Severn crossing

Severn crossing is a term used to refer to the two motorway crossings over the River Severn estuary between England and Wales. The two crossings are:

The Severn Bridge (Welsh: Pont Hafren) The Second Severn Crossing (Welsh: Ail Groesfan Hafren)

The first motorway suspension bridge was inaugurated on 8 September 1966, and the newer cable-stayed bridge, a few miles to the south, was inaugurated on 5 June 1996. The Second Severn Crossing marks the upper limit of the Severn Estuary. From 1966 to 1996, the bridge carried the M4 motorway. On completion of the Second Severn crossing the motorway from Aust on the English side to Chepstow was renamed the M48 The two Severn crossings are regarded as the main crossing points from England into South Wales. Prior to 1966 road traffic between the southern counties of Wales and the southern counties of England either had to travel via Gloucester or take the Aust Ferry, which ran roughly along the line of the Severn Bridge, from Old Passage near Aust to Beachley. The ferry ramps at Old Passage and Beachley are still visible. Tolls are collected on both crossings from vehicles travelling in a westward direction only. As of January 2012, the toll for small vehicles is 6.20.

Severn Bridge
The Severn Bridge is a motorway suspension bridge spanning the River Severn and River Wye between Aust, South Gloucestershire (just north of Bristol) in England, and Chepstow, Monmouthshire in South Wales, via Beachley,Gloucestershire, a peninsula between the two rivers. It is the original Severn road crossing between England and Wales and took five years to construct at a cost of 8 million.[3] It replaced the Aust ferry. The bridge was opened on 8 September 1966, by Queen Elizabeth II, who hailed it as the dawn of a new economic era for South Wales. The bridge was granted Grade I listed status on 26 November 1999.[4]

History
Construction of the Severn Bridge

The first proposal for a bridge across the Severn, approximately in the same location as that eventually constructed, was in 1824 by Thomas Telford, who had been asked to advise on how to improve mail coach services between London and Wales. No action was taken, and over the next few decades the railways became the dominant mode of long-distance travel, with the Severn Railway Bridge at Sharpness being opened in 1879 and the main line Severn Tunnel in 1886. However, the growth of road traffic in the early 20th century led to further calls for improvements, and in the early 1920s Chepstow Urban District Council convened a meeting of neighbouring local authorities to consider a Severn crossing to ease congestion and delays on the A48 passing through the town. In

1935 Gloucestershire and Monmouthshire County Councils jointly promoted a Parliamentary Bill to obtain powers to build the bridge over the estuary, with 75% of costs to be met by the Ministry of Transport from the Road Fund. However, the Bill was rejected by Parliament after opposition from theGreat Western Railway Company.[5] After World War II, plans began to be made for a nationally funded network of trunk roads, including a Severn Bridge, for which the contract was awarded to Mott, Hay and Anderson, with Freeman Fox and Partners. The public inquiry into the scheme was held on 24 September 1946 atBristol University.[6] However, because Government funding was prioritised for the similar Forth Road Bridge (opened in 1964), construction of the Severn Bridge was not started until 1961: the UK government announced in 1962 that construction costs would be 'recovered' by means of a toll of 2s 6d (GBP 0.125) on all vehicle crossings, though walking or cycling across the bridge would be charge-free.[6] The substructure was completed by contractors John Howard and Co in 1963. The superstructure contract was awarded to Associated Bridge Builders Ltd (a joint venture of Sir William Arrol & Co., Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company and Dorman Long) in 1963, and completed in 1966.[7]

Component structures

Aerial view (top left to bottom right) Aust Viaduct, Severn Bridge, Beachley Viaduct and Wye Bridge

The Severn Bridge crossing consists of four structures, which, listed in order from England to Wales, are: the Aust Viaduct, Severn Bridge, Beachley Viaduct and Wye Bridge. The Severn Bridge and Aust Viaduct was granted Grade I listed status on 26 November 1999,[4] while the Wye Bridge and Beachley Viaduct was granted Grade II listed status on 29 May 1998.[8]

Aust Viaduct

The 514 ft (157 m) Aust Viaduct is a twin box girder structure with a concrete deck,[4] which carries the roadway from the top of Aust Cliff to the first gravity anchorage of the old Severn Bridge. The roadway is then carried over the top of the concrete anchorage to the Severn Bridge.

Severn Bridge

The Severn Bridge

The Severn Bridge is located close to the former Aust Ferry. The bridge is a suspension bridge of conventional design, with the deck supported by two main cables slung between two steel towers. In 1966 the cables supporting the bridge deck were spun from 18,000 miles (29,000 km) of wire.[6] An unusual feature of the suspension cables carrying the deck is that they are not vertical, as for most suspension bridges, but rather arranged in a zig-zag fashion, with adjacent mounts closely spaced. The triangulation this offers is an attempt to reduce vibration, as is the prominent use of Stockbridge dampers on the cables. The bridge is 5,240 ft (1,600 m) long, consisting of a 3,240 ft (988 m) central span between the towers and the two 1,000 ft (305 m) side spans. The towers rise to 445 ft (136 m) above mean high water and are of hollow box construction. The deck is an orthotropic steel box girder of aerofoil shape with cantilevered cycle tracks and footway supported from the box. The shape of the bridge was determined by the designers Freeman, Fox and Partners following wind tunnel tests for the Forth Road Bridge, after the original wind tunnel model was accidentally destroyed. The sections of the deck were built at Fairfield-Mabey in Chepstow, and each 132 tonne section was then floated down the river before being hoisted into position.

Beachley Viaduct

Beachley Viaduct stretching over Beachley Barracks and the Wye Bridge in the background.

The 2,444 ft (745 m) Beachley Viaduct is also of similar box girder construction as the Severn Bridge but is supported on steel trestles as it crosses the Beachley peninsula.[8] The peninsula contains an army camp, which the bridge crosses.

Wye Bridge

The Wye Bridge

The Wye Bridge is a 1,340 ft (408 m) long cable-stayed bridge, which crosses the border marked by the River Wye between England and Wales, 2 miles (3.2 km) south ofChepstow. It consists of a single large cable stayed section with two single-leg pylons supporting the bridge deck from the centre of the roadway. The deck is an orthotropic box girder similar to the Severn Bridge but has a different appearance as it has two sets of cable stays on each of two towers. Originally there was only one set of cable stays but these were replaced during the strengthening works. The Wye Bridge was built by Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company.[7]

Post-construction changes
In January 1977, it was announced that bridge traffic would be restricted to a single lane in each direction following the discovery of several weaknesses in the ten year old structure.[9] The lane closures would last for several months.[10]

The Severn Bridge crossing was strengthened and resurfaced in the late 1980s as the weight of traffic grew. The work included the strengthening of the Severn Bridge towers and deck, an extension to the existing Wye Bridge towers and the replacement of the original single stays with two stays. The open structure of the new stays is designed to facilitate maintenance. Most of the strengthening work was inside the deck box and towers and so is not visible. The surfacing is a 35 mm (1.4 in) thick layer of mastic asphalt over an acrylic waterproofing membrane.

Tolls

The westbound carriageway toll collection area on the M48 motorway

Shortly after the opening of the Severn Bridge, Anglo-Welsh poet Harri Webb wrote an Ode on the Severn Bridge:[11] Two lands at last connected Across the waters wide, And all the tolls collected On the English side. The toll is indeed collected on the English side, and only on vehicles travelling westwards from England to Wales, leading some people to describe it as a "tax on entering Wales", both in jest and also as a more serious anti-toll campaign.[12] Originally, tolls were charged in both directions, but the arrangements were changed in the early 1990s to eliminate the need for a set of toll booths for each direction of travel and the potential for traffic waiting to pay the toll backing up onto the bridge itself. In 1966, the toll for using the new motorway crossing was set at 2s 6d (post-decimalisation equivalent 0.125) for all vehicles apart from solo motorcycles which enjoyed a reduced toll of 1s (0.05).[13] For a small car the bridge toll represented a saving of 7s (0.35) on the price, at that time 9s 6d (0.475), of using the ferry crossing.[13] By 1989, the toll had reached 2 each way for goods vehicle having an unladen weight exceeding 1.525 tonnes and passenger vehicles adapted to carry more than 16 passengers and 1 each way for other vehicles.[14] Currency depreciation has been a feature of UK monetary policy in the intervening decades, and the RPI is a widely applied surrogate for the resulting impact of general price inflation:[15] if the Severn toll had increased in line with general inflation since September 1966,

when Queen Elizabeth II opened the bridge, the original value of 0.125 would have reached 2.02 each way in January 2010. As of January 2013, the toll is 6.20 for a car, increasing to 18.60 for a heavy goods vehicle.[16] Motorcycles and disabled badge holders are exempt from the tolls, although both must stop at the toll booths to have their eligibility confirmed, and also to allow the barrier to be raised. The tolls for the Second Severn Crossing are the same, although in that case, the tolls are collected on the Welsh side (although still for traffic entering Wales, not leaving it), sufficiently far from the bridge that even severe queueing doesn't reach it. A system known as the Severn TAG made by Amtech is also in operation, which allows drivers to pay electronically without having to stop at the toll booths. TAGs are available either on a per-trip or a seasonal basis, although only the latter attracts a discount. Credit/debit cards were not originally accepted on either bridge, but drivers who did not have the means to pay were able to get a bill from the toll operator and pay by post later. Card payment was made available in time for the 2010 Ryder Cup,[17] however, users would be required to enter their PIN and cash was still the recommended payment method to avoid delays.[18] The cycle path and footpath, which run along either side of the roadway, may be used free of charge. Only the original bridge has such a public access.

Historic overview of the toll charges

Map showing the Severn Bridge in relation to the Second Severn Crossing and the estuary itself

Ownership
Ownership and operation of the bridge passed to Severn River Crossing plc on 26 April 1992 as part of the deal to build the Second Severn Crossing.[23] As of November 2010, Severn River Crossing Plc was owned

35% John Laing, British developer infrastructure operator 35% Vinci, French concessions and construction company 15% Bank of America, American multinational banking and financial services corporation

15% Barclays Capital, British multinational investment bank[24]

The company's 2011 annual report showed the same companies still owned, through subsidiary companies, all the issued ordinary share capital of the Plc.[25] Ownership of the bridge and the Second Severn Crossing will return to the UK government when the revenue required to build and maintain them, as defined in a Concession Agreement with the Secretary of State for Transport, has been collected.[25] In 2010, the concession was expected to end in 2017.[26] In 2012, changes were made to the agreement to reflect the effect of changes in VAT and Corporation Tax and the costs of installing credit card handling systems. The net effect was to increase the required revenue from 995.83 million to 1,028.91 million in 1989 prices.[27][24]

40 year inspections
During its 40th year of operation, the bridge was inspected to check for corrosion of the suspension cables. According to the Highways Agency,[28] the inspection concluded that the bridge needed restrictions on heavy goods vehicles.[29] Such vehicles are now restricted to one lane on the bridge, with weight restriction signs in place. A system of installing a rubber casing on the cables with dry air circulation is to be used on the Forth Road Bridge and a similar system may be implemented on the Severn Bridge, in a move to halt the progress of the corrosion.[30]

Simultaneous closures in 2009[edit source | editbeta]

On 6 February 2009, during a week of snowfall throughout Britain, both Severn bridges were closed simultaneously due to ice falling from the bridge structure and damaging vehicles.[31] On 22 December 2009 both bridges were closed again for the same reason.[32] This was only the third time that both bridges have been closed together, the first being due to a chemical fire in Avonmouth some years earlier.

Second Severn Crossing

The Second Severn Crossing (Welsh: Ail Groesfan Hafren) is the M4 motorway bridge over the River Severnbetween England and Wales, inaugurated on 5 June 1996 by HRH The Prince of Wales to augment the traffic capacity of the original Severn Bridge built in 1966. The bridge marks the lower limit of the River Severn and the start of the Severn Estuary. Its location is farther to the south than the old bridge and, being more in line with the landward sides of the M4 motorway, is a shorter journey when travelling between England and South Wales. The junctions at each end are designed for most traffic to use this crossing to use the old Severn Bridge crossing one has to leave the M4 and join the M48 motorway either at Aust or near Magor. The new crossing carries more traffic than the Severn Bridge, which is still in use. It is wider than the Severn Bridge, having three lanes and hard shoulder each way, compared to the two lanes, cycle path and footpath of the original crossing. The path taken by the bridge is close to that of the Severn Tunnel which has carried the railway line beneath the river bed since 1886. Much of the estuary is mudflats at low tide, but at high tide can be covered by up to 14 metres of water. This presented the engineers with a unique set of constraints with packets of work being scheduled at low tide and being completed with the short windows allowed by the tides. The concession given to the consortium who financed, built and operate the bridge required them to take over the outstanding debt on the original Severn Bridge and to operate the two bridges as a single entity. Tolls are set by the government and on the expiry of the concession the consortium are required to hand the bridge over into public ownership.

Background
The Severn Estuary presented a barrier between the Bristol area and South Wales. The estuary has a maximum tidal range of 14.5 metres, the second highest in the world and during a rising or falling tide, strong currents of up to 8 knots (4 m/s). Much of the estuary is mud flats that are exposed at low tide that have been designated a Special Protection Area. The central part of the estuary is a navigable channel which, at the site of the bridge, is known as "The Shoots". The bridge is upstream from Avonmouthand the Port of Bristol, but downstream from the Port of Sharpness. The Gloucester Harbour Trustees have responsibility for controlling navigation in the estuary's tidal waters upstream from the bridge.[1] Until 1966, road travellers had the option of either using the Aust Ferry which had operated since medieval times (and as a car ferry since 1926) or by making the 57 miles (92 km) detour via Gloucester.[2] In 1966 the first Severn road bridge, a four-lane suspension bridge was opened carrying the M4 motorway from England into South Wales. By 1984 traffic across the first Severn Bridge had tripled and it was projected that by the mid-1990s the old bridge would be running at capacity. A study was commissioned into the building of a second crossing - either a tunnel or a bridge. The consultants reported back in 1986 recommending that a new bridge be built downstream from the existing bridge.[3][4] In 1988 it was announced that tenders would be invited from private consortia to fund, build and operate the bridge for as specified period. The consortium would also take over the management and the 100 million debt of the old bridge.[5] Tenders were invited in 1989 and in 1990 the concession to build the bridge was awarded to Severn River Crossing plc.[6] Construction work started on 26 April 1992 and the bridge was opened by the Prince of Wales on 5 June 1996.[3]

Design

The Shoots Bridge; the shipping channel lies between the two towers

The bridge which has portals close to Sudbrook, Monmouthshire on the Welsh side and Severn Beach in South Gloucestershire on the English side has three principal sections - a 25 span viaduct on the English side of length 2,103 m (6,900 ft; 1.307 mi), a 24 span viaduct of length 2,077 m (6,814 ft; 1.291 mi) on the Welsh side and the bridge itself, a 948 m (3,110 ft; 0.589 mi) structure with a 37 m (121 ft) navigational clearance, giving a total of 5,128 m (16,824 ft; 3.186 mi).[7][8] The central section, called the Shoots Bridge, is of cable-stayed design and the central span (between the bridge pylons) is 456 metres (1,496 ft) in length. The approach viaducts are of a segmental bridge design. The crossing forms a very slight "S" curve the roadway having an approximate east-west alignment at each of the portals, while the central bridge follows an alignment which is approximately WNW toESE. The Severn Railway Tunnel passes under the estuary bed on a line which is generally about 500 m upstream of the bridge, but which passes under the line of the bridge close to the English shore.[9][10] The deck, which carries three lanes of traffic in each direction is 34.6 metres (114 ft) wide. The sides of the bridge are fitted with 3 metres (9.8 ft) baffle plates to reduce lateral wind loads coming from the Severn Estuary onto the traffic and this has reduced the number of times that speed restrictions have been needed. The overall design of the new crossing makes it more resistant to high winds than the old Severn Bridge.[7]

Construction
The crossing was built by a business consortium under a public-private partnership. A company called Severn River Crossing plc, led by John Laing plc and GTM-Entrepose, was formed to build the new crossing.[11] This company also took over the responsibility of managing and maintaining the old Severn Bridge crossing, as well as managing and maintaining the new crossing. The cost of constructing the new crossing was expected to be paid for by tolls collected from motorists using the two crossings. Work on the new crossing began in 1992. Completion was in 1996. Sub-assemblies for the bridge were constructed onshore and then shifted by a large tracked vehicle (similar to that used to move the Apollo and Space Shuttle at Cape Kennedy) onto a barge (the SAR3), prior to being floated out on the high tide to the appropriate site. The 37 bridge pier foundations on the approach viaducts are 98.11 metres (321.9 ft) apart, and consist of open concrete caissons weighing up to 2,000 tonnes, which were founded on the rock of the estuary bed. The decking consists of 3.6 metres (11.8 ft) post stressed match cast sections, weighing 200 tonnes each.[7] The cable stayed section of the crossing is over 1,044.7 metres (3,427.5 ft) long, consisting of a 34.6 metres (113.5 ft) wide deck made from steel plate girders with a composite reinforced concrete slab. These

were prefabricated on shore and put in place using balanced cantilever methods. There are two high twin leg, reinforced and pre-stressed concrete pylons carrying 240 cables which support the bridge deck rising to a height of 149 metres (489 ft) above the river bed or 101 metres (331 ft) above the bridge deck. Cable vibrations were experienced during construction and secondary cables were added to eliminate this. To avoid detracting from the aesthetics of the primary cables, the secondary cables are very slender and are not very noticeable.[7] During the summer of 1994 the bridge deck launching gantry fell onto the Gwent viaduct, causing the 200 tonne bridge deck unit to fall onto the deck below. Although this delayed the project by ten weeks, the builders were nevertheless able to complete the bridge on schedule two years later.[12]

Environmental impact[edit source | editbeta]

Prior to the bridge's construction, environmentalists raised numerous concerns and criticisms, chiefly about the immediate damage from construction work and the effects of long-term pollution from a projected increase in car traffic.[citation needed] The crossing passes over mudflats in the Severn Estuary with part of the eastern approach viaduct sited on the English Stones, a rocky outcrop uncovered at low tide. The estuary wetlands are home to migrating birds such as the Ringed Plover, Redshank andWhimbrel, while the Eurasian Curlew, Dunlin and Grey Plover winter in the area. The birds feed on ragworm, lugworm and other invertebrates. Saltmarsh is found along the fringes of the coast. Beds of eelgrass occur on the more sheltered mud and sand-banks.[13] In 1976, in recognition of the importance of the estuary as a wetland used by migrating birds, an area of 247 square kilometres was designated a Ramsar site.[14] In 1988 the Severn Estuary was designated a Special Protection Area. The same year an area of 99 square kilometres was notified as a SSSI designated as such the following year;[13] in 1995, it was extended to cover the whole of the Ramsar site.[15] The construction process resulted in a temporary increase in turbidity of the Severns waters. Although eelgrass is reasonably tolerant to short-term high turbidity and consequent loss of light, the bed of eelgrass in the Severn was observed to greatly decline during the period of construction.[16] The construction of the approach roads and toll plaza resulted in the permanent loss of some wet pasture land.[17] Field surveys carried out in 2003 and 2004 reported that the bridge had little effect on the flight paths of the various birds it was noted that when Curlew, Dunlin and Lapwing approached the bridge, they would change course to gain height and fly over the bridge, but that Oystercatchers and Turnstone would fly under the bridge. The surveys also showed that the bridge had minimal impact on the roosting habits of most birds, though a flock of Mallard were seen to be roosting directly under the bridge with many positioning themselves on the dry concrete base on one of the pillars. Likewise, it was noted that the bridge had little impact on the birds' feeding habits Turnstone and Lapwing were recorded as feeding on mudflats directly under the bridge while the absence of other waders was attributed to the rocky nature of the foreshore.[13]

Finances
The consortium consisting of two civil engineering firms and two banks that funded and built the bridge have a 30-year concession to redeem their outlay from tolls collected from users of the bridge. At the end of the concession period, the bridge will pass into public ownership.[12]

Tolls

Toll collection area on the westbound carriageway

Tolls are collected from west-bound traffic near Rogiet, some 2.1 miles (3.4 km) from the Welsh portal of the bridge.[6] Tolls can be paid by cash, major credit or debit cards, or by use of the Severn TAG system, which is a wireless electronic toll collection system that does not require vehicles to stop.[18] Cash can be paid at the manned booths or coins can be used at the automated coin gates. Tolls charges are based on a three tier pricing system:[19] Motorcycles and UK disabled badge holders travelling in a vehicle are exempted from paying a toll, although these vehicles must stop at the toll booth to confirm their eligibility. The toll prices are updated every year on 1 January in accordance with the Severn Bridges Act of 1992.[20][21][22] In late 2008, UK VAT was reduced from 17.5% to 15%, but the bridge toll remained unchanged. For reasons of convenience the tolls are kept at round multiples of 10p (the bridge toll is largely paid in cash), but the 13p VAT reduction was not passed on immediately. In 2009, the planned toll for cars would have been 5.50, as the announcements listed,[20][22] but the actual toll charged was 5.40.

Historical toll charges

Looking west towards the Bristol Channel - the Second Severn Crossing is at the top and the original Severn Bridge is at the bottom.

Funding and ownership

The bridge was built at a cost of 380 million and is owned by the company Severn River Crossing Plc. As of November 2010, Severn River Crossing Plc was owned

35% John Laing, British developer infrastructure operator 35% Vinci, French concessions and construction company 15% Bank of America, American multinational banking and financial services corporation 15% Barclays Capital, British multinational investment bank[25]

The company's 2011 annual report showed the same companies still owned, through subsidiary companies, all the issued ordinary share capital of the Plc.[26] Ownership of the crossing and the original Severn Bridge will return to the UK government when the project's required revenue, as defined in the Concession Agreement with the Secretary of State for Transport, has been collected.[26] In 2010, the concession was expected to end in 2017.[27] In 2012, changes were made to the agreement to reflect the effect of changes in VAT and Corporation Tax and the costs of installing credit card handling systems. The net effect was to increase the required revenue from 995.83 million to 1,028.91 million in 1989 prices.[25][28]

Closures
On 6 February 2009, the bridge was closed by weather for the first time since its opening after three vehicles were struck by falling ice, damaging windscreens.[29] Bad weather, and again falling ice, repeated this in December 2009.[30] Temporary speed limits are put in place due to heavy wind or fog, with drivers informed of this by the electronic signs. Owing to the more advanced aerodynamic design of the later bridge, the Second Crossing is far less prone to such restrictions owing to crosswinds than the first Severn Bridge.