ELASTICITY

Lecturer: Office: Date: Dr. S. Li P/C26 September 2004 Tel: 0161-306 3842 Fax: 0161-306 4537 Email: Shuguang.Li@manchester.ac.uk

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Review

It is assumed that the students have taken a prerequisite course, Mechanics of Solids and Structures/Mechanics of Materials. Since the course title varies from institution to institution, it will be referred to as Strength of Materials, in the present course. To summarize, Strength of Materials deals with bars subjected to loads such as axial tension, axial compression, torsion about the longitudinal axis and lateral bending. A common assumption has been made for all the cases: the plane section assumption, i.e. a cross-section perpendicular to the axis of the bar deforms into a plane section perpendicular to the axis of the deformed bar. The only justification provided in Strength of Materials is some experimental observations. However, there are also experimental observations which are against such an assumption and, therefore, limit the applicability of the assumption, hence the theory based on it. Restrictions have to be placed in order to validate the theory, e.g. the bar should be sufficiently long comparing with its other dimensions. Questions arise at this point. How to quantify these restrictions? What happens if a problem goes beyond these restrictions? How to deal with objects other than bars, e.g. those shaped like a potato or a shellfish? These questions set the scene of the present course.

1.2

Objectives

Answering questions above demands a more general theory, Elasticity being the one. Elasticity establishes a general theoretical framework which governs the responses of a material object of arbitrary geometry subject to loads (stimuli). There are two major tasks ahead: (1) Posing a general theory of stress analysis and (2) Justifying some assumptions made in Strength of Materials. Elasticity has been regarded as a general theory. One may find it disappointing, however, because the number of directly solvable problems are limited, especially those of practical significance. Then what is the use of being general and why are we bothered? On the other hand, modern numerical techniques, such as the finite element, in particular, provides the capability of solving incredibly difficult and complicated problems. This would seem to undermine the value of Elasticity furthermore. 1

The truth can be revealed once a clear vision of the relationship between the Elasticity and the numerical techniques is shown. The former formulates the problem mathematically in terms of governing equations while the latter provide merely solvers for the problem. Even the best solver in the world is unable to produce any sensible results of a problem if the problem is not properly formulated. Elasticity was once a problem solver on its own and some examples of this kind are still admirable and challenging even today. However, extensive and successful use of numerical approaches in engineering, such as finite elements, has diminished to a great extent the demand of solving problems analytically which usually requires enormous, sometimes overwhelming, mathematical skills. Challenges to engineers today appear to be the demand of making correct and effective use of available problem solvers and assessing results obtained from the solvers. This can be achieved only if the engineer understands the formulation of the problem before the solvers are employed and become useful. This brings forward the emphasis of our study of Elasticity. It is to understand the concepts and the formulation of Elasticity problems while the demand of problem solving skills is to be minimised to an extent of helping understanding or making sense of a theoretical development. Citation of some solvable problems in Elasticity is necessary for us to understand the theory and will be carried out during the course of our study. However, an extensive list of solved problems is very much seen as the contents of a handbook on this subject, which is not available yet (You are encouraged to produced one after the course), and is fortunately not the interest of the present subject. Basic Assumptions S)Q Implications and Justifications

1.3

Every theory is based on certain assumptions. All the assumptions in Elasticity have appeared in Strength of Materials (not the wrong way around!) and they will be put in a more rigorous and more explicit manner below. About the material: (1) Continuity means that every material point is connected and infinitesimally close to the one next to it. All materials carry discontinuous nature in one way or another microscopically. When engineers describe the behaviour of a material at a point, they do not mean a mathematically point (a mathematical point has zero area and zero volume). What they really mean is a small but finite area or volume. If such small areas and volumes are much larger than the characteristic dimension of the discontinuities involved (e.g. the grain size or the distance between atoms), the material can be reasonably assumed to be continuous. Therefore, whenever dx, dA and etc. are mentioned, they are in fact x, A and etc. but they are sufficiently small so that they can be regarded as "infinitesimal" without losing any macroscopic feature of the material. Exceptions: material with cracks, porous material, granular materials, etc. (2) Homogeneity means that material properties are the same at any point in the material. 2

Microscopically, no material can be homogeneous when one realises that materials are all composed of molecules or atoms, in the case of metals, a larger unit is a grain. However, if an "infinitesimal" volume contains large enough number of these units, homogeneity is a reasonable assumption on a statistical basis. Exceptions: reinforced concrete, sandwich laminates, etc. (3) Isotropy means that material properties at a point are the same in any direction. It depends on the arrangement of the microscopic material units within a "infinitesimal" volume. If they are arranged at random, isotropy is statistically true. Exceptions: modern composites, wood, etc. (4) Elasticity requires that the internal state, such as the strains, in the material recovers its original state after loads are removed and, also, the unloading has to follow the same path as when it is loaded up. It is reasonable for many materials when only small deformation is involved. Exceptions: problems involving large strain into plastic regime, some plastics of viscosity, etc. (5) Linearity requires loading path both in terms of load-deformation and stress-strain relation, is a straight line. It is usually reasonable for small deformation problems. Elasticity is a necessary condition of linearity but not sufficient. There are materials which are nonlinear but elastic. Exceptions: some nonlinear elastic rubbers, materials after yielding, etc. About the deformation: Small (infinitesimal) deformation is always assumed in Elasticity. Because of this, higher terms of deformation (gradients of displacements) are negligible relative to nonvanishing lower order terms. Also when establish equilibrium conditions, changes in geometry of the object as a result of deformation can be ignored. It is reasonable in most engineering applications when the deformation is small indeed relative to a relevant dimension of the object. Exceptions: finite deformation, buckling, etc. About the load: Only conservative forces are considered, which are not functions of the deformation. This is always reasonable when deformation is small. Exceptions: pressure in large deformation problems, etc. Note that there is no a priori assumption made on deformation pattern such as the plane 3

section assumption in Strength of Materials. This is why Elasticity is a more general theory. Warning: A theory does not mean anything if it is separated from its assumptions. If it is used without due respect to the underlying assumptions, it is likely to mislead people and endanger the public! A designer could easily bring an aircraft down to the ground and kill the poor pilot and his passengers, not by firing a missile to it but by his faulty design. Neglecting any of the assumptions of the theory in one's design can easily result in a faulty design!

1.4

Coordinate Systems and Transformations

Throughout the course unless otherwise specified, all the reference will be made with respect to a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system, x, y and z. Occasionally in the course, other coordinate systems, such as polar coordinates (2-D) /cylindrical coordinates (3-D) or spherical coordinates, are referred to for the sake of simplicity for the particular problem under consideration. Necessary derivations will be dealt with when they are required. However, for reference purpose, a table of transformations of the derivatives and operators between these systems is provided here as Table 1-1.

1.5

Vector and Matrix Notations and Their Coordinate Transformations

Throughout the course unless otherwise specified, all the reference will be made with respect to the subscript x, y or z in a A vector in a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system, x, y and z, is noted as vx v ' vy vz In Mathematics, a vector is also called a first order tensor. Second order tensors are important in Elasticity. They can be represented by 33 matrices. We shall note as sxx sxy sxz [ s ] ' syx syy syz szx syz szz The above vector and matrix notations will be employed in the course, mainly for notation purposes, and should not present any threat to you. Getting on with them and you will be benefited. (1.2) . (1.1)

From time to time, coordinate transformations are required from the system x, y and z to another rectangular Cartesian system of different orientation, x', y' and z'. A vector transforms as follows {v'} = [T]T {v} and a second order tensor [s] is transformed as [s'] = [T]T [s] [T] cos(x ), x) cos(y ), x) cos(z ), x) where [ T ] ' cos(x ), y) cos(y ), y) cos(z ), y) cos(x ), z) cos(y ), z) cos(z ), z) In particular, when system x', y' and z' is obtained from x, y and z by rotating an angle about the z-axis, cos & sin 0 [ T ] ' sin 0 cos 0 0 1 . (1.6) . (1.5) (1.4) (1.3)

Table 1-1 Transformation of Coordinates and Various Mathematical Operations

Coordinate Systems Rectangular Cartisian coordinates (3!D): x, y, z Rectangular Cartisian coordinates (2!D): x, y x = r cos y = r sin z=z dx = cos dr ! sin d dy = sin dr + cos d dz = dz ds2 = dx2 + dy2 + dz2 i,j,k Circular Cylindrical Coordinates (3!D): r, , z (r$0) Polar Coordinates (2!D): r, (r$0) r = (x2 + y2 )1/2 = tan!1 (y/x) z=z dr = cos dx + sin dy d = ! sin dx + cos dy dz = dz ds2 = dr 2 + r 2 d 2 + dz 2 er , e , e z

Coordinates Differentiation of Coordinates Infinitesimal Segment Base Vectors

Vector

vx
V = ivx + jvy + kvz =

vr
V = e rv r + e v + e zv z =

vy vz

v vz

Tensor (2nd order)

sxx syx szx S ' sxy syy szy sxz syz szz S '

sr r s r sz r sr s sz sr z s z sz z
er = i cos + j sin e = !i sin + j cos ez = k der /d = e de /d = ! er dez /d = 0

Transformation of Base Vectors Differentiations of the Base Vectors

i = er cos ! e sin j = er sin + e cos k = ez di /d = 0 dj /d = 0 dk /d = 0

M Mx
Gradient of a Scalar Field

M Mr L ' er M 1 M M % e % ez ' r M Mr Mz
1 M r M

L ' i

M M M % j % k ' Mx My Mz

M My M Mz

M Mz

Gradient of a Vector Field

v x x v y = tensor = x v z x

v x y v y y v z y
M vx Mx
%

v x z v y z v z z
M vy My
%

v r r v v = tensor = r r v z r

1 v r r 1 v v r + r r 1 v z r

v r z v z v z z

Divergence of a Vector Field

L V ' L T V ' scalar '

M vz Mz

L V ' L T V ' scalar '

M vz 1 M r vr 1 M v % % r Mr r M Mz
sr r ! s r sr % s r r % sr z r %

M sxx
Divergence of a Tenor Field

Mx L S ' vector ' M sxy Mx M sxz Mx

% % %

M syx My M syy My M syy My

% % %

M szx Mz M szy Mz M szz Mz L S ' vector '

M sr r Mr M sr Mr

% %

% %

M sz r 1 M s r % r M Mz M sz 1 M s % r M Mz

M sr z Mr
1 M M r r Mr Mr

M sz z 1 M s z % r M Mz

Laplacean of a Scalar Field

L 2 '

M 2 M 2 M 2 % % 2 2 Mx My Mz 2

L 2 '

1 M 2 M 2 % 2 2 r M Mz 2

1.6

Major Reference Text Books

The lecture notes provides a self-contained text on Elasticity. However, if the reader is interested to expand his knowledge on the subject, the following textbooks are recommended and they may be referred to occasionally: [1] [2] [3] [4] S.P. Timoshenko and J.N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, 2nd (1951) & 3rd (1970) editions, McGraw-Hill, London R.T. Fenner, Engineering Elasticity, Ellis Horwood, 1986, Chichester Y.C. Fung, Foundations of Solid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, Engewood Cliffs, 1965 W. Flugge, Tensor Analysis and Continuum Mechanics, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1972

Question (Chapter 1): (1)* Explain where and why each of the assumptions introduced in Elasticity is used. For each of the assumptions cite one example of a solid material subject to loading, to which the theory of elasticity is not applicable and explain why. What do you see as the possible extension of the theory. It is advisable for you to re-visit this question after you have gone through Chapter 2, 3 and 4.