Frozen Foods: Bakery Product, Handling Transportation and Distribution.

Fakhri Shahidi (Associated Professor)

Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad

Abstract
Frozen foods are easier and quicker to prepare than other types of food. In order to ensure product quality, the controlled temperatures throughout the cold chain are necessary. Therefore, the required temperature must be maintained from production to consumption. When microorganisms are subjected to an environmental stress such as freezing, some cells may express no detrimental effects, some are killed, and some may undergo sublethal or metabolic injury. The rate of microbial death may be high during the initial states of freezing, but typically decreases with time. Some microorganisms are highly resistant to prolonged freezing and have been observed to survive during years of frozen storage. Thawing foods using higher temperatures increases the risk of microbial spoilage and growth of pathogenic microorganisms. Although thawing at refrigeration temperatures would be more prudent, holding at refrigeration temperatures for too long could lead to growth of psychrotrophic pathogens and spoilage organisms. In order to maintain the safety and quality built into packed, frozen foods it is essential that due consideration is given to product pack design, boxing, and palletising systems in order to prevent product damage during storage and distribution. Baked goods are highly perishable, and their attractiveness declines rapidly within a few hours of being taken from the oven. Freezing is the best-known preservation method that will significantly retard any changes in quality, and for this reason the market for frozen bakery goods has grown rapidly. Transportation of frozen product from the central warehouse to the point of usage is not usually thought of as a part of storage. At the terminal point the product is usually returned to a freezer, to be thawed and used some days later, so these processes affect the overall quality retention of the frozen product. Transportation of frozen product from the central warehouse to the point of usage is not usually thought of as a part of storage. At the terminal point the product is usually returned to a freezer, to be thawed and used some days later, so these processes affect the overall quality retention of the frozen product. During thawing, as during freezing, it is important that the product traverses the rapid staling zone, -C to C, as quickly as possible to minimize staling. So far as possible the thawing process should resemble the freezing process, but with warm air (C) replacing refrigerated air. Microwave ovens may be used to quickly thaw baked products. Moreover, after purchase, there is more time until the product again resides in the consumers freezer. In spite of these temperature fluctuations, the consumer still expects the product to be in good condition when it is finally thawed and eaten. Croissants are made with a layered dough. After the dough is mixed it is allowed to cool and ferment slightly in a retarded (at about C) for several hours. Then it is rolled out into a thin sheet and shortening (traditionally butter, but more usually a bakers margarine) is spread over part of the dough sheet. Bread usually retained its fresh texture and flavor for week at C or weeks at C, but lost freshness thereafter.

. Introduction Lifestyle changes of persons over the past decades have led to continually increasing consumption of frozen foods, these being easier and quicker to prepare than other types of food. In France, the consumption of frozen foods reached tonnes in with average growth since . The purchase of

refrigerated and frozen food represents of the total food expenses and the average consumption per person is kg per year. Freezing foods has a historical origin in china where ice cellars were used to preserve foods as early as BC. Later, the Greeks and Romans stored food in cellars in which snow had been compressed. The retail sales revolution in frozen foods began in with the successful marketing of different vegetables, fruits, meats and fish in Springfield, MA. Since the s, frozen foods have grown in number and variety, and have adapted to changing family lifestyles. For example, frozen cooked and prepared foods have become a large component of retail food sales (Lund, ). In order to ensure product quality, the controlled temperatures throughout the cold chain are necessary. Therefore, the required temperature must be maintained from production to consumption. Thus, international and national regulations concerning the storage temperature of frozen foods set -C as the highest warmest temperature during storage and distribution. However, the main difficulties are encountered at the weakest links or interfaces of the cold chain as delivery, loading or unloading operations and temporary storage where pallets are generally handled in an uncontrolled temperature ambience. For a better control of the cold chain, some practical recommendations have been presented by some authors. Many investigations have been carried out over the past few years on the logistic food chain in order to characterize the temperature rise as a function of product properties, ambient conditions, the size and kind of packaging, the presence and thickness of air layer between the product and the package, solar exposure, and the use of insulating pallet covers. These studies show large variations of temperature even after short exposure to ambient conditions. However, the behavior of temperature rise is totally different between a product placed at the top and another product placed in the center of the pallet. The top layer is very sensitive to ambient conditions and experiences larger fluctuations, whereas in the centre, the temperature remains relatively constant. Many frozen food are quick-frozen, in that they have been subjected to a freezing process that assures that the zone of maximum crystallization of ice has been passed through as quickly as possible (Lund, ). The storage temperature of frozen foods after they have been through the freezing process is also important. The storage temperature can determine the ultimate quality of the product when purchased and use by the consumer, and the length of time a food can be held frozen. Many types of foods receive some form of treatment before freezing to assure optimal quality. For example, most frozen vegetables are subjected to a mild heat treatment known as blanching. Blanching affects not only the sensory quality of the food, but also affects its microbiological condition as well. Blanching is done to inactivate various enzymes that can lead to quality deterioration over time. Typically, blanching is done by treating the vegetables with steam or hot water for - min at -C, the time/temperature combination depending on the specific

vegetable (Lund, ). Such times and temperatures reduce, to varying extents, the numbers of viable microorganisms on the food. Thus, frozen foods are thought of as being of high quality and safe. . Effects of Freezing on Microorganisms When microorganisms are subjected to an environmental stress such as freezing, some cells may express no detrimental effects, some are killed, and some may undergo sublethal or metabolic injury. Calcott and MacLeod () suggested that the detrimental effects of freezing on microbial cells are due to () thermal (cold) shock, () concentration of extracellular solutes, () toxicity of concentrated intracellular solutes, () cell dehydration, () internal ice formation, and () attainment of a minimum cell volume. Each of these effects could lead to lethality. Scientists described two kinds of lethal effects to microorganisms when subjects to freezing: () the immediate and direct consequence of freezing and thawing, and () killing during frozen storage. Cold shock responses (a form of cellular injury and death) are common when microorganisms in the exponential phase of growth are suddenly exposed to low temperatures. Cold shock is more commonly associated with Gram-negative bacteria, and it has been suggested that yeasts are not susceptible to cold shock. Sublethally injured microorganisms are of particular importance to the food industry because, if the injury-inducing stress is removed or reduced, these organisms can resuscitate and continue to grow and behave normally. Furthermore, because of their debilitated physiological condition and an increased sensitivity to selective chemical agents, injured microorganisms may be difficult to detect in a frozen product, particularly when selective media are used for recovery and enumeration. In the absence of conditions needed for injury repair to occur, injured microorganisms will eventually die, although the time required for complete cell death to occur may exceed the storage stability of the frozen-food product. . Effects of Freezing Rate and Storage Temperature Typically foods are frozen either quickly or slowly. Quick or fast freezing is usually achieved by reducting the temperature of the food to about C within min. During slow freezing, the desired temperature is usually reached within to h. Temperature decreases of around to C/h typify slow freezing, while decreases of more than C/h are common for quick freezing. Most home freezers utilize the slow freezing process. Quick freezing typically favors microbial survival. The advantages and disadvantages of quick versus slow freezing from the standpoint of microbial survival are listed as follows:

The rate of microbial death may be high during the initial states of freezing, but typically decreases with time. Some microorganisms are highly resistant to prolonged freezing and have been observed to survive during years of frozen storage. Below- C, microbial destruction is slow. Between and C, more organisms are killed or injured than at C. At C the effect of freezing is even less pronounced. Temperatures higher than C are more lethal to microorganisms partly due to the reduction in protein denaturation that occurs at lower temperatures. El-Kest and Marth (a) reported that Listeria monocytogenes was more susceptible to injury and death when frozen and stored at C as compared with freezing and storage at C. Similarly, survival of a multiple strain starter culture used in making buffalo Mozzarella cheese was more tolerant to freezing at C as compared with freezing at or C; however, survival during storage was best at C. . Effects of Thawing on Microorganisms It has been suggested that microorganisms die during the thawing process, rather than during freezing or frozen storage. This has not been proven and may not be readily demonstrated. When frozen foods begin to thaw, ice crystals grow and exert that same physical stresses on microbial cells that are observed during the freezing process. In addition, as the frozen solution begins to melt, the medium surrounding microbial cells is diluted and the cells are exposed to osmotic shock. Calcott () suggested that the rate of thawing has little effect on the survival of microorganisms that have been previously frozen. However, others have reported that microbial survival in rapidly thawed foods is greater than in foods thawed slowly. These observations do not take into account the use of a heating source to facilitate rapid thawing. Syed Ziauddin et al. () demonstrated that higher microbial counts were obtained when frozen buffalo meat was thawed at room

temperature as compared with meat thawed in a microwave. In general, there is poor agreement on whether the rate of thawing has a significant effect on the survival of microorganisms during thawing. However, repeated freezing and thawing cycles do lead to greater loss in microbial viability than does a single freezing-thawing treatment. Regardless of thawing rate, the temperature during thawing is of tremendous importance. During thawing, the surfaces of large frozen products will reach higher temperatures sooner and will be exposed longer than interior portions of the product. This situation can result in microbial growth on the surface of partially thawed products, the consequences of which are obvious. Thawing foods using higher temperatures increases the risk of microbial spoilage and growth of pathogenic microorganisms. Although thawing at refrigeration temperatures would be more prudent, holding at refrigeration temperatures for too long could lead to growth of psychrotrophic pathogens and spoilage organisms. . Transport and Distribution In order to maintain the safety and quality built into packed, frozen foods it is essential that due consideration is given to product pack design, boxing, and palletising systems in order to prevent product damage during storage and distribution. This is particularly important as the product packaging system forms an integral part of the product safety system. The control of product temperature during transport and distribution is also essential to maintain safety and quality aspects. The principle of supplier assurance applies equally well to transport and distribution systems. Transportation systems should be Food only in order to minimise the possibility of contamination from non-food residues onto product packaging. Every attempt should be made to maintain inherent product safety and quality parameters and prevent problems occurring. . Frozen Bakery Products Baked goods are highly perishable, and their attractiveness declines rapidly within a few hours of being taken from the oven. Freezing is the best-known preservation method that will significantly retard any changes in quality, and for this reason the market for frozen bakery goods has grown rapidly. For instance, in the USA the value of baked goods has increased by nearly over the -year period between and , while that for pizzas has increased by over in the same period. The market for pizzas alone is tones in the USA, tones in Germany and tones in Japan. In the USA at least two major wholesale frozen-baked-goods plants have been built in each of the last years. In Europe, enough frozen-dough manufacturers have started operation to support business associations in several countries. The number of frozen products in the supermarket freezer cases continues to expand; where once a few frozen pizzas and frozen donuts were the only items in this category found on the shelf, now pies, cakes, bagels, waffles and croissants occupy an increasing shelf frontage. In

short, this segment of the baking industry appears well set to continue to grow for at least the next decade. Like all foods with a significant level of water activity (aw>) baked foods are subject to microbial contamination and growth during storage. The use of antimycotic preservatives such as calcium propionate retards the growth of mold on the surface of e.g. bread for several days, but the practical limit to such fungistatic activity is in the order of - days. Freshly baked bread is sterile; contamination with mold spores and mycelia comes from the surroundings in the bakery after depanning. A good program of bakery sanitation decreases the contamination deposited on the bread surface during cooling, slicing and bagging; nevertheless, the ubiquity of Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp. ensures that at least some inoculation of the packaged bread will occur. A second factor limiting the shelf-life of baked foods in staling. During baking, starch granules (from the flour) gelatinize. Upon cooling and storage at ambient temperatures, this gelatinized starch slowly recrystallizes. This retrogradation contributes to an increase in crumb firmness, and leads to a harsh, dry mouth-feel when the product is eaten. Certain dough additives (e.g. shortening, monoglycerides, amylases) help to retard the staling process but, at the highest practicable usage levels, shelf-life is extended by no more than days. These two degradative processes can be arrested by freezing the freshly-baked is generally the rate of heat flow within the baked piece; an item with a relatively thin profile (e.g. pizza) may take less than min to be frozen to the center. Furthermore, the rapid freezing of the outer shell means that there is no moisture loss from the product. Finally, rapid freezing promotes the formation of many small ice crystals within the baked product, as opposed to the formation of fewer, larger, crystals during the slower blast-freezing process, which may enhance the keeping quality during storage. Shortly after being freshly baked and prepared all bakery products undergo a series of chemical and physical changes which we collectively refer to as staling. The precise nature of these changes depends to a large extent on the bakery product we are considering, and not all products will suffer the same changes and loss of quality. Some of the changes which we may typically encounter include those listed below: - loss of crispiness, such as from the absorption of water by biscuits or the movement of water to the crust of bread from its crumb; - increases in crumb firmness, such as when bread and cakes lose moisture to the atmosphere; - increases crumb firmness which arise without loss of water from retrogradation of the starch fraction in the product; - loss of crumb firmness, such as when moisture migrates from cream fillings to cakes; - increases in crumbliness, such as when bread and cake crumb lose cohesion; - a change (usually loss) of taste and aroma.

The rate at which the changes are manifested in bakery products depends on many factors including the conditions of storage, such as temperature and relative humidity, and packaging. A baked food that has been properly formulated, frozen stored and refreshned (regardless of the length of time it has resided in the freezer) has organoleptic properties comparable with the same (unfrozen) product less than day after baking. This makes it possible to bake products in large, automated plant (with attendant economics of scale), distribute the frozen product to the retail level and allow the ultimate consumer (whether a private customer or a food service institution) to enjoy the equivalent of freshly-baked goods. -. Transportation Transportation of frozen product from the central warehouse to the point of usage is not usually thought of as a part of storage. At the terminal point the product is usually returned to a freezer, to be thawed and used some days later, so these processes affect the overall quality retention of the frozen product. While a certain amount of temperature fluctuation is unavoidable, every effort should be made to minimize it. The trucks used should have high-capacity mobile refrigeration units, and loading and unloading operations should be planned to minimize the influx of warm air into the truck interior. Also, transportation routes should be designed to minimize elapsed time between the warehouse and the receiving dock, Finally, the efficiency of the freezer at the terminal should be as high as possible; product that has kept its good quality for months at C in the central warehouse can lose it in day at C in the terminal freezer. -. Packaging Bread-type products can be successfully stored frozen, in regular polyethylene bags. Bag thickness does not seem to be a factor in keeping quality, and bags from - mil ( ) thick are commonly used. The thicker bag is preferred for additional protection to the product after thawing and placing on the retail store shelf. Wrapping materials such as cellophane or waxed paper are not recommended for frozen storage. The former is brittle at C and likely to break when the cartons are handled, while condensation of moisture on the inside of a waxed paper wrap quickly reduces it to a pulpy mass. If the bread is going to be shipped frozen from a central storage warehouse to retail outlets, it should be in cardboard cartons to provide protection to the bag. Sweet products (e.g. cakes, pastries and pies) are often packaged in some sort of box having a viewing window. The inside of the box should be impregnated with a film of plastic, so that the inevitable (hopefully slight) amount of condensation formed does not soak into the paperboard and cause distortion, staining, and even flavor and odor problems. Also, the film used to cover the window cutout should be a non-fogging type. Finally, the box should fit the

product as snuggly as possible, to minimize thermal gradients and moisture migration inside the container. If the product may be stored for a relatively long time (e.g. several weeks or more), packaging materials that prevent moisture loss are necessary. Composite bread bags made by co-extruding two film materials (e.g. polyethylene and polystyrene) typically show better moisture-barrier properties than either material alone. The film on a box window should also be a low-moisture-transmission type, perhaps polyvinylidene laminated onto a polypropylene film. Finally, placing the individually wrapped pieces into larger cardboard shipping cartons minimizes moisture losses by preventing the movement of cold air around the surface of the product. -. Thawing Conditions During thawing, as during freezing, it is important that the product traverses the rapid staling zone, -C to C, as quickly as possible to minimize staling. So far as possible the thawing process should resemble the freezing process, but with warm air (C) replacing refrigerated air. For example, individual packaged loaves of bread should be removed from the shipping carton, placed on racks with all bag surfaces exposed, and warm air circulated around them with fans. Frozen hard rolls may be thawed by placing them on racks and heating in an oven at C for - minutes; this thaws them to the center and regenerates a crisp crust (avoid overheating, which will dry them out). One fast-food chain produces its hamburger buns at a central commissary, storing and shipping them frozen. At the individual shops, the buns are thawed in a chamber heated with low-pressure steam, producing a fresh, soft bun. If product is thawed by removing from the shipping carton and merely placing it in a warm corner of the room, condensation of moisture on the cold product surface may occur, causing quality problems. On bread-type products (e.g. bread, rolls, bagels and croissants) the result will be a limp, leathery crust. The icing of iced products (e.g. cakes, gateaux and donuts) will lose its integrity because of the excess moisture. Thicker icings (e.g. on cakes) will slump, while thinner glazes may soak into the product and disappear. Microwave ovens may be used to quickly thaw baked products. If the power setting is at maximum, the result is likely to be tough and leathery. The exact reason for this is not yet understood, but may be connected with curing the gluten present to a rubbery state. It also has something to do with internal temperature gradients in the product (microwave energy heats only the water molecules in the bread), since thawing rolls or bagels at a medium to medium-low power setting does not produce this toughness. Since microwave heating is rapid, and uniform throughout the piece, it is especially useful in food service applications, but care must be taken not to overheat, for best product quality.

-. Retail and Food Service There are two types of retailing of frozen baked products. The first comprises direct sale of frozen goods to consumers, out of the freezer case of the supermarket. Almost every type of baked food is presently sold in this fashion, with the exception of bread, rolls, and cake donuts; in other words, products for which the consumer is willing to pay the higher price necessitated by more expensive packaging and the costlier store space of the freezer case. This method of distribution puts the greatest stress stress on product and packaging. The transfer of production from refrigerated truck to store freezer often involves exposure to room temperature for some period of time, followed by refreezing in the case. Moreover, after purchase, there is more time until the product again resides in the consumers freezer. In spite of these temperature fluctuations, the consumer still expects the product to be in good condition when it is finally thawed and eaten. The formulations used must have the greatest possible degree of tolerance to such temperature abuse. It is seldom wise to spare expense in choosing ingredients for these products; the few pennies saved will not be noticed by the consumer who is dissatisfied with the quality. -. Croissants Croissants are made with a layered dough. After the dough is mixed it is allowed to cool and ferment slightly in a retarded (at about C) for several hours. Then it is rolled out into a thin sheet and shortening (traditionally butter, but more usually a bakers margarine) is spread over part of the dough sheet. The other part of the dough is folded over the top of the shortening, then the sandwich is rolled out, folded over, and rolled out again. This process is repeated several times. Ultimately the dough piece contains many (up to ) alternating layers of dough and shortening. After a final sheeting to a thickness of about mm, the dough is cut into a series of elongated triangles. Each triangle is rolled up, starting from the base, to form the croissant. The croissants are placed on a tray, proofed for up to an hour, and finally baked. The layers of shortening keep the alternate dough layers from knitting together in the proofbox, so in the oven the layers bake separately, giving a final product that has a tender, multi-layered texture. The flaky, rich bakery product is tender and flavorful when fresh from the oven. Unfortunately these characteristics are usually destroyed by freezing and subsequent thawing. The interior is quite open, slowing the rate of heat transfer and allowing a longer time for moisture to migrate to the dry, crisp crust. When the croissant is thawed in the ordinary fashion the crust is, inescapably, more chewy than desirable. A brief period of heating in dry oven at, way, C may restore some of the crispness to the crust. At this time, however, no one has developed a method for freezing and thawing croissants that gives product having a quality level that even approaches the quality of freshly-baked product.

. Practical Applications Bread usually retained its fresh texture and flavor for week at C or weeks at C, but lost freshness thereafter. A bread product in the from of a miniloaf or roll and packed for individual use in a flexible pouch has been developed primarily for inclusion in the MRE pack. Its development has been pursued as part of the efforts to improve the MRE, and its application can be extended to support other operational rations, such as hamburger buns for the tray can ration. This highly desired complement to the MRE crackers has been specially formulated to resist quality changes upon long-term storage, even at high temperatures. A combination of ingredients including sucrose esters, humectant, emulsifiers, and an antimycotic has proven to be effective in preventing microbial growth and in minimizing staling. Additional protection is afforded by a low oxygen tension in the pouch, achieved using a simple oxygen scavenger. Accelerated storage of samples at C had demonstrated the stability. Briggs took the concept and further developed a shelf-stable sandwich-type individual ration (Figure ). Product contains a shelf-stable meat item enrobed in a shelf stable bread to form a roll-type, pocket-size ration.

References . Archer, D. L. Freezing: an underutilized food safety technology? . International Journal of Food Microbiology. : -. . Calcott P.H. and <acleod, R. A. . Survival of E. coli from freezingthaw damage: a theorical and practical study. Can. J. Microbiology. : -. . Cauvain, S. P. Improving control of staling in frozen bakery products. . Trends in Food Science and Technology. :- . . El- Kest, S. E. and Marthm E. H. . Freezing of Listeria monocytogenes and other microorganisms: w review. J. Food Protect. : -. . Erickson, M. C. and Hung, Y. C. Quality in Frozen Food. . Chapman & Hall. . Lund, B. M. . Freezing. In: Lund, B. M. Baird Parker, T. C., Gould, G. W. (Eds.), The Microbiology Safety and Quality of Food, Vol. . Aspen publishers, Gaithersburg, MD. . Mallett, C. P. Frozen Food Technology. . Blackie Academic and Professional. . Syed Ziauddin, K., Rao, D. N., Ramesh, B. S., and Amla, B. L. . Effect of freezing, thawing, and frozen storage on microbial profiles of buffalo meat. Journal of Food Science and Technology India. : . . Taub, I. A. and Sing, R. P. Food Storage Stability. . CRC Press.