to solve practical problems will be discussed.

An introduction , expectation and other fundamental issues are covered with the focus on their applications in the study of industrial systems. Stochastic models such zation, analysis, interpretation and presentation

mous, 1722), but a memoir prepared by Thomas Simpson in 1755 (printed 1756) first applied the theory to the discussion of errors of observation.[citation needed] The reprint (1757) of this memoir lays down the axioms that positive and negative errors are equally probable, and that certain assignable limits define the range of all errors. Simpson also discusses continuous errors and describes a probability curve. The first two laws of error that were proposed both originated with Pierre-Simon Laplace. The first law was published in 1774 and stated that the frequency of an error could be expressed as an exponential function of the numerical magnitude of the error, disregarding sign. The second law of error was proposed in 1778 by Laplace sment of mathematics and science, as well as student, teacher, and school questionnaires. The current assessment includes those topics in mathematics and science that students are likely to have been exposed to up to and including grade 4 and grade 8. Two different scoring systems have been used. In one the final score is adjusted so that the average is always 500 and standard deviation is always 100 for each test. This is recalculated for each test year so that these values stay the same. In another system the 1995 average and standard deviation are kept for subsequent years which may cause the subsequent years to have different averages and standard deviations from 500 and 100. This in part due to participating nations changing. This system allows easier comparisons between testing years.[2]
1995 The 1995 assessment included grades 4, 8, and the final year of high school. To be able to assess the knowledge of students, assessment items exhibit a range of difficulty and complexity. The student questionnaires are designed to collect information on students' backgrounds, attitudes and beliefs related to schooling and le eport, 2008, IEA

^ U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics "Pursuing Excellence: A Study of U.S. Twelfth-Grade Mathematics and Science Achievement in International Context" NCES 98-049. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1998.February 1998 arning, information about the

ir classroom experiences, among many other topics. The teacher and school questionnaires asks about class scheduling, mathematics and science content coverage, school policies, teachers' educational backgrounds and preparation, among many other topics. TIMSS was created through an extensive collaboration among participating countries. Curriculum, measurement, and education experts from around the world worked together to

create the assessment frameworks, item pools, and questionnaires. TIMSS is based on the curricula of schools around the world, and is organized to investigate how students are provided educational opportunities, and the factors that influence how students make use of these opportunities. Having its basis in the curricula of schools around the world, TIMSS intends to investigate three levels: the intended curriculum; the implemented curriculum; and the achieved curriculum. The intended curriculum is defined as the mathematics and science that societies intend for students to learn and how education systems are organized to meet this demand; the implemented curriculum is what is actually taught in classrooms, who teaches it, and how it is taught; the achieved curriculum is what students have learned. The various questionnaires seek information on the intended and implemented curriculum; the assessment seeks to ascertain what students know. US results relative to those of other nations decreased with increasing age so 12th grade performed worse than 8th grade which performed worse than 4th grade.[3]
United States In the United States, TIMSS is conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics of the U.S. Department of Education. Data for US students is further tracked for ethnic and racial groups, which can be tracked as the nation. As a whole, grade four students in the United States lagged the best Asian and European nations in the 2007 TIMSS international math and science test. Grade eight students in the United Sta eport, 2008, IEA

^ U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics "Pursuing Excellence: A Study of U.S. Twelfth-Grade Mathematics and Science Achievement in International Context" NCES 98-049. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1998.February 1998 tes also lagged the best A sian and European nations in the 2007 T and stated that the frequency of the error is an exponential function of the square of the error.[14] The second law of error is called the normal distribution or the Gauss law. "It is difficult historically to attribute that law to Gauss, who in spite of his well-known precocity had probably not made this discovery before he was two years old."[14] Daniel Bernoulli (1778) introduced the principle of the maximum product of the probabilities of a system of concurrent errors. nal probability is written by[21] , and is read "the probability of A, given B". It is defined

If then is formally undefined by this expression. However, it is possible to define a conditional probability for some zero-probability events using a -algebra of such

events (such as those arising from a continuous random variable).[citation needed] For example, in a bag of 2 red balls and 2 blue balls (4 balls in total), the probability of taking a red ball is ; however, when taking a second ball, the probability of it being either a red ball or a blue ball depends on the ball previously taken, such as, if a red ball was taken, the probability of picking a red ball again would be been remaining.
Inverse probability

since only 1 red and 2 blue balls would have

In probability theory and applications, Bayes' rule relates the odds of event to event , before (prior to) and after (posterior to) conditioning on another event . The odds on to event is simply the ratio of the probabilities of the as posterior is proportional to prior times likelihood, the left hand side is proportional to (i where the proportionality symbol means that

theory. Andrey Markov introduced[citation needed] the notion of Markov chains (1906), which played an important role in stochastic processes theory and its applications. The modern theory of probability based on the measure theory was developed by Andrey Kolmogorov (1931).[citation
needed]

On the geometric side (see integral geometry) contributors to The Educational Times were influential (Miller, Crofton, McColl, Wolstenholme, Watson, and Artemas Martin).[citation needed]
Further information: History of statistics v