are just two of the products of the science of photogrammetry.

Basics of Orthophotography
Aerial photographs contain distortion, because they do not maintain a constant scale across the image. Orthophotographs are more readily used for measurement and spatial analyses because they do maintain a constant scale across the image. Orthophotographs are digital images that are produced by making geometric corrections to scanned aerial photographs. The distortion in aerial photographs is removed by unwarping the effects of terrain, removing the perspective projection of the camera, and by fitting the image to a particular map projection to create an "image map" that has a uniform scale and a known accuracy. Hence, orhtophotographs can be used as a map whereas aerial photographs cannot. In computer systems, they can be integrated with other geographic information providing a rich visual context. Orthophotos in Wisconsin Orthophotos have a variety of uses in Wisconsin, both at the state and local levels. Once in digital format, they can be viewed and printed at various scales, and are extremely valuable in the development of land information systems and land use planning issues such as zoning, transportation, and agriculture. Once the NAPP coverage of Wisconsin was completed in 1992, interest began to grow in obtaining orthophotography for various areas. The Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) ordered the first sets of orthophotography for several west-central counties as part of their effort to revise the soil survey for compatibility with other maps. At this time, 49 counties (70% of Wisconsin), are covered by existing or in-production orthophotos. These coverages were requested by several agencies including the USDA Forest Service, NRCS, USGS, individual counties, regional planning commisions and the Wisconsin DNR. These coverages consists of both digital orthophoto quarter-quads and individual county project coverages all of which use photographs no older than 1992. Of the 49 counties for which orthophotos exist, 37 have complete coverages with the remaining 12 counties in various stages of production. At least 6 other counties have significant, but incomplete coverages. Interest continues to grow and the air photo coverage of the state of Wisconsin will be enhanced after the Wisconsin 1998 NAPP flight is completed and processed. The WISCLAND Project, which originally focused on state-wide land cover mapping from satellite imagery, expanded its mission to promote state-wide digital orthophotography. The Wisconsin Land Information Board in June of 1994 decided to place a priority on this goal. With 1998 NAPP images, completion of statewide orthophoto coverage will become more

likely. Government Standards and Procedures for the Production of Orthophotos The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the Department of Agriculture (USDA) have established standards for the production of digital orthophotoquads. The following is a list of the major standards: The primary source of aerial photography to be used is the National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) and National High Altitude Photography (NHAP) imagery. NAPP at 1:40,000-scale, is used for quarter-quadrangle images, while the older NHAP at 1:80,000-scale is used for quadrangle (7.5 minute topographic sheet) coverage. Photo digitization must produce 1 meter pixel resolution for NAPP imagery and 2 meter resolution for NHAP. The images are rectified to a Universal Transverse Mercator projection, and National Map Accuracy Standards must be met at the 1:12,000-scale for quarter-quadrangles, and at the 1:24,000-scale for quadrangles. Vertical accuracy of the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) used to correct the photo image must not exceed 7 meters RMSE. When ordering or using orthophotos keep in mind that several states have developed their own orthophotography programs with standards that may differ from those of the federal government. Wisconsin is not one of these states.

Online Resources
We suggest the following web sites for introductions to the basics of aerial photography. All about aerial photography and remote sensing - from the University of Texas. The Remote Sensing Core Curriculum - Tutorial on aerial photography and remote sensing from the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. A very comprehensive list of remote sensing sites. The National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) provides a wealth of information on the background, coverage, and standards of NAPP photography. A digital orthophoto demonstration is available free from the SCO to download.

Published Resources

We suggest the following books for introductions to the basics of aerial photography. Avery, Thomas E. and Graydon L. Berlin, 1985. Interpretation of Aerial Photographs, Burgess Publishing Company. Discusses the basics of aerial photography, and a wide range of uses for aerial photography -from land-use mapping for GIS to soils mapping to studying urban development. Branch, M.C., 1971. City Planning and Aerial Information, Harvard University Press. Provides a good description of aerial photography and its use in city planning, although much of the technical information in the text is dated. Lillesand, Thomas M. and Ralph W. Kiefer, 1994. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation, John Wiley & Sons. The book provides a good all around look at the current field of Remote Sensing, with focus on discussing methods of processing multi-band satellite imagery. Paine, David P., 1981. Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation for Resource Management, John Wiley & Sons. Geared towards the use of aerial photography in forestry and other natural resource disciplines. Emphasis is on photo interpretation, although other forms of remote sensing, as well as some photogrammetry are covered. Robinson, Arthur H., et al, 1995. Elements of Cartography, John Wiley & Sons. Primarily concerned with cartography; many of the fundamentals of aerial photography are covered in Chapter 10. Slama, Chester C. (editor), 1980. Manual of Photogrammetry, American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. Provides detailed descriptions of all aspects of aerial photography, ranging from a discussion of film types to explanations of photogrammetric equipment. Smith, John T. (editor), 1968. Manual of Color Aerial Photography, American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. Covers all aspects of planning, taking and using color photography. Taylor, Charles E. and Richard E. Spurr, 1973. Aerial Photographs in the National Archives, National Archives and Records Service (Special List No. 25). A listing of the aerial photography held at the National Archives in Washington D.C. The

photography is from before 1950, and is organized by state.

Courtesy of the Wisconsin State Cartographer's Office